ThisdocumentisauthorizedforuseonlybyAchalSingh.Copyorpostingisaninfringementofcopyright.

ManagementCommunicationManagementCommunication:Introduction

Nomatterhowstrongone'sfinancialmodelis,

ifonecannotwritealogical,compellingstory,

theninvestorsaregoingtolookelsewhere.

Andinmybusiness,thatmeansdeath.

DarrenWhissen,directorofresearchatWavelandLLC1

Whenyou'remanagingasmuchchangeascorporationsgloballymustdealwithtoday,theabilitytocommunicate,andcommunicateeffectively,issoimportantthatitoughttobeacorecapabilityinabusinessschoolcurriculum.

RichardAnderson,CEOofDeltaAirLines2

CommunicationandYourBusinessCareer

CommunicationandYourBusinessCareerAccordingtoalonglineofresearch,leadersandmanagersspendmostoftheirtimeatworkcommunicating.Theycommunicateup,down,andlaterallyinsidetheorganizationandoutsidetoaudiencessuchasvendors,regulators,customers,andshareholders.Theytalkoneonone,runmeetings,andgiveandlistentopresentations.Theywriteemails,reports,texts,Tweets,blogposts,wikientries,andavarietyofotherworkrelateddocuments.

Butitisnotjustfrequencythatmakesbusinesscommunicationskillssoimportant.

Theoldmodelofbusinessleadersandmanagersemphasizedtheirpowerandauthority:Theytoldemployeeswhat,when,andhowtodotheirjobs.Thisstereotypewasprobablyneverentirelyaccurateinanycase,however,thisstyleofmanagementdoesn'tfittheneedsofmodernorganizations.

Leadersstillneedtogetthingsdone,buttheyhavetotrustotherstodothework.Inafastpaced,complexworld,employeesmustknowhowtothinkandactontheirown,notwaitfortheboss'sorders.Now,accordingtoHenryMintzberg,awellknownbusinessprofessor,managingisaboutinfluencingaction.3

Communication,writtenororal,istheprimarymeansforleadersandmanagerstoinfluenceaction.

CommunicationDrivesSuccess

Therearethreekeystosuccessinbusiness.Oneofthemisskillincommunicating.

LeadersSaythatTheyLackSkills

LeadersSaythatTheyLackSkills

A2004studyprovidedevidencethatleadersinbusinessorganizationsthinktheyaren'tpreparedtocommunicatewell.Eightysixpercentoftherespondentsratedcommunicationskillsasacriticalleadershipcompetencybutonlythirtyfivepercentratedtheircommunicationabilityasastrength,atenpercentdeclinefromasimilarsurveyfouryearsearlier.4

Bystudyingandpracticingcommunicationskillsnow,youwillbebetterpreparedtolead.

MakeCommunicationaStrengthNow

TomKahldescribeshowheusedhisMBAexperiencetoimprovehowhecommunicated.

BusinessLeadersValueCommunication

BusinessLeadersValueCommunication

Giventhecriticalfunctionsofcommunication,it'snotsurprisingthat,foranumberofyears,employersrespondingtotheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil(GMAC)surveyhavenamedcommunicationastheirmostsoughtafterskillinMBAhires.

Similarsurveyshavehadsimilarresultsforalongtime.ThegraphcalledWhatRecruitersWantinMBAsshowsresultsfromarecentGMACsurvey.5

Businessleadershaveahighregardfortheabilitytocommunicate.Ifyoucan'tconveyyourthinkingclearlyandlogically,ithaslittlevalue.

JoeThompsonofProcter&Gambleexplainswhyhiscompanyvaluesclarityofcommunication.

ACultureofClarity

ElisabethBentelCarpentersaysthatinstartupscommunicationisasurvivalskill.

StartupCommunicationNeeds

Andthesedaysyouhavetoknowhowtocommunicateinmultiplemedia.Beingagreatpresenterdoesn'tcompensateforpoorwritingskills,nordoeshavinggreatwritingskillscompensateforbeingapoorpresenter.

HavinganMBAdegreedoesn'tassureyouajobifyoucan'tcommunicate.Beingabletospeakandwritewellcanmakethedifferencebetweengettingajobyouwantandsettlingforajobthat'soffered.

GoodCommunicationDifferentiates

TomKahl,CFOofatechnicalconsultingcompany,speakstothevalueofcommunicationskillsasadifferentiatorinthejobmarket.

WhatYouWillLearninThisCourse

WhatYouWillLearninThisCourseThisonlinemanagementcommunicationcourseteachesconceptsandtoolsthatcanhelpyoubeabetterbusinesscommunicator.Itcoversthreebroadareas:

PlanningCommunication

ThemodulecalledPlanningCommunication"introducesyoutoconceptsforunderstandingsituationsinwhichcommunicationisneeded.Knowinghowtousetheseconceptswillhelpyoucreateasuccessfulmessage.

Theendresultofplanningisanunderstandingofhowtoachieveyourspecificpurposethroughaparticularaudience.(Sometextbooksrefertothisresultasacommunicationstrategy.)

PlanningCommunicationappliestobothwritingandpresenting.

WritinginBusiness

Someyearsago,RobertEccles,NitinNohria(nowdeanofHarvardBusinessSchool),andJamesBerkleysaidthis:

Inanutshellmanagerslivein...auniversewherelanguageisconstantlyusednotonlytocommunicatebutalsotopersuade,andeventocreate.6

ThemodulecalledWritinginBusinessteachesconceptsforcreatingwrittenmessages,withemphasisonpersuasion.Topicsrangefromthewritingprocesstosentencestyle.Thecoursehasmanyexamplesandexercisestoaidyouingraspingandapplyingtheconcepts."WritinginBusiness"usesdifferentformsofwrittenmessages,suchasmemos,emails,texts,andreports.

PresentinginBusiness

ThemodulecalledPresentinginBusinessteachesbasicskillsforthespokendeliveryofcontentpreparedinadvance.Itcoversorganizing,preparing,anddeliveringapresentation.Thecontentemphasizesspeakingpersuasivelyandengagingtheaudience."PresentinginBusiness"alsohasmanyexamplesandexercises.

Unlesstoldotherwise,youcanstudythewritingandpresentingunitsinanyorder.

PracticingYourSkills

PracticingYourSkillsThiscourseprovidesafoundationforcommunicationskills.Skillsareaformofaction.Tobecomebetteratthem,youhavetodosomething.Inotherwords,youneedtowriteandpresent.Youwillbecomemoreexpertatbothifyouregardtheuseofthemasanongoinglearningexperience.

RecruitingandCommunicationSkills

Practicingwritingandpresentingskillscanpayoffinajobofferyouwant.

PlanningCommunicationAndasforpurpose,don'tsettlefor'Iwantmywordstowork.'Visualizespecificallywhatyouwantthewordstodo.Makethereadersseesomething?Makethemfeelcertainemotions?Performcertainactions?Changetheirminds?

PeterElbow,WritingwithPower1

Introduction

IntroductionIntheworkworld,everyonefeelsshortoftime.Managersfireoffemailsandtexts,takecallsoneafteranother,seepeopleintheiroffices,andrushofftomeetings.Oftendailycommunicationdoesnotrequirealotofthought.Butsometimesitdoes,eventhoughmanagersfindithardtoresistplungingintoawrittenorspokencommunication.Takingthetimetoproperlycomposethoughtsbeforecommunicatinghelpssendthemessagemoreeffectively.

Businessisaboutresults.Planningyourcommunicationbyanalyzingthesituationandorganizingyourmessageoftendeliversbetterresultsthanoperatingoninstinct.

WhatGoodAreModels?

WhatGoodAreModels?Inthiscourse,youwilllearnaboutafewmodelsconsistingofconceptsapplicabletocommunication.Manyareasofbusinesseducationemploymodelsandframeworks,fromMichaelPorter'sFiveForcestomarketing's4Ps.

Intheshortterm,youmemorizethemodelsandlearnhowtoapplytheminthebusinesssituationstheyweredesignedfor,suchasindustryanalysisordevisingamarketingplan.Forthistypeoflearning,youcanfindthesituationsincases,textbooks,simulations,andsimilareducationalmaterials.

Youmayfeelthatthemeticulous,stepbystepapplicationofmodelsisn'tpracticalintherealworld.However,learninghowtoapplymodelscanembedtheminyourmemory.It'snodifferentfromlearningadance.Youareshownthestepsandpracticeuntilyoudon'thavetothinkaboutthemyouknowwhattodoalmostautomatically.

Thiscourseteachesconceptsthat,throughpractice,youcanincorporateintoyourworkasarealworldbusinesscommunicator.

CaseStudy:PlanningCommunication

CaseStudy:PlanningCommunicationAcasestudywillbeusedinplanningcommunicationasavehicleforshowingyouhowtouseconcepts.Let'sconsidertwocommunicationtasksfacingTasha,aassociatevicepresidentofmarketing,sales,andcustomerservice.Shehasresponsibilityforseveraldepartments,includingthecallcenter.

TashaworksforAppsGo,amediumsizecompanythatdevelopssoftwareapplicationsformobiledevices,includingcellphonesandtablets.Ithasaprofitablenicheintheindustryanddistinguishesitselffrommanyofitscompetitorswithfirstclasscustomerservice.Tashaisworkingontwoissuesrequiringcommunication,onewithcallcenterrepresentativesandonewithherboss,Dmitri.

MeetTasha

Tashaworksasanexecutiveatamediumsizecompanythatspecializesinmobiledevicesoftware.

InformingtheCallCenterRepresentatives

InformingtheCallCenterRepresentatives

Thecompany'sinformationtechnology(IT)departmentwillsoonrolloutanewversionofthecustomerrelationshipmanagement(CRM)softwareusedinthecallcenter.Manyofthe

changesareminor.Ontheotherhand,afewnewfeatureswillallowasmoother,easierworkflowsomethingtherepswillwelcome.

IThasgivenTashaatenpagereportdescribingallthechangesinminutedetail.Normallythesupervisorofthecallcenterwouldhandlethetransitiontoanewversion,buthehashishandsfullandTashahasvolunteeredtotakecareofit.

Frompastexperience,Tashaknowstheteamdoesnotliketoreadlongdocuments,whateverthecontent.Requiringteammemberstoreadthereportisn'tlikelytoworkbecausethey'llskimitandnottakeinmuchdetailornotreaditatall.Inaddition,beforethelastsoftwareupgrade,theITinformationhadsomeinaccuraciesthatledtoconfusion,wastedtime,andgrumblingamongthereps.Tashadoesnotwantherteammembersinanegativeframeofmindbeforetherolloutactuallyhappens.They'realreadyunderalotofstressfromoverwork.

Tashadecidesthatbeforetherollout,she'llgivetherepsashortsummaryofthenewfeaturesmostrelevanttotheirjobs.Thebrevityandattentiontochangesmeaningfultotherepsshouldmakethemmorewillingtoreadthedocument.

AudienceofanInformativeMemo

Tashagetsafriend'sperspectiveonheraudience.

PersuadingDmitri

PersuadingDmitri

Likemostmanagers,Tashajugglesmultipleprojects.Onethatconcernsherisaproposalshe'sbeenworkingonwiththecallcentersupervisor.TheproposalrecommendshiringtwonewcustomerrepsfluentinEnglishandSpanish.ThecompanylaunchedSpanishlanguageversionsofitsappsnearlytwoyearsagoandrampedupthemarketingofthemayearago.

ThenumberofcallcentercustomerswhopreferSpanishorspeakonlySpanishhasbeenincreasing.Ricardo,theoneSpanishspeakingrep,hasbeenswampedwithcallersandhasbecomeresentfulabouthisworkload.Overallthecenterisreceivingmorecustomercontactsfrommultiplechannels(phone,fax,email,livechat)thaneverbefore.Asthepressureonemployeeshasmounted,experiencedrepshavebeenquittingorretiringinalarmingnumbers.

Ahiringrequestwillbeatoughsell.BusinessisstillrecoveringfromadowneconomyandTasha'sboss,Dmitri,vicepresidentofmarketing,sales,andcustomerservice,runshisdepartmentsasleanlyaspossible.TheCEOwantsdepartmentbudgetstobeatorbelowindustrybenchmarks.However,Tashaworriesthatthecallcenterwillsoonbeunabletofulfillthecompany'sheavilymarketedclaimsofgreatcustomerservice.

AudienceofaPersuasiveMemo

TashaencountersDmitri'sreluctancetodealwithcallcenterstaffing.

AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation

AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation

Thisdiagramtellsyoutwobasicfactsaboutcommunication.First,sendersneedtoknowwhatthepurposeorintentionoftheirmessageisandtheyneedtoknowitwithsomeprecision.Second,becausesendersneedtheaudiencetoaccomplishthepurpose,theymustknowwhateverinformationabouttheiraudiencethatcanhelpattainthepurposeofthemessage.

Aneffectivecommunicatorisagoodlearner.Theknowledgegainedfromthinkingaboutthepurposeandaudiencecanenhancethemessage,givingitagreaterchanceofsucceeding.Effectivecommunicatorsalsoknowthattheycanalwayslearnmoreabouttheaudience,eveniftheyworkwithaudiencememberseveryday.Thenextsectionshowshowyoucanlearnwhatyouneedtoknowwhencreatinganimportantmessage.

ThreeQuestionsforAnalyzingaSituation

ThreeQuestionsforAnalyzingaSituation

Afewsimplequestionswillorganizeyourthinkingaboutasituationandresultinausefulunderstandingofit:

Question ExplanationoftheQuestion

Why? Purpose:WhatIwanttoaccomplishbycommunicating

Who? Audience:ThepeopleIwillbecommunicatingwith

How? Message:ThecontentIcommunicatetotheaudience

Thesethreequestionswillbeexplainedfurtherandwillalsobeappliedtoexamples.

Checklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituation

Why?KnowingYourPurpose

Why?KnowingYourPurpose

Sowhydoyouneedtocommunicateinaparticularsituationinthefirstplace?YouaskyourselfthequestionWhy?toidentifyyourpurpose:theoutcomeyouwanttoachievethroughcommunication.

OnFebruary11,2009,JohnJ.Mack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley,appearedbeforeacommitteeoftheU.S.Congress.Hehadacommunicationneed:Heneededtotellhisbank'ssideofthestoryafteritacceptedalargeamountoftaxpayermoneyfromtheTroubledAssetsRecoveryProgram(TARP).

Mack'spurposewasspecific.HismessagewasintendedtoshowCongressandotheraudiencessuchasthemediaandtaxpayersthatthebankwasusinggovernmentmoneyproductively.Hispurposewastorestorethereputationofthebankasaresponsibleandtrustworthyorganizationafterthedisastersofthefinancialcrisis.

Inbusiness,managersfrequentlycommunicateforoneoftworeasons:totransferinformation(toinform)ortomotivatetheaudiencetochangetheiropinionortotakeanaction(topersuade).

ThePurposeofInforming

ThePurposeofInforming

Informativecommunicationdescribesorexplainssomeaspectofreality.Examplesaredescriptions,forexample,ofanorderentryprocessoranexplanationofhowachemicalprocesscreatesaninputforthemanufacturingofaproduct.Informativecommunicationcanbothdescribeandexplain.Forexample,amanagermightwanttodescribethestatisticalmethodsthecompanyusesforqualitycontrol,thatis,namethemandtelltheaudiencewhattheycando.Hemightalsoexplainhowtousethem,takingtheaudiencestepbystepthrougheachmethodandshowingthemwhatdataarenecessary,howtomakecalculations,andwhattheresultingvaluesmean.

ThePurposeofPersuadingThePurposeofPersuading

Persuasionistheuseoflanguagetomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.Seethetableforexamples.

PersuasiveCommunication PurposeConferencecallwithstockmarketanalysts

Think:Motivatetothinkthecompanyisasoundinvestment.

CEOatanannualshareholdersmeeting

Feel:MotivatetheshareholderstofeelconfidenceinanewCEO.

Videopresentationtoemployees

Act:Motivateemployeestoactinaspecificway:signupforafitnessprogram.

PresentationtoCEOThink,feel,andact:ConvincetheCEOthatthecompanysstrategyisflawedandtofeeldoubtaboutit,andthentoauthorizeateamtoproposechanges.

ThePurposeofPersuading

LeadershipbyInfluence

Anexperiencedmanagerunderscoresthevitalroleofinfluencebypersuasion.

GettingThingsDonewithPersuasionGettingThingsDonewithPersuasion

Amanagementwriter,JayConger,hascalledpersuasionthelanguageofbusinessleadership.Persuasionisacatalystforgettingworkdoneandforachievingoutcomesthatleaderscan'trealizeontheirown.

UsingVideotoPersuade

Here'savideoofanexecutivedescribinghowsheusedpersuasionwithherworldwidesalesteam.

Persuasion CatalystforWork OutcomeYouCan'tRealizeonYourOwnSalespresentation Sellingonlinevideoservices SellingintheUnitedStates,LatinAmerica,andAsia

Leadersandmanagersusepersuasiononadailybasis.Withoutpersuasion,verylittleworkwouldgetdoneandorganizationswouldn'texistbecausetherewouldbenowaytoensurethatpeoplesharedthesamegoalsandworkedcooperativelytowardthem.Thealternativestopersuasionareauthoritarianismoranarchy,bothofwhichhaveseveredrawbacks.

Persuadingpeopleusuallydoesn'thappenonthefirsttry.Popularliteratureonpersuasionpromisestoteachtechniquestowineverytime.Inbusiness,issuesarecomplicatedandaudienceshavediverse,andoftenstronglyheld,ideasoftheirown.Theseconditionsaren'tusuallyconducivetoquickoreasywins.

Businesspersuasionisusuallyaprocess,notanevent:ittakesmultiplecommunicationsaswellasothertypesofinfluence.Intheprocesstheinitialpurposecanchangeastheaudiencemembersaskquestions,raiseobjections,andputforwardtheirownideas.

Audienceresistanceisactuallyagoodsign,althoughitcanbehardonacommunicator!Whenpersuasionstimulatesadiversityofviewpoints,theendresultisoftenbetterthantheoneproposedatthebeginningoftheprocess.

Tohelpyoudefineyourpurpose,usethesetwoquestions:

Informative PersuasiveWhatistheimportanceoftheinformation? Whatistheimportanceofthetopic?WhatspecificinformationgapdoIwanttofill? WhatdoIwanttheaudiencetothink,feel,anddo?

Example:Tasha'sPurposes

Applyingthequestionstothetwocommunicationsituationsshefaces,Tashasettlesontwodistinctpurposes:

Informative

1. Importance:Someofthenewsoftwarefeaturesmakethereps'workmoreefficient.

2. Gaptofill:Iwantthemtoknowwhatthefeaturesareandhowtheywork.

Persuasive

1. Importance:Thecallcenterisseriouslyunderstaffed.2. Think,feel,anddo:IwantDmitritounderstandthatwehaveaseriousproblem,feelsomediscomfortabouttheproblem,andultimatelyhiremoreSpanishspeakingreps.

Clarifyingyourpurposeisessential.Ifyoudon'tknowwhatyouaretryingaccomplish,youcan'texpecttocreatecommunicationthatachievesmuchofanything.Infact,ifyouaren'tclearabouttheintentionofyourmessage,therecouldbeharmfulunintendedconsequences.

Exercise:TheCommunicationCampaign

Who?KnowingYourAudience

Who?KnowingYourAudience

Communicationisnotaboutthepersoncommunicatingit'sabouttheaudience.

Soonceyou'veclarifiedthepurposeofyourmessage,thinkabouttheaudience.Understandingyouraudiencewillhelpyouachievethepurposeyouhavedefined.

Youdon'tneedorwanttoknoweverythingaboutthepeoplewhowillreceivethemessage.Youwantonlyinformationthatwillbehelpfulinrealizingyourpurpose.

Professors,textbooks,andpopularbooksoncommunicationallexhortcommunicatorstounderstandtheiraudience,buttheadviceoftenisn'tfollowed.Thewriterorspeakermaythinksheknowstheaudiencewellenoughalreadyorbelievesthatknowingmoreaboutthemwouldn'tmakeadifference.However,evenanemailtosomeonethewriterknowswellbenefitsfromforethought,whensomethingimportantisatstake.

WomensCommunicationStrengths

EarlyinhiscareerSriniKrishnamurthylearnedtheconnectionbetweenmessageandaudience.

Example:TheCostofNotKnowingYourAudience

Aconsultingteampresentsanevaluationofacompany'sbusinessunits.Thepresentationculminatesinanopinionabouttheoverallperformanceofeachunit.Theteamnotesthatonedivisioncouldhaveexceededitsgoalsbyahealthymarginbutwasheldbackbyitsmanagement,whichtheteamcriticizesaspreoccupiedwithinternalpolitics.

Theteamisn'tawarethattheheadofthatbusinessunitisaclosepersonalfriendofthecompanyCEO.TheCEOdefendshisfriend,whichshiftsattentionawayfromperformanceandinjectstensionintothemeeting.

Hadtheteamaskedquestionsabouttheiraudience,theymighthavelearnedoftherelationshipbetweentheCEOandtheheadofthebusinessunitandpresentedtheirjudgmentofthebusinessunitmorediplomatically.

Thinkingabouttheaudiencecanonlyhelpyourcommunication.Trythis:Beforeyoustartcreatingthecontentofawrittenorspokenmessage,taketenminutestothinkonlyaboutyouraudience.Recordthepointsthatseemmostworthwhile.Assoonasyoucan,compareyourperceptionsoftheaudiencewithsomeonetrustworthythatknowssomeoralloftheaudiencemembers.Theoddsareveryhighthatwhatyoulearnwillaffectwhatandhowyoucommunicate.

WhenJohnMack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley,wentbeforeaU.S.congressionalcommittee,heknewtheaudiencewashostileandsuspiciousofhim.Soheincorporatedameasuredapologyinhisopeningstatement.Apologiestendtoplacatepeopleandmakethemreceptive.Notsurprisingly,thecommitteewasmorerestrainedintheirreactiontohim

thantoother,lesscontriteWallStreetexecutives.

Toexploreyouraudience,thesequestionsarehelpful:

Whoismyaudience?Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?Whatistheirattitudetowardme?Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?

PrimaryandSecondaryAudiencesPrimaryandSecondaryAudiences

Insomesituations,youmayhavemorethanoneaudience,whichisanimportantfactorwhenthecommunicationneedstoaddressdifferentaudiences.

Let'ssaythatyou'rethechairofacrossfunctionalteamchargedwithmakingadecision.Youfavoramoderatelyaggressiveoptionandknowthatamajorityoftheteamagrees.Butanadamantminorityopposesthatoptionandadvocatesamoreconservativedecision.Youarewritingamemotothecommitteerecommendingadecisionthatwillbediscussedatthenextmeeting.

Inthissituation,themajorityofthecommitteeisthesecondaryaudience.Theyalreadyagreewithyou.Theopponentsaretheprimaryaudiencebecausetheyneedtobeconvinced.Preachingtothechoirfeelsgoodbutwon'tachieveyourpurposeinthissituation.

Let'sreturntotheexampleofJohnMack,chairandCEOofMorganStanley.Mack'sprimaryaudiencewasthecommitteemembers.Hehadmultiplesecondaryaudiences:othermembersofCongress,shareholders,voters,themedia,regulators,andWallStreet.Infact,it'sdebatablewhetherthecommitteewashisprimaryaudienceatallbecausehisbankhadmuchatstakewithsomeofthe"secondary"audiences,suchasregulatorsandshareholders.

Exercise:GettingtoKnowHerAudience

BarrierstoCommunicationBarrierstoCommunication

Asyouthinkabouttheaudience,bealertforobstaclestocommunicationfactorsthatcanmakeachievingapurposemoredifficultor,inextremecases,impossible.Thegoalofidentifyingbarriersistoremovethemorlessentheirimpact.

Inbusiness,therearemanypotentialbarrierstocommunication:

Hostilitytotheconclusion,thecommunicator,orboth.Audiencebeliefthatthewriterorspeakerisn'ttrustworthy.Lackofbackgroundknowledgeinthewriterspeakerortheaudience.Biasinthespeakerwriterorintheaudience.Ethicalandlegalissuesrelatedtothetopic.Powerandotherorganizationalissues,suchasaspeakeraddressinganaudienceoverwhomhehasnopowerbutwantsthemtodosomething.Culturalfactorssuchasdifferentattitudestowardconflictinthepresenterandtheaudience.Languageissues,suchastheinabilityofanaudiencetofollowsomeonespeakingtoofastintheirsecondlanguage.

RecognizingCulturalBarriers

AProcter&Gambleexecutivespeaksofdealingwithculturaldifferencesincommunication.

Example:RecognizingBarrierstoCommunication

Imaginethatyouareanentrepreneurwhowillpresenttoagroupofpotentialinvestors.

Considerhowtheywillperceiveyou.Theinvestorshavefarmorebusinessexperiencethanyoudoandhaveheardmanypitchesforfunding.

Youareconvincedyouhaveagoodbusinessplanthattakesadvantageofalargeopportunity.

Makingsureyouraudienceseesyouascrediblewillstrengthenyourpitch.

Herearesomeideasforbuildingcredibility:

Giverealisticnumbersandprepareforpredictablequestionsaboutthemsoyouarereadytorespond.Don'tpretendtoknowsomething.Knoweverythingthereistoknowaboutyourbusinessandthemarketinwhichyouwanttocompete.

Exercise:EvaluatingBarrierstoCommunication

CognitiveBias

CognitiveBias

Researchersinpsychologyhavefirmlyestablishedoverthelastfortyyearsthathumansareprofoundlybiasedintheirthinking.Thebiasestheyrefertoareneitherconsciousnordeliberatethey'reinherentinpeople'sthoughtprocesses.Theimplicationsofbiasforcommunicationareprofound.

Asacommunicatoryoufacebiasintwoways:yourownbiasesthatinfluenceyourmessageandthebiaseswithwhichtheaudiencereceivesyourcommunication.Ineithersensesenseitisdifficulttocopewithbias.Peoplegenerallyaren'tawareofitandwilloftendenythatithasanyinfluence.Biashasrelevanceforcommunicationbecauseitcanleadtodistortedviewsofasituation,tensionbetweenthecommunicatorandtheaudience,andmisunderstandings.

Thescienceofbiasisextensiveandgrowing.Here,you'llfindexplanationsofthefollowingfourbiases,withmajorpotentialimpactoncommunication:

Falsegeneralization(thelawofsmallnumbers)AnchoringbiasAvailabilitybiasRepresentativenessbias

FalseGeneralizationFalseGeneralization

Falsegeneralization,alsocalledthelawofsmallnumbers,meansdrawingaconclusionfromasmallsetofdatatheresultingconclusionisoftenwrong.TheNobelprizewinningpsychologistDanielKahnemansaysthatthetendencyarisesfromourneedtobelievethattheworldisorderlyandconsistentmoresothanitactuallyis.

Example:ABadSellingYear

Asalesmanagerishavingdoubtsabouttheabilityorcommitmentofoneofhissalespeople,Mireille,becauseshe'snotmakinghernumbersinthecurrentyear.Fromabroaderperspectiveofthelastsevenyears,however,shehasbeenatopperformer.

DealingwithFalseGeneralizationDealingwithFalseGeneralization

Youcanavoidthebiasoffalsegeneralizationasacommunicatorbytakingintoaccountalargersetofdata.Toaddressfalsegeneralizationinaudiencemembers,youcanshowthemanexpandeddatasetandwhatyouregardasamoreaccurateconclusion.

Example:ProvidingMoreData

Mireillehasbeendemoralizedabouthersalesperformance.Hermanagerhasbecomeincreasinglyimpatient,andseveraltimesshehastoldhimthatshewillworkharder.

Afriendmentionsthatshe'shadastringofgoodyearsandwasnamedsalespersonoftheyearnotlongago.Mireillegathersthesalesnumbersforthelastsevenyearsandcalculatesheraverageyearoveryearincrease.Shecomparesthatnumbertotheaveragefortheentiresalesstaffhersislargerbyseveralpercentagepoints.Inashortmemoshesharestheinformationwithherboss.

AnchoringBiasAnchoringBias

Anchoringbias(orsimplyanchoring)isexcessiverelianceononeorafewvalues,particularlywhenjudging,deciding,oracting.Anotherwayofputtingitisthatoneorafewvalueshaveunjustifiedinfluenceoverjudgment,decisionmaking,oraction.Anchoringoccursinfinancialmarketswhenastockpricefallsprecipitouslyandinvestorsbuyatthenewlowerprice,believingthatthestockisnowundervalued.However,thestockpricemayfallbecausethecompanyisactuallyworthlessduetopoordecisionmakingorfailureofsomekind.

Example:TheDomineeringSalesGoal

ThesalesmanagersetanaggressivesalesgoalforMireilleforthecurrentyear,wellbeforeherregionencounteredeconomicstressesandherterritorywasreconfigured,whicheliminatedseveralofherlargestcustomers.Nevertheless,thesalesgoalisthereferencepoint,oranchor,fordiscussionsaboutMireille'sperformance.

DealingwithAnchoringBiasDealingwithAnchoringBias

Tofendoffanchoringbias,youhavetobealerttoyourownreferencepoints.Whenyoutrytoconvinceanaudiencewithanargument,examineitscontentforreferencepointsorbenchmarksthatyouassumeareaccurate.Aretheytrulyaccurate?

Likewise,assesstheanchorsthatyouraudiencemayhave.Arguingaconclusionrootedinanassumptionthatcontradictsanaudienceanchorcanrunintotroubleifyouaren'tawareoftheanchor.Youshouldfirstdealwithafallaciousanchorbyprovingwhyit'sfallacious.

Example:PullingtheAnchorUp

Mireillepreparesabriefpresentationforthesalesmanagerandassistantmanagerabouthersellingefforts.Sheplanstoshowthemhowthelossofherlargestcustomersaccountsfornearly75percentofthegapbetweenhercurrentsalesandthegoal.Shewillalsoestimatethesaleslossesduetolocaleconomicproblemsinherterritory,whichaccountforanother15percent.Herconclusionwillproposealowergoalcoupledwithapromisetoworkhardertodevelopnewaccounts.

AvailabilityBiasAvailabilityBias

Thisbiasisthetendencytobaseajudgmentordecisionontheeasewithwhicharelevantfactoreventcanberecalled.Oftenrecencyplaysamajorroleit'seasiertorecallaneventthatjusthappenedthanonethathappenedatanearliertime.Acommonexampleofavailabilitybiasisthefearpeoplehaveofflyingafteracommercialairlinercrashesversusthecomforttheyhavewithdrivingtotheairport.Drivingismanytimesmoredangerousthanflyingatalltimes.

Example:TheRiskofSuccess

Thecompanyhashadseveralyearsofbriskgrowth.Mireilleseeseconomicshiftsthatmayreversethisgrowthtrendifthecompanydoesn'tadjustitsofferingsandpricing.However,thesalesmanagerandthestaffmembershavegreatconfidenceinthestatusquobecauseoftherecenttrackrecord.

DealingwithAvailabilityBiasDealingwithAvailabilityBias

Researchersoftencontrastconclusionsinfluencedbyavailabilitybiaswiththoseguidedbybaserates,atermthatmeanstheprobabilityofsomethingbeingdeterminedbyrationalmeans,suchasstatistics.Anexampleisthefatalityratesforflyingincommercialairlinesversusthosefordrivingacar.

Youcanavoidavailabilitybiasbybuildingyourargumentsonbaserates.Foraudiencememberswhohaveavailabilitybias,youneedtoprovetothemthattheirviewisn'tderivedfromthebaserateandthenargueamoreaccurateview.

Example:BroadeningtheView

Mireilleassemblesthesalesrecordsforthepasttenyears.Althoughtheoveralltrendispositive,sheuncoversafairlyregularoscillation.Shetracksthemagainstsomeinternalbenchmarksandafewmacroeconomicmeasurements.Shefindsafewcorrelations,whichsheexplainsinamemotohercolleagues.Inthisway,shemovesthediscussionfromthesimpleassumptionthatthegoodtimeswillcontinuetoadatadrivenevaluation.

RepresentativenessBiasRepresentativenessBias

Representativenessbiasallowspeopletojudgewhethersomethingbelongsinaspecificcategoryaccordingtocharacteristicstheybelieverepresentmembersofthecategory.Afamiliarexampleofrepresentativenessbiasisstereotyping,suchasthinkingthatayoungmanwhoisverytallmustbeabasketballplayer.

Example:CherryPickingGoodNews

ThesalesmanagercountersMireille'spositionthatthecompanyshouldbepreparedtomakeseriouschanges.Hecitesseveralfactorsrelatedtothecompanythathavebeenconsistentthroughouttheupswinginsalesandthatremainso.Becauseofthesalespeople'srepresentativenessbias,theydon'tthinkMireille'swarninghasmerit.

DealingwithRepresentativenessBiasDealingwithRepresentativenessBias

Tospuryourawarenessofrepresentativebias,askyourselfwhetheraclassificationyouhavemadeincludesalltherelevantfactors.Inpersuasiveformsofcommunication,concentrateonclassificationsvitaltoyourargument.

Asfarasaudiencesareconcerned,addressingrepresentativenessbiasissimilartocounteringfalsegeneralization:Expandthenumberoffactorstheaudienceisusingtoclassifysomething.

Example:CreatingaBetterPicture

Mireilletriedtochangehowhermanagerandpeersseethepresent.Sherealizesshehasherownrepresentativenessbiassheregardsthenegativefactorsasbeingmoresalientthanthepositiveones.

Insteadofarguingagainsttheoptimisticviewofheraudience,shepreparesasetofcriteriaforevaluatingthesustainabilityofsalesgrowth.Thecriteriaincludethefactorsthesalesmanagerreliedonandtheadditionalfactorsshethinksareimportant.Shethenpreparesasustainabilityscorecardthat'sneitherasoptimisticashercolleaguesviewnoraspessimisticashers.

Exercise:DetectingBias

Example:InformingtheReps

Forherinformativecommunication,Tashausestheaudiencequestionstoidentifycharacteristicsoftherepsrelevanttothemessage.

Whoismyaudience?

Myprimaryaudienceisthelessexperiencedcustomerservicereps.Asecondaryaudienceisveteranreps.

Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?

Therepsdon'tknowaboutthenewfeaturesthat'stheinformationgapI'mfilling.I'llneedtodescribethebenefitsofthechangesinenoughdetailfortheinexperiencedreps.Imightlosealittleoftheattentionofthelongerservicereps,butthat'sariskworthtaking.

Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?

Theyhatetheamountofinformationtheygetandtendtodeleteemailsbeforetheyreadthem.ThiscouldbethemostimportantbarriertocommunicationthatIface.Ontheotherhand,theywelcomeanythingthatmakestheirworkeasier.

TheaudiencemighthaveanavailabilitybiasabouttheITdepartment.Beforethelastupdatetothesystem,thedepartmentgaveconfusingandcontradictoryinformation.Therepsmightignoretheinformationbecausetheydon'ttrustit.

Whatistheirattitudetowardme?

TheyknowI'montheirside.Isuspecttheydon'tthinkIfullyunderstandthedemandsoftheirjob.It'strueIhaven'tspentalotoftimeinthecenter,butIknowtheworkflow.

Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?

Thecallcenterisessentialtothesuccessofourcompany,andthecurrentteammembers,especiallytheveterans,arecompetent.Irespectandlikethem.But,honestly,sometimestheyirritatemewhentheyimmediatelyresistorcomplainaboutachange.

Conclusions

Becausetheinformationisdetailed,Iwillputitinmemoformandsenditasanemailattachment.Theywon'treadalongemail.Thememoshouldbeasshortaspossible.Itshouldfocusoninformationofhighestvaluetothereps.Intheemailandatthebeginningofthememo,I'llemphasizehowtheinformationwillhelpthemdotheirjobmoreeasily.Getthedetailsright!

Theitemaboutaccuracyisanexampleofwhyitisimportanttopayattentiontotheaudience.Anaccuratereportwillhelpovercomethereps'biasabouttheITdepartment.

Anothermajorbarrierisinformationoverload.Thememoneedstoemphasizethebenefitofthecommunicationtotherepsinthesubjectlineandinthefirstsentence.

Example:PersuadingDmitri

Tasha'sothercommunication,theoneshehopeswillwinherboss'ssupporttohiremoreSpanishspeakingreps,requirespersuasion.Toreview,persuasionistheuseoflanguagetomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,oractinthewaythecommunicatorintends.

TashawantstochangethewayDmitrithinksabouthiringandgethimtotakeaction:hiretwomorereps.Hewillneedtoclearitwithhisboss,directorofthebusinessunit.IfDmitrithinksTasha'smemocontainssolidevidence,he'llprobablysharethememowiththedirector.

Tashanowtypesanswerstotheaudiencequestions.

Whoismyaudience?

Dmitriismyprimaryaudience,butIhavetoconsiderasecondaryaudience:Dmitri'sboss,thedirector.IfIconvinceDmitri,hewillwanttogettheapprovalofthedirector.

Whatdoaudiencemembersknowaboutthetopic?

Dmitriknowsthecallcenteroperationwellandmostofthereps,especiallytheveterans.Hedoesn'tknowalotaboutwhat'sbeengoingoninthecenterrecently.Thedirectorknowsthecallcenterfrom30,000feetnodetails.BasedonwhatDmitrisays,thedirectorisanumbersguy.

Whatistheirattitudetowardthetopic?Dotheyhaveanybiasesrelatedtothetopic?

IhavetoassumeDmitri'sinitialattitudeisgoingtobenegative.Thedirectorissimilar,exceptthathedoesntseemtovaluethecallcenterasmuchasDmitriheseesitasacostcenter,notasanasset.

Dmitriandthedirectormayhaveananchorbias:theindustrystandardbenchmarkforcostpercall.Corporatehasbeentoldmanytimesthattheindustrybenchmarkhaslittlemeaningbecauseithidesalargenumberofvariables.Andyet,ineverydiscussionofthecallcenter,corporateexecutivesrefertothebenchmark.

Whatistheirattitudetowardme?

DmitrithinksI'manexcellentmanager.Buthemayfeelthatmyobjectivityiscompromisedbyloyaltytothereps.Idon'tknowthedirectorexceptwhatI'vegleanedfromDmitri.Heprobablydoesn'thaveawelldefinedattitudetowardme.

Whatismyattitudetowardtheaudience?

Thisoneishardtoanswer.Dmitrihasadvocatedforthecallcenterbefore,butthere'sarumorthathellbepromotedsoon,sohemightwanttoleavetheproblemforthenextguy.Idon'tlikethatpossibility.Thedirector?Ivegotabiasagainstthecorporatetypes.Toomanyofthemthinktheyknoweverything.

TakingNoteofWhatYouLearn

TakingNoteofWhatYouLearn

Ananalysisofacommunicationsituationhasaproduct:valuablelearningaboutthecontentofthecommunication.Tryingtorememberallofthelearningviamemoryintroducestheriskthatyouwilllosesomeofit.Takingnotesinsomeformreducestherisk.

Everyonehashisorherownwayofrecordingthoughts.Somepeopleliketotakedetailedhandwrittennotesothersprefervisualrepresentationsusingcomputermindmappingapplicationsorjustdrawingonasheetofpaper.Regardlessofthemeans,theobjectiveisthesame:topreservewhatyoulearnaboutasituationsothatyoucancreatecommunicationefficiently.

How?ChoosingaChannel

How?ChoosingaChannel

Neverbeforehavebusinesspeoplehadsomanywaystocommunicate.Theproliferationofoptionsisanassetforlinkingeveryoneinanorganizationtogetheracrosslongdistancesandforcreatingopportunitiesforfasttransmissionofinformationandactivitiessuchascollaboration,innovation,andmentoring.

Youprobablydon'toftenhavetothinkaboutchannelchoicebecauseit'sagiven:Someoneemailsyou,andyouemailareply.Someonecallsyouandyoutalkonthephone.

Buteveninthesecommonplaceinstances,channelchoicecancropup.Forinstance,haveyouevertoldsomeoneyouaretalkingwithonthephonetosendyouanemailwiththedetails?Allthatmeansisthatyoupreferadifferentmodeorchannelforthecontentofaparticularcommunication,suchasthecaller'sfullcontactinformationorthedetailsofaperson'srequest.

Forhighvaluecommunicationwhereyouhaveachoice,itpaystopauseandthink.

QuestionsAboutChannelsQuestionsAboutChannels

Herearequestionsthatcanassistyouinselectingachannel:

Whatchannelisbestformypurpose?Whatchannelisbestformyaudience?Whatchannelisbestforconveyinginformationormakinganargument?Whatchannelisbestforanemotionalimpactontheaudience?Whatchannelisbestforme?

Foralistofcommunicationchannelsandfactorsthatcaninfluencechoicesofthem,seetheChannelCharacteristicstable.

Briefcase:ChannelCharacteristics

Exercise:ChannelChoice

Message:

BestChannel:

Feedback:

ChannelChoices:

PreviousNext

ResetExercise

Example:PersuadingDmitri

Let'sapplythesequestionstoTasha'scommunicationwiththebossaboutaddingnewrepstothecallcenter.

Whatchannelisbestformypurpose?

IwantDmitritounderstandmyargument,askquestionsaboutit,andchallengeitifheneedsto.Ialsowanthimtobepersonallyengaged.Acombinationofawrittendocument(sohecanabsorbtheargument)andafacetofacemeeting(toincreasehispersonalengagement)willworkbest.

Whatchannelisbestformyaudience?

Dmitriisatalker.Hesnotoriousfornotansweringemailsanddoesntlikereadingreportsandotherdocuments.Buthewantsproposalslikeminethatdependonevidenceinwritingfirst.Hewantstoseeeverythinglaidoutinalogicalway.

Whatchannelisbestforconveyinginformationormakinganargument?

Definitelywriting,fortworeasons:(1)Detailedevidenceandconclusionsarehardtorememberunlessthey'reinwritingand(2)Dmitricangooverthememoseveraltimesuntilhefullyunderstandstheargument.Thisprocesshelpspersuadehimandmakeshimamoreeffective"missionary"fortheargument.

Whatchannelisbestforanemotionalimpactontheaudience?

ThereportcangetDmitriworriedandpartlymotivatedtomakemyconclusionhisown.ButtalkingtohimfacetofaceisabetterwaytoshowhimhowconcernedIam.

Whatchannelisbestforme?

Writingisthebestchannelforme,definitely.IthinkI'madecentwriterandIliketoputthepuzzlepiecestogether.Idontlikestanduppresentations.Aoneononeconversationonadifficulttopiccanbetense,butI'lltalktohimafterhe'sreadmyreportandabsorbedmyargumentandevidence.

How?UsingReasoningintheMessage

How?UsingReasoningintheMessage

Peopleinbusinesshaveanincentivetorelyonreasoning.Businessactingonthebasisofirrationalthinkingwillsuffersoonerorlater.Manyoftheplayersinthefinancialcrisisof2008,forexample,believedthatrealestatepriceswouldcontinuetoriseindefinitely,despiteampleevidencetothecontrary.Inthelongrun,theirthinkingwasirrationalandanentireindustry,manyeconomies,andmillionsofpeoplesufferedforit.

Ontheflipside,businesspeoplewieldreasontogreateffect.Facingimminentcollapse,theU.S.autoindustryusedreasontoreconstructitself,developinghighquality,innovative,andfuelefficientvehicles.Biotechnologyanddrugcompaniesusereasontofindandcommercializenewtherapiesforformerlyintractablediseases.

Reasonisthemostfundamentaltoolforcreatingbusinesscommunication.Workplaceaudiencesexpectthecontentofpresentations,memos,emails,andotherformsofcommunicationtobewellreasonedandlogical.

Exercise:UsingCommunicationToolsSpontaneously

InformativeCommunicationInformativeCommunication

Reasonhasalargeroleininformativecommunication.First,itisusedtoselecttheinformationofgreatestvaluetotheaudience.Usuallythehardestpartofselectingisdecidingwhattoleaveout.

Weliveintheinformationage.Collecting,storing,andtransmittingdataissoadvancedthatvastamountsofitarebeingwarehousedbecausewedon'thavethecapacitytoassessitsvalue,muchlessuseit.

Butasreceivers,humanshaven'thadtimeyettoadapttheirbrainstotheinformationage.Itiseasyforustoenterastateofcognitiveoverload.Toofrequentlycommunicatorsdon'trecognizeourcognitivelimits.Theybelievethatthemoreinformationtheypushataudiences,thebetterinformedtheaudiencewillbe.

Uptoapoint,thatbeliefistrue,butafterthatpoint,audiencesbecomeconfused,tired,andunreceptive.Especiallyinbusiness,communicatorsoweittotheiraudiencestobestrictaboutselectinginformationonthisprinciple:needtoknow,notnicetoknow.

Second,reasonisusedininformativecommunicationtobuildalogicalorganizationthathelpstheaudienceunderstandthecontent.Unstructuredinformationcanbecommunicatedandtheaudiencemayevenbeabletounderstandit,butitwon'tstayintheirmemories.Communicatinginformationthattheaudiencewon'trememberispointless.

Let'sconsiderafriendlyneighborwhovolunteerstoteachyouhowtochangeatire.Shetellsyouwhatyouneedtodobutnotinthecorrectorder.

Monthslater,you'reonaroadalongwayfromhomeandhavetochangeatirefrommemory.Verysoonyou'refrustratedbecauseyoucan'tremembertheorderofsomeofthesteps.Doyoujackupthetirebeforeyouloosenthelugnutsordoyouloosenthemfirstandthenjackupthetire?

Usingreasoninaninformativemessageprimarilyhastodowithselectingandorderinginformation:

Whatinformationdoestheaudienceneedtoknowtoachievemypurpose?Whatisthemostlogicalwayofpresentingtheinformation?

Example:InformingtheReps

Let'sreturntoTasha'scommunicationtothecallcenterrepresentatives.Tashahastostructuretheinformationlogically.Ithasanorganicorder:theprocesstherepsfollowwhentheyusethecallcentersoftware.

Tashatakesamomenttoconsiderthecontentinrelationtoitsvaluetotheaudience.

IcouldjustfollowtheITreport,whichgoesthrougheachcomputersteptherepstakewhenthey'reonacallandshowswhichoneshavechanged.Idon'tthinkthatwilldoitforthereps.Mostofthemcandothebasicstepsintheirsleepeventheinexperiencedonessotheydon'tneedtoberemindedoftheorder.Theywanttoknowthechangesthatmattertothem.

PersuasiveCommunicationPersuasiveCommunication

Businessaudiencesexpectpersuasiontoberational.Theytypicallydon'trespondwelltopersuasionthat'sprimarilyemotional.Rationalpersuasionconsistsofarguments.Theabilitytoargueskillfullyisvaluedinbusiness(andinbusinessschool).

UsingArgumentsUsingArguments

Thereareallsortsofdefinitionsofargument,butinpracticalterms,argumentisreachingaconclusionbyusingevidence.Evidencecomprisesqualitativeandquantitativefacts,calculations,inferencesbasedonfacts,theoreticalknowledge,personalexperience,andexpertopinion.

Aconciseevidencestatement,combinedwiththeconclusion,canbeanexcellentopeningforapresentationorawrittencommunication.Theexampleillustrateshowtoconstructastrongargument.Businessargumentscanbemorecomplicated,buttheprocessfollowedintheexampleappliestothem,too.

Exercise:BuildingtheLogicalOrderofanArgument

UsingAssumptionsUsingAssumptions

Youhaveprobablyheardofinductiveanddeductivereasoning.Inductionistheprocessofconcludingthatsomethingisprobablytruebasedonrelevantobservations.Deductionistheprocessofconcludingthatsomethingisprobablytruebyreferencetoaprinciplethatisgenerallyacceptedastrue.

Noticetheuseofthewordprobablyinthedefinitions.Realworldreasoningusuallydoesn'tgiveyouaresultthatistruebeyondanydoubt.Eventhestrongestconclusionsareprobablytrue.

Neitherconceptofreasoningisdirectlyusefulforcreatingpractical,realworldarguments.Moreusefulistheevidenceconclusionformofargumentexplainedintheprevioussection.Deductivelogic,however,doeshaveaconceptofgreatvalueforrealworldreasoning.Deductionworksbecauseagenerallyacceptedprinciplejustifiesrelatedstatements.Indeduction,thegenerallyacceptedprincipleiscalledthemajorpremise.Itisalsocalledanassumption.

TheFunctionofAssumptions

Theassumptionmakestheconclusionpossiblebyconnectingtheevidenceandtheconclusion.Ofcourse,theargumentintheTadexampleissoobviousthattheassumptiondoesnotseemimportant.

Butwhentheargumentisnotsoobvious,knowingtheassumptioncanhelpawriterorspeakerdecidewhethertheargumentwillbeacceptabletotheaudience.

Reset

FortheargumentaboutTad,whatistheassumption?DragthecorrectideaslistedbelowintotheLogicBoxtocreatetheassumption.Incorrectchoiceswillreturntotheiroriginalposition.

Ahumanbeing

Tad

canthink

hasabrain

LogicBoxEvidence Tad isahumanbeing.Assumption Conclusion Therefore,Tad hasabrain.

Clickheretocontinue.

TounderstandtherelationshipsintheTadargument,let'sputthestatementsintoa"logicbox."Theboxshowshowthethreemainideasintheargumentareconnected.

LogicBox(A)Tad (B)isahumanbeing.(A)Tad (C)hasabrain.

Thetwosentencesexpresstheserelationships:

IdeaA=IdeaB

IdeaA=IdeaC

Giventheserelationships,itfollowsthatIdeaB=IdeaC.TheassumptionisthestatementthatlinksideasBandC.

Clickheretocontinue.

Let'sstartwithasimpleexampleofanargument:

Tadisahumanbeing.

Therefore,Tadhasabrain.

WeknowthatTadisahumanbeing.That'sastatementofevidenceitisafact.Fromthatfactweconcludehehasabrain.Buttheconclusiondependsonanassumption.

Clickheretoseetheassumption.

CheckingYourAssumptions

Tochecktheassumptionofanargument,followthesesteps.

Whattodo. Howtodoit.Definetheassumption. Determinethelogicallinkbetweentheevidenceandconclusion.

Evaluatetheassumption'sacceptabilitytotheaudience. Decidewhethertheintendedaudiencewillbelievetheassumption.

Usetheargumentorchangeit.Iftheassumptionisacceptable,usetheargument.

Iftheassumptionisnotacceptable,changetheargument.

CheckingYourAssumptions:DefiningThem

Youcandefineyourassumptionspreciselybystatingyourevidenceandconclusionssothattheyhavethreeuniqueideas.WewillusetheLogicBoxtodefinetheassumptionofabusinessargument.

Thisistheargumentwewilluse:

FiliaFoodshasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.

Hereistheargumentinalogicbox:

LogicBox(A)FiliaFoods (B)hasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.(B)Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplant (C)shouldfinishit.(A)Therefore,FiliaFoods (C)shouldfinishtheplant.

Doyouthinkthatmostbusinessaudienceswouldagreewiththeassumption,"Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit"?

Return

LogicBox(A)FiliaFoods (B)hasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.(A)Therefore,FiliaFoods (C)shouldfinishtheplant.

Theassumptionmustlinkideas(B)and(C).Canyoustateit?

Clickheretoseetheassumption.

CheckingYourAssumptions:EvaluatingAcceptability

Judgingtheacceptabilityofassumptionsdependsontheaudienceandallthevariablesthataffectit,suchasculture,values,history,bias,andknowledge.Knowingyouraudiencewellallowsyoutoaccuratelyevaluateanassumption'sacceptability.

Example:EvaluatinganAssumption'sAcceptability

Inthelastsection,wedefinedtheassumptionofanargumentaboutfinishingaplant:

Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit.

Theassumptionisaversionofthesunkcostfallacy:thinkingthatmoneyalreadyspentjustifiesmorespending.Mostaudiencesawareofthefallacywouldnotfindtheargumentconvincing.

Exercise:JudgingtheAcceptabilityofanAssumption

CheckingYourAssumptions:UsinganArgumentorChangingIt

Recalltheargumentaboutfinishingtheplant:

FiliaFoodshasspentmillionsofdollarsontheKnoxPointplant.Acompanythathasspentmillionsofdollarsonaplantshouldfinishit.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.

Theassumptionisnotgoingtobeacceptabletoasmartbusinessaudience.Considerforamomentwhatwouldbeastrongerargumentforfinishingtheplantandthenclickheretoseenewevidence.

Hereisanargumentwithnewevidencebutthesameconclusion:

FiliaFoodscannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplant.Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.

Withtheassumptioninthemiddle,theargumentisasfollows:

FiliaFoodscannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplant.

Acompanythatcannotmeetworldwidedemandwithoutanewplantshouldfinishtheoneithasbeenbuilding.

Therefore,FiliaFoodsshouldfinishtheplant.

Theassumptionseemsacceptabletoabusinessaudienceaslongastheevidenceaboutdemandisconvincing.

Exercise:StrengtheningArguments

Close

PreviousNext

ResetExercise

ThreeQuestionsforCreatingArgumentsThreeQuestionsforCreatingArguments

Herearequestionsthatareusefulforconstructinganargument:

WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportthearguments?WhatassumptionsamImaking?Aretheyacceptabletotheaudience?

Example:PersuadingDmitri

WeknowthatTashawantstochangeDmitri'sthinkingaboutstaffingthecallcenterandgethimtotakeanactiontohiretwomoreSpanishspeakingreps.Shehasbuiltanunderstandingofheraudience,althoughitisinsomewayscontradictory.Humanbeingsarecomplicated!

Shecanuseherunderstandingoftheaudiencetocreateanargumentthatwillpersuadethem.

Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)

WhatargumentscanImaketoachievemypurpose?

Mymainargumentisthatthecallcenterisunderstaffed:Therearen'tenoughrepstohandlethecallvolume.ThebiggestneedisSpanishspeakersbecausemostoftheincreasedvolumeiscomingfromSpanishspeakingcallers.Anotherargumentisthatturnoverhasskyrocketedandisinflatingourcosts,andtheturnoveriscausedmostlybyworkload.Finally,I'llgatherinformationaboutservicequality.

Ishouldthinkaboutthealternativestonothiringnewfulltimereps.I'veheardthatansweringargumentsforotherpossibilitiesmakespeoplemorelikelytoacceptyouroption.

WhatevidencedoIhaveorneedtosupportthearguments?

Ialreadyhavenumbersoncallvolumeandturnover.Ineedtoaskhumanresourcestotellmehowmuchtheturnovercosts.Icouldjustsaythecostishigh,butanumberismoreconvincingtoDmitriandthedirectorthanageneralstatementaboutrisingexpenses.

WhatassumptionsamImaking?Aretheyacceptabletotheaudience?

Themainargumentsareunderstaffingandturnover.Bothargumentshavethisform:

EvidenceThecallcentersuffersfromseveralrelatedproblems(understaffing,turnover,servicequality).

ConclusionThecallcenterneedsmorerepresentatives.

TheAssumptionWheneverthecallcentersuffersfromtheproblem,itneedsmorerepresentatives.

TheassumptionwillbeacceptabletoDmitriandotherexecutivesonlyif,intheirview,theproblemsaresignificant.

Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)

Dmitri'scurrentpositionisnottohireanycallcenteremployeesexcepttofillopenpositionscausedbypeoplequittingorretiring.ButifTashacanfurnishafactbasedargument,shecouldpersuadehimandgivehimconfidencethathiringistherightchoice.

Ontheotherhand,Tashafearshemaywanttoducktheissueandleaveitforthenextpersonwhosucceedshim.Shecan'tbesurehowaccuratetherumorsarethatcorporatewantstopromotehim.ShespeculatesDmitriwillmakeajudgmentabouthowsoontheproblemwillbecomeunavoidable.

Tashawillneedafactualargumentwithquantitativeevidence.NumbershaveaparticularappealtoDmitriandseniorexecutives.Writingonlyaboutunhappycustomersandlowemployeemoralewillnotpersuadethem.

Tasha'sconclusionis:

WeshouldhiretwocustomerrepsfluentinEnglishandSpanish.

BeforeTashaidentifiesevidence,shethinksaboutthecriteriarelevanttothedecisionsheisrecommendingandsettlesonthree:

TurnoverCostsQualityofcustomerservice

Shetypestheevidenceshegathersinadocument.Hereissomeoftheevidencethecriteriahelpedherfindandquestionsthatshehastoanswer.Finally,inlightoftheassumptionofthearguments,shethinksabouthowtoprovetheproblemsareharmfultothecompany.

NotesaboutevidenceforapersuasivememotoDmitri

Turnover

Turnoveris100percenthigherthanlastyear.ThisnumbershouldconvinceDmitrithattheproblemisserious.Welostsomeofourmostexperiencedandproductivereps.Moremayquit.Experiencedrepsarequittingorretiringduetooverworkandstress.

Whatarethecauses?

Thenumberofcallsintothecenterexceedscapacitybyanaverageof15percent.SixtypercentoftheincreasedcallvolumeisfromcustomerswhorequestaSpanishspeakingrep.

Whyhighercallvolume?

Overallsaleshaveincreased.BigjumpinsalestoSpanishspeakersisitrelatedtomarketingcampaign?Needtoresearch!

Costs

Thehumanresourcesdepartmentsaysthatnetcostofturnoverthisyearisestimatedtobe$200,000.That'sabouta17percentincreaseinourtotalbudget.Theincreaseisdetrimentaltothecompany.

Servicequality

Standardindicatorsshowadeclineinquality.Thenumbersprovetheproblemisharmful.Numberofcallersputonholdup15percent.Numberofabandonedcallsup13percent.Averagecalllengthup2minutes.Customercomplaintsaboutserviceareup27percent.

AfterTashaanswersherquestionsaboutthemarketingcampaign,shewritesadraftoftheargument.Readherdraftmemo.Noticehowshestatesherconclusionatthebeginningandusestheevidenceshegatheredtocomposeanargument.DoyouthinkitwillconvinceDmitri?

Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version1

How?UsingEmotionintheMessage

How?UsingEmotionintheMessage

Scholarsinpsychology,neuroscience,economics,andotherfieldssaythatemotioninfluenceseverythingwedo,includingthinkingandacting.

DanAriely,abehavioraleconomist,tellsofanexperimentinwhichadaycareoperatordecidedtoimposeafineonparentswhopickedtheirchildrenuplatethegoalwastoincreasethenumberofparentswhocameontime.Thechangehadanunintendedconsequence:Latepickupsincreasedafterthefinewasimposed.

Rationally,thesituationhadn'tchangedatall.Thedaycarecenterwasnottryingtomakemoremoneyitwastryingtodeterlatepickups,asithadwhentheyaskedparentstocomplyvoluntarily.

Whatchangedweretheparents'feelings.Aftertheimpositionofalatefee,theylookedatlatepickupasatransactionratherthanaspartofarelationshipwithagroupofpeoplecaringfortheirchildrenpeoplewhowantedtobeabletoleaveworkontime.

Emotionisgenerallynotanessentialfactorininformativecommunication,butitmattersagreatdealinpersuasion.Emotioninfluenceshowanaudiencereactstoacommunication.Italsoinfluenceshowwritersandspeakersexpressthemselvesintheirmessages.

Considerthesethreequestions:

Howdoaudiencemembersfeelaboutmytopic?Whataudiencefeelingscanhelpmeachievemypurpose?HowcanIelicitthesefeelings?

Example:PersuadingDmitri

Tashaknowsthatshehastodealwithaudienceemotions.She'salreadyawareofDmitri'slikelyemotionalresponsetoherhiringrequest:discomfortandevenslighthostility.Thedangeristhathisfeelingsmaycausehimtorejectherargumentwithoutseriouslyconsideringit.

Howdoaudiencemembersfeelaboutmytopic?

Dmitriandthedirectorwilldislikeaproposalfornewhires.

Whataudiencefeelingscanhelpmeachievemypurpose?

Ideally,IdlikeDmitriandthedirectortohaveapositivefeelingaboutmyproposal.Failingthat,IwantDmitritobeasworriedaboutthesituationasIamandtoseetheissueasurgent.Iwantthedirectortroubledenoughtoacceptmyrecommendation,evenifhedoesntlikeit.

HowcanIelicitthesefeelings?

Ishouldntusestrongemotionallanguage.Thatwouldmakemeseembiased.AndDmitriandthedirectormighthavesomestereotypesaboutwomen.Ijustdontknow.

TashawillargueheropinionthewayDmitrilikes:withfacts.Shecouldrelyontheargumentalonetomotivatehim,butshewantstomaximizetheoddsofsuccessandknowsthatemotionsareinplayanyway,whethershewantstodealwiththemornot.

Shetriestoestablishtheurgencyofthehiringissue.ThesoonerDmitrithinksthecallcenterwillhaveamajorproblem,themorelikelyhewillbetoact.Dmitrisrumoredpromotioncouldbeanasset.Hewillnotwanthislastactoverseeingthecallcentertobeadebacle.

Exercise:WhatAudienceEmotionWillHelpYouPersuade?

PleasereadTashasPersuasiveMemo,Version2.Thesentencesthatdirectlyevokeemotionarehighlighted.

TashasPersuasiveMemo,Version2

Businessaudiencescanfoolthemselvesthattheyreimmunetofeelingsaffectingtheirjudgment.Emotionsarerealitiesinfact,theyarepartofhowwemakeourjudgmentsanddecisions,andwearentconsciousofsomeofthem.(Formoreonthistopic,seeCognitiveBias.)

Practically,then,youarebetteroffhavingtheaudiencesemotionsworkingforyou.Emotionsenergizepersuasionandcanhaveamultipliereffectonamessage.DmitricanbemoremotivatedasaresultofthefeelingsTashaevokesinhermemothanhewouldifhereadamemothatavoidedevokingemotionasmuchaspossible.

AudienceEmotions

Dmitrihasstrongfeelingsabouthiringtosolvethecallcenterproblem.Tashacan'teliminatehisfeelingsagainstthatsolution,butshecanintensifyhisfeelingsaboutdoingnothing.

How?UsingCharacterintheMessage

How?UsingCharacterintheMessage

Characteristheaudience'sattitudetowardaspeakerorwriter.Audiencesformattitudesofthepersoncommunicatingnotonlyfromthecontentofthemessagebutalsofromothersourcessuchasbodylanguageandfacialexpression(speakers),toneandvocabulary(writers),andtheaudience'spreviousimpressionsoftheperson(bothwritersandspeakers).

Audiencesareespeciallyreactivetotheknowledgeandcredibilityofaspeakerorwriter:

Knowledge

Anaudiencewantstobesurethecommunicatorknowswhatheorsheistalkingabout.Tobereceptivetoamessage,anaudiencemusthavesomerespectfortheintellectualauthorityofthecommunicator.

Credibility

Anaudiencewantstobesurethatcommunicatorscanbetrusted,thattheytellthetruthastheyseeit,andthattheyaretransparentwiththeirevidenceandabouttheirmotives.

Readthefollowingexcerptfromarecentlettertoshareholders.ImagineyouhaveinvestedinBuffett'scompany,BerkshireHathaway.Howwouldyoufeelaboutthemessageinthisexcerpt?

TotheShareholdersofBerkshireHathawayInc.,20091

Andnowapainfulconfession:Lastyearyourchairmanclosedthebookonaveryexpensivebusinessfiascoentirelyofhisownmaking.

FormanyyearsIhadstruggledtothinkofsideproductsthatwecouldofferourmillionsofloyalGEICOcustomers.Unfortunately,Ifinallysucceeded,comingupwithabrilliantinsightthatweshouldmarketourowncreditcard.IreasonedthatGEICOpolicyholderswerelikelytobegoodcreditrisksand,assumingweofferedanattractivecard,wouldlikelyfavoruswiththeirbusiness.Wegotbusinessallrightbutofthewrongtype.

Ourpretaxlossesfromcreditcardoperationscametoabout$6.3millionbeforeIfinallywokeup.Wethensoldour$98millionportfoliooftroubledreceivablesfor55onthedollar,losinganadditional$44million.

Buffett'shonestyelicitstrust,aninvaluableassetforanexecutiveandleader.Hisselfdeprecatinghumorandhishumilityoffsetthebadnews.Weareusuallywillingtoforgivepeoplewhotakeresponsibilityforfailures.ThecharacterBuffettprojectsinhisshareholdersletterisstablefromyeartoyear.Consistencyisanotherkeytoapersuasiveethos.

OnDemandCharacter?OnDemandCharacter?

Incommunicationshouldyoupresentyourselfasyoureallyareorshouldyoupresentyourselfinwhateverwayyouthinkfurthersyourpurpose,evenifthatmeansdisguisingormisrepresentingyourcharacter?

Inaway,thequestiondoesnotmattermuch.Itisveryhardforsomeonetoconstructafallaciouscharacter.Askilledactorcanloseherorhimselfinarole,butfortherestofus,ourcharacterstendtobestubbornlyfixed.Theriskoftryingtoexpressfalsecharacteristhattheaudiencewilldetectit,atwhichpointthepersuader'scredibilityevaporates.

However,wecanstressdifferentaspectsofourcharactertosuitourpurpose.Inhishighlyeffectivemarketingpresentations,SteveJobscameacrossasaproudandexcitedparent,withnewdevicesashischildren.IninternalmeetingsatApple,herevealedothersidesofhischaracter:demanding,impatient,sometimesdenigrating.

Whenyouareconsideringwhatethosyouwanttoconvey,askthesequestions:

Whatistheaudience'sattitudetowardmycharacter?WhatdoIwanttheaudiencemembers'attitudetobe?HowcanImovetheaudiencetothedesiredattitude?

Example:PersuadingDmitri

HereareTasha'sthoughtsaboutcharacterandherattempttopersuade:

WhatisDmitri'sattitudetowardmycharacter?

HerespectsmeandIcanbuildonthat.ButeveryoneknowsI'mveryloyaltothereps,andhemightquestionmyobjectivity.Thedirectormightassumethesamething.

WhatdoIwanttheaudiencemembers'attitudetobe?

First,IwantDmitriandthedirectortoknowthatI'mamanagementteamplayer.Next,IwantthemtoknowthatI'manexpert.Ispeaktheirlanguage(numbers)andknowwhatI'mtalkingabout!

HowcanImovetheaudiencetothedesiredattitude?

Icandothisbybeingobjectiveandlogical.I'veresearchedalotofevidence,includingnumbers.Maybesomebackgroundonourdepartment'scostcuttingwould

helpmyteamplayerimage.

Example:PersuadingDmitri(Continued)

Tasha'ssecondaryaudience,Arthur,thedirectorofcorporatemarketingandsales,doesntknowherwell.Shethinksthatpositioningherselfandherdepartmentascostcutterswillmakeafavorableimpressiononhim.

Inreality,Tashasfeelingsdomotivateher.Theplightofheroverworkedandstressedemployeesisupsettingandsheispainedtoloseveteranreps(needlessly,inheropinion)thatshelikesandrespects.YetshespragmaticenoughtounderstandthatinthememohercharactershouldcomeacrossasanalyticalandmethodicaltogiveherabetterchanceofpersuadingDmitriandhissuperior.

SeeTasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3.Thestatementsthatdirectlyaffecttheaudience'sattitudetowardherarehighlighted.

Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3

Exercise:MatchingCharactertotheCommunicationSituation

TheEthicsofPersuasion

TheEthicsofPersuasion

Toconvinceanaudience,anindividualcanfudgedata,manipulatefeelings,andprojectafalsecharacter.Unfortunately,thesemisusesofpersuasionarealltoocommon,includinginbusiness.

Manypeoplearesuspiciousofpersuasion,regardingitasawaytowinoveranaudiencethroughdeceptionorpureemotion.Nonetheless,businesspeopleengageinpersuasioneverydaybecauseitstheartofthepractical:theuseoflanguagetogetthingsdone.Humanshaveengagedinitsinceweacquiredlanguage.

Persuasionissensitivetotheethicsofbothsidesofacommunication.Tashacouldusefalseormisleadingevidencetopersuade.Ontheotherhand,Dmitricouldclaimthatthereasonforthebacklogofcallsisnotunderstaffingbutthepoorperformanceofcallcenterrepsandusethatasanexcusetofirearephehasneverliked.Thepointisthatbothcommunicatorsandaudienceshaveethicalresponsibilities.

Wheneverpersuasionisused,ethicsareinplay.Speakerscanchangedatatosupporttheiropinion.Writerscanuseinflammatoryorexaggeratedlanguage.Bothcanmanipulateanaudiencebyexploitingabias.Yet,audiencesaren'thelpless.Theycanlistenorreadcritically.

Everyonehasopportunitiestoexploitcommunicationforthesakeofsomekindofperceivedadvantage.Whenindoubt,askyourselfwhatoutcomeisbestforyouandthecommongoodinthelongaswellastheshortrun.

OrganizingaMessage

OrganizingaMessageAnanalysisofacommunicationsituationtellsyouagreatdealaboutthemessageyouareplanning.Thatknowledgeinformswhatyoudonext:Createandorganizecontent.

InformativeCommunication

InformativeCommunication

Tocreateaninformativemessage,gathertheinformationnecessarytoaccomplishyourpurpose.Youalsoneedtounderstandtheinformation.Ifyoudonotunderstandsomeoralloftheinformation,takewhateveractionyouneedtomasterit.

Theguidingprincipleforinformativecommunicationistoincludeeverythingtheaudienceneedstoknowandnomore.Limitinginformationtotheessentialssoundsstraightforward,butthereisastrongtendencytothinkthatmoreinformationisbetterthanless.

Goodexamplesareanalystreportsonstocks.Thesereportsoftencontainanastonishingamountofinformation,suchaseighteenpagesonasinglebankstock,withfifteenexhibits,someofwhichfillapage.Butdistillingamassofinformationintoacompactpackagecanbedone.

Aleadingfinancialfirmrequiresthatinternalanalystreportswrittenforportfoliomanagersbenolongerthantwopages.Analystsidentifyandincludeonlytheinformationofgreatestvaluetotheaudienceofportfoliomanagerssuchinformationcouldincludeexpectedearningspersharegrowth,thestrengthofacompany'scoreproductsorservices,andlongtermpotentialforgrowth.

Example:InformingtheReps

TheITreportTashahasreceivedcoverssoftwarechangesmadeintheupdate.Herfirststepisextractingthecontentrelevanttocallcenterreps.Shefindsacoupleofchangestothesoftwarethatshedoesnotunderstandcompletely,soshesendsanemailtotheITpersonwhowrotethereportforclarification.

TashaleavesoutfarmoreoftheITreportthansheusesinhermemo.Butevenwiththereductionincontent,Tashahasmorefilteringtodo.Someofthechangestothesoftwareareminor,havinglittleeffectonthereps'work.Shedecidesnottoincludesuchchanges.Theycoulddistracttheaudienceor,worse,signalthatthecontenthasminimalworth.Theminorchangescanbecoveredquicklyinameeting.

AsTashaassemblesthecorecontentforhermemo,shefacesthecriticaldecisionofinformativecommunication:howtoorganizeittoachieveherpurpose.

InformationOrganizersInformationOrganizers

Aneffectivewriterorspeakerputsinformationinanorderthatbestfacilitatesaudiencecomprehension.

Manycommunicationsfailbecauseofpoororganization.Byputtingdowntheirthoughtsinanillogicalorder,writersleavethetaskoforganizingtoreaders.Nodoubtyouhavereceivedwritingthatisdisorganized.Doyourememberyourresponse?Mostreaderswillmakeanefforttounderstand,buteventuallytheyreachathresholdoffrustrationandquitreading.

Everybodyofinformationisunique,yettherearetwobroadcategoriesoforganizersthatcanhelp:

OrganicorganizersAnalyticorganizers

InformationOrganizers:OrganicInformationOrganizers:Organic

Organicorganizersarethosethatderivefromthenatureofthetopic.Asacommunicator,youreproducetheorganizationfortheaudience.Herearesomeofthemostcommontypesoforganiclogic:

OrganicOrganizer Definition Example

Physicalarrangement Arrangementofphysicaldetails.

Describetheorganizationofaproductionlineandexplainwhyitisorganizedthatway.

Chronology Timesequence Describethehistoryofaproductlineandexplaindecisionsthatshapeditshistory.

Process Seriesofstepsthatleadtoaspecificoutcome.

Describethestepsforenteringinformationintoacomputerdatabaseandexplaintherationalefortheorderofthesteps.

Hierarchy Structureofauthority,power,responsibility,orsimilarcharacteristicsofanorganization.

Describeanorganizationchartandexplainthereportingrelationships.

InformationOrganizers:AnalyticInformationOrganizers:Analytic

Sometimesinformationyouhavetocommunicatedoesnothaveanobviousstructure.Inthesesituations,useanalyticorganizers,inwhichyouorganizeinformationusingconceptsappropriatetothecontentandaudience.

Afrequentlyusedanalyticorganizerisorderofimportance.Atodolistarrangedfromthemostimportanttasktotheleastimportantisanexample.Soisasetofrecommendationsforimprovinganemployee'sperformancearrangedinpriorityorder.Anothercommontypeofanalyticorganizerislevelofdifficulty(basictoadvanced)andfrequency(highfrequencytolowfrequency).

Businessconceptsoftenserveasanalyticorganizers.Let'ssaythatyouhavenewemployeesonyourmarketingteamandwanttodescribethecurrentmarketingplanforaproduct.ThereisawelldefinedwayofcommunicatingamarketingplanthateveryMBAcandidatelearns:the4Ps(product,price,promotion,andplace).The4Psframeworkisaninstanceofanorganizertailormadeforaparticulartypeofinformation.

Herearesomeexamplesofanalyticorganization:

AnalyticOrganizer Definition Example

Importance Arrangebyvalue,worth,andurgency.Listofcriticalsafetypractices(mostimportanttoleastimportant).

Difficulty Arrangebylevelofdifficulty. Trainingmanualforoperationofmachine(basictoadvanced).

FrequencyArrangebythenumberofoccurrencesoveraperiodoftime.

Numberofmentionsofcompanyinvarioussocialmedia(hightolowfrequency).

Businessconcepts

Arrangebyorderofconceptsinabusinessmodel. Amarketingplanorganizedaroundthe4Ps.

Exercise:OrganizingInformation

Example:InformingtheReps

Tashahasalreadygivensomethoughttoorganizingthemessageaboutthenewsoftwarefeatures.Shecouldfollowanorganicorder:thesequenceofstepstherepstakewhentheyusethesoftwareforatypicalcustomercall.

Sherejectsthatorder.First,therepsknowtheprocessextremelywellanddon'thavetobetoldwhichfeatureappliestowhichstep.Second,theyhaveastrictstandardfortheirhighestlevelofattention:Doesitmakemylifeeasier?Ifitdoesnot,theytendtoignoretheinformation.

SoananalyticorganizerlookstoTashalikethebestbet:theorderofimportancetothereps.

ReadTasha'sinformativememoandanalyzetheorganization.Thenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.

Tasha'sInformativeMemo

PersuasiveArguments

PersuasiveArguments

Likeinformativecommunication,persuasivecommunicationrestsonthefoundationofawelldefinedpurposeandanunderstandingoftheaudience.Butpersuasionismorecomplicated.Thegoalofinformativecommunicationisaudiencecomprehensionofthecontent.Notsowithpersuasion:Communicatorsseektomotivateanaudiencetothink,feel,ordosomethingspecific.

Toinformanaudience,thecommunicatorjustgivesanaudiencethenecessaryfacts.Topersuadeanaudience,shenotonlyhastoprovidethefacts,shemustalsotellthemwhythefactsshouldpromptthemtothink,feel,oractinacertainway.

Asimpleexampleofthedifferenceinvolvesbeautyproducts.Informinganaudiencewhatproductsadrugstoreordepartmentstoresellsandwheretofindtheminthestoreisnotdifficult.Ontheotherhand,persuadingmembersofanaudiencetobuyspecificproductschallengesthemostskillfulmarketers.Consumerproductcompaniesspendbillionsofdollarsayeartoconvinceshopperstobuytheirproducts.

Businesscommunicationencompassesahugerangeofpersuasivecommunicationthatusesdifferentcombinationsofrationalargumentsandemotionalandcharacterbasedappeals.Reportsbyfinancialanalystsuseonlyrationalargumentstopersuadeclients,althoughbothemotionalandcharacterbasedappealsareimplicit.Areport,forexample,byawellregardanalystwilllikelycarrymoreweightwithanaudienceofinvestorsbecauseoftheanalyst'sperceivedcharacterasanexpert.Ontheotherhand,atelevisioncommercialforaperfumecanhavenorationalargumentatallanddependentirelyonanemotionalappealandcharacterbasedappeals.

Managementcommunication,however,dependsheavilyonrationalargumentsforavarietyofreasons,themostimportantofwhichisaudienceexpectations.Therefore,asfuturemanagersandleaders,youneedtoknowhowtobuildarguments.

Everyrealworldsituationthatcallsforpersuasiveargumentshasuniquecircumstances.However,threetypesofargumentsareextremelycommoninbusiness.

Thethreetypesofargumentsare:

DecisionEvaluationDiagnosis

Youwillbelearningtemplatesforeachtypeofargument.Insteadofviewingeveryargumentasoneofakind,withfewornosimilaritiestoanyotherargument,thetemplatestakeadvantageofelementscommontoeachtypeofargument.

Thesetemplatesarenotintendedtoreducethecomplexityofrealworldbusinessbuthelpyoutomanageit.Thetemplatesdonotaddresseverybusinesssituationforwhichanargumentisrequired,buttheyareusefulinmanysituations.

Example:YouNeedanArgument

ImaginethatyouworkforasoftwaredevelopmentcompanybasedinSingapore.OneofyourteamsprogramssoftwareforaroboticscompanyinCanada.Thatteamhascomeupwithaprogrammingapproachforaroboticmachinethatmakestheoperator'sjobmorestraightforward,thusreducingbothtrainingtimeandoperatorerrors.

Theresacatch,though.TheclientsengineersinCanadawillhavetoadapttheirprogrammingtothenewapproachyourteamhasdeveloped.Becausetheyareemployeesoftheclientcompany,theyhavemorepowerthanyoudo.ThemanageroftheCanadianengineerssaysyoumustpersuadehisengineerstoacceptthenewapproach.

Youhaveaclearpictureinyourmindofthebenefitsandthedatathatsubstantiatesthem.Buthowcanyouorganizethismaterialintoalogicalargument?Theprospectofwritingdownyourideas,tryingtofindthebestorganizationforthem,andpositioningthedatainthebestwaypossibledoesnotappealtoyou.Youreanengineer,afterall,notadebater.

Inthissituation,atemplateormodelfortheargumentwouldbehelpful.Itcouldguideyourthinkingaboutthecontentandstructureofapersuasiveargument.

DecisionArgumentsDecisionArguments

Inyourcareer,howlikelyisitthatyouwilladvocateadecision?Theanswerisverylikely.Managersfindthemselvesinthispositionallthetime.Becausebusinessisaboutaction,decisionsareessentialeventsinanyorganization.

Whenyouchoseyourlastjob,whatdidyouthinkabouttohelpmakethechoice?Youmighthaveconsideredthecompany,thesalary,thejobdescription,theboss,andthechancesofpromotion.Ifyouacceptedthejob,youmadeaconvincingargumenttoyourselfthatitwastherightdecision.

InthefilmTheDarkKnight,Batmanfacesachoice:killTheJokerornot.Tomakethedecision,hecouldusethesecriteria:

BenefitstoGothamEthicsThelawHiscareerasasuperhero

Criteriaarepivotalwhenyouargueadecision.Ifyouarentsureofthecriteria,thereasoningforyourrecommendationwillbeunfocusedandconfused.Theothercrucialcomponentofadecisionargumentisevidence.Whenyouapplythecriteria,youhavetoshowtheaudiencestrongevidencethatclearlysupportsyourrecommendeddecision.

Exercise:KillTheJoker?

Close

ResetExercise

DecisionArgumentTemplate

Althoughtherearemanywaystostructureanargumentaboutadecision,atemplatecanhelpyougetstarted.Thisapproachissimilartolearninghowtocook.Novicesstartwitharecipe.Theylearntheingredientsandfollowtherecipestepbystep,asitiswritten.Astheybecomemoreskilled,cookscanvarytherecipeordevisetheirown.Thistemplateandthetwoothersthatfollowarelikerecipesforarguments.

Briefcase:DecisionArgumentTemplate

TemplateSection DescriptionStateDecision Thedecisionthatneedstobemade

StateDecisionOptions ThedifferentoptionsforthedecisionStateRecommendation TheoptionyoubelieveisbestStateCriteria ThecriteriayouusetomakethedecisionProveDecision TheevidencesupportingthedecisionCriterion1 SupporttheproposeddecisionwithevidencebasedonthefirstcriterionCriterion2 SupporttheproposeddecisionwithevidencebasedonthesecondcriterionCriterion3 ContinuetheproofwiththeremainingcriteriaRebutOtherOptions Showwhytheotheroptionsarenotasgoodastherecommendedone

Example:PlanningaMessageAboutaDecision

Ananalystispreparingareportaboutastockshefollows,GrowthWare.ThecurrentratingisaHoldandshewantstoconvinceinvestorstobuy.Hereisthetemplatesheusestoplanherreport.

TemplateSection DescriptionStateDecision Bestuseofinvestorscapital

StateDecisionOptionsBuyHoldSell

StateRecommendation BuyGrowthWare

StateCriteriaEarningspershare(EPS)StrengthofcurrentbusinessLongtermgrowthpotential

ProveDecisionEarningspershare(EPS) EPSlowinhistoricalterms

Strengthofcurrentbusiness

UniquevaluepropositionWeakcompetitors

LongtermgrowthpotentialBasebusinessgrowingwithnewproductreleasesNewbusinesshasgreatpotential

RebutOtherOptionsHold YouwillmissadditionalgainbydoingnothingSell Youwillmissvaluetoberealizedinnexttwotothreeyears

Exercise:InvestinaWindFarm?

Example:PersuadingDmitri

Tashausesthedecisionargumenttemplatetoorganizeherpersuasivememo.

TemplateSection DescriptionStateDecision Improvecallcenter

StateDecisionOptionsStatusquoHireparttimerepsHirefulltimereps

StateRecommendation Hirefulltimereps

StateCriteriaTurnoverCostsServicequality

ProveDecision

Turnover

100%higherthisyearExperiencedrepsleavingCauseisoverworkMoreSpanishlanguagecustomers

Cost 17%increaseinourtotalbudgetTurnoveraccountsformostoftheincrease

Servicequality Fourmetricsindicatedecline:callersputonhold,abandonedcalls,averagecalllength,andcustomercomplaints.RebutOtherOptionsStatusquo CurrentproblemswillbecomeworseHireparttimerepsforcallcenter Parttimerepstakealongtimetotrain,willendupcostingmorethanfulltimereps

ReadTasha'sdecisionmemoandanalyzetheorganizationoftheargument.Thenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.Oneparagraphhasbeenaddedtothebasicorganizationofadecisionargument.Whatisitspersuasivefunction?

Tasha'sDecisionMemo

EvaluationArgumentsEvaluationArguments

Asecondtypeofpersuasiveargumentisassessmentorevaluation.Theexampleyoumaybemostfamiliarwithistheperformanceevaluation.Otherexamplesaretheevaluationofapotentialinvestmentbyaprivateequityfirmandabankreportratingaloanapplication.

Youmakeevaluationsinyourpersonallife.Youhaveprobablyspenttimeevaluatingdifferentbrandsandmodelsofcellphones.Youmaynothavethoughtofcharacteristicslikeprice,appearance,screensize,andtouchscreenversusaphysicalkeyboardascriteria,butthatispreciselytheroletheyservedforyou.

Exercise:HowtoChooseanIdol

Close

I'mFinishedResetExercise

EvaluationArgumentTemplate

Thekeystoanevaluationareusinganappropriatesetofcriteria,fullyapplyingthemtothesubjectoftheevaluation,andmakingareasonableoverallevaluationbasedonthecriteriaresults.

Intherealworld,evaluationsrarelyareallpositiveorallnegative.Applyingcriteriameansrecognizingboththenegativesandthepositives.Forinstance,whenabankerevaluatesapotentialloan,criteriaaregoingtoshowbothstrengthsandweaknesses.

Theoverallevaluationrequiresjudgment.Foraloanapplication,isthebalancesheetorcredithistorymoreimportant?Othercriteriacanhelp,butjudgmentisstillrequired.

Briefcase:EvaluationArgumentTemplate

TemplateSection DescriptionStateSubjectofEvaluation

Whatorwhoisbeingevaluatedandonwhatterms

StateCriteria ThecriteriayouusefortheevaluationStateOverallEvaluation YourbottomlineevaluationofthesubjectProvetheEvaluation Theevidencesupportingthedecision

Criterion1 Evaluatesubjectwithevidencebasedonthefirstcriterion.Mayfindnegatives,positives,orboth.

Criterion2 Evaluatesubjectwithevidencebasedonthesecondcriterion.Mayfindnegatives,positives,orboth.Criterion3 Continueproofontheremainingcriteria

Example:PlanninganEvaluation

AHongKongventurecapitalfirmhasevaluatedputtingmoneyintoatechnologystartup.Seetheresultsbelow.

StateSubjectofEvaluation Technologystartupinrobotics.

StateCriteria

MarketProductCompetitionManagementteamFinancialsIntangibles

StateOverallEvaluation

Investmentisnotrecommended.Market,product,andcompetitionarepositive,butthemanagementteamisweakandtheinvestmentistoolargefortherisk.

ProvetheEvaluationMarket +Willgrowrapidlyinthenextfewyears

Product +GoodpotentialtomeetneedUnanswereddesignquestions

Competition +NonenowWilldevelopquicklyManagementteam

NooperatingexperiencetospeakofDontappreciatewhattheydontknow

Financials UnrealisticprojectionsLargeinvestmentrequired

Intangibles+SavvyengineersNavemanagers

Exercise:SizingupTabletComputers

Example:EvaluatingtheCallCenter

AssumethatTashastaskhaschanged.Dmitrihasaskedhertogivehimanupdateontheperformanceofthecallcenter.Soinsteadofadvocatingadecision,shewritesanevaluationargument.

Thefactbasefortheevaluationisthesameastheoneforthedecisionargument.Butitisusedasevidenceforevaluatingtheperformanceofthecallcenter.

TashausestheEvaluationArgumentTemplatetoorganizeherargument:

TemplateSection MyMemoSubjectofEvaluation Performanceofcallcenter

StateCriteriaServicequalityFinancialsHumanresources

ProvetheEvaluation

Servicequality+Currentlevelishigh

Qualityisdeclining

Financials+Newcostreductions

Overbudgetby$300K

Humanresources+Coreofexperiencedreps

Turnoverunsustainable

ReadTashasmemoandnoticehowtheargumenthaschanged.Analyzehowitisorganizedandthenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.

Tasha'sEvaluationMemo

DiagnosisArgumentsDiagnosisArguments

Tounderstanddiagnosis,thinkofadoctor.Whenyouaresick,yougotoadoctor,whoasksforthesymptomsyouareexperiencing,examinesyou,andpossiblyorderstests.Thedoctorseeksadiagnosisthatbestaccountsforhisorherobservationsandprescribesacourseofactiontoimprovethecondition.

Therearemanyoccasionsinbusinesswhenaproblemneedstobediagnosed.In2009,anabnormallyhighnumberofincidentsofunintendedaccelerationinvolvingToyotavehicleswerereported.Toyotainvestigatedandfoundthatbesidesdrivererror,twoothercauseswereresponsible:stickypedalsandincorrectlyinstalledfloormats.Thefindingsledthemtorecallaffectedcarsandrepairthem.

Lessdramaticdiagnosesoccurinbusinesseseveryday,fromunderstandingwhyyourofficeprinterisn'tworkingtowhyaprojectisstalled.

Adiagnosticargumentisexplanatory.Itisneededwhenasituationoroutcomeneedsacausalexplanation,liketheexamplesjustcited.

DiagnosisArgumentTemplate

TemplateSection DescriptionDefinetheProblem DescriptionofthemajorsymptomsoftheproblemtobediagnosedSummarizetheCauses BriefdescriptionofeachofthemajorcausesoftheproblemProvetheCauses TheevidencesupportingthediagnosisCause1 UseevidencetoshowhowthefirstcausecontributestotheproblemCause2 UseevidencetoshowhowthesecondcausecontributestotheproblemCause3 Continueproofoftheremainingcauses

Tomakeanaccuratediagnosis,useconceptsandknowledgerelevanttotheproblem,alongwithexperienceandcommonsense.Toexplainthefinancialcrisisof2008,analystsusedanarrayofconceptssuchasmicroandmacroeconomics,theoperationofspecificmarkets,andpsychology.

Briefcase:DiagnosisArgumentTemplate

Example:PlanningaDiagnosis

TheoperationsmanagerofamultinationalcompanyinEuropehasbeenvexedbycustomercomplaintsaboutlatedeliveries.Todiagnosetheproblem,heandhisteambrokeitdownintoproduction,inventory,warehouseoperations,anddeliverytothecustomer.Aninvestigationfoundthreemajorcauses,oneofwhichsurprisedeveryone.

Heplanstomeetwithtopexecutivesaboutthefindingsandorganizeshistalkusingadiagnostictemplate:

TemplateSection DescriptionDefinetheProblem Highnumberofcustomercomplaintsaboutlateproductdeliveries

SummarizetheCauses

Delaysinreplenishinginventory

Useofwarehousefortraining

UnusualnumberofweathereventsdelayingdeliveriesProvetheCausesDelaysinreplenishinginventory

Manufacturingdelaysresultedinslowerreplenishmentofinventoryofafewhighvolumeproducts

Useofwarehousefortraining

Unusualturnoverandretirementsamongforkliftoperators

UseofwarehousetotrainnewoperatorsinterferedwithfulfillmentUnusualnumberofweathereventsdelayingdeliveries

Severewinterandspringweathersloweddowntruckandairdeliveries

Exercise:DiagnosingtheSuccessofaZoo

Example:DiagnosingtheCallCenter

AssumethatTasha'staskhaschangedagain.Thistime,Dmitrihasaskedhertodiagnosewhycallcentercostshaveincreased.Insteadofadvocatingadecisionorevaluatingthecallcenter'sperformance,shewritesadiagnosticargument.

Thefactbaseforthediagnosisisthesameastheoneforthedecisionandevaluationarguments.ButTashawilluseitasevidenceofcausesfortheincreaseincosts.

ReadTasha's"DiagnosisMemoandnoticehowtheargumenthaschanged.Analyzehowthememoisorganizedandthenmovethecursoroverthetextofthememoforexplanations.

Tasha'sDiagnosisMemo

PlanningCommunication:Memos

PlanningCommunication:MemosTasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version1Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version2Tasha'sPersuasiveMemo,Version3Tasha'sInformativeMemoTasha'sDecisionMemoTasha'sEvaluationMemoTasha'sDiagnosisMemo

TemplatesandChecklists

TemplatesandChecklistsChecklist:AnalyzingaCommunicationSituationChecklist:CommunicationChannelCharacteristicsTemplateDefined:DecisionArgumentTemplateDefined:EvaluationArgumentTemplateDefined:DiagnosisArgument

BlankTemplatesforPlanning

Template:PlanningaDecisionArgumentTemplate:PlanninganEvaluationArgumentTemplate:PlanningaDiagnosisArgument

PlanningCommunication:ExamIntroduction

PlanningCommunication:ExamIntroductionThistestwillallowyoutoassessyourknowledgeofPlanningCommunication.

Allquestionsmustbeansweredforyourexamtobescored.

Navigation:Toadvancefromonequestiontothenext,selectoneoftheanswerchoicesor,ifapplicable,completewithyourownchoiceandclickthe"Submit"button.Aftersubmittingyouranswer,youwillnotbeabletochangeit,somakesureyouaresatisfiedwithyourselectionbeforeyousubmiteachanswer.Youmayalsoskipaquestionbypressingtheforwardadvancearrow.Pleasenotethatyoucanreturnto"skipped"questionsusingthe"Jumptounansweredquestion"selectionmenuorthenavigationalarrowsatanytime.Althoughyoucanskipaquestion,youmustnavigatebacktoitandansweritallquestionsmustbeansweredfortheexamtobescored.

Yourresultswillbedisplayedimmediatelyuponcompletionoftheexam.

Aftercompletion,youcanreviewyouranswersatanytimebyreturningtotheexam.

GoodLuck!

WritinginBusinessWritingskillsarefundamentalinbusiness.Itsincreasinglyimportanttobeabletoconveycontentinatight,logical,directmanner,particularlyinafastpacedtechnologicalenvironment.

Respondent,Writing:ATickettoWork...oraTicketOut:ASurveyofBusinessLeaders1

Introduction

IntroductionThismoduleaddresseseffectivebusinesswriting.Whyshouldyoubeconcernedaboutyourwritingskills?Aren'tpresentationsandotherfacetofacecommunicationmoreimportantthanwriting?

AccordingtoasurveyoflargeU.S.companies,thejobsoftwothirdsofmanagementlevelemployeesincludesignificantwritingsuchasemails,presentations,technicalreports,formalreports,andmemos.

Eightypercentormoreofcompaniesinthefinancialsector(includinginsuranceandrealestate)andaslightlysmallerpercentageintherestoftheserviceindustryconsiderwritingintheirhiringdecisions.

Considerthesequotesfromcorporaterecruiters:1

Poorlywrittenapplicationmaterialswouldbeextremelyprejudicial.Suchapplicantswouldnotbeconsideredforanyposition.

Inmostcases,writingabilitycouldbeyourticketin...oritcouldbeyourticketout.

Thinkaboutyourownworkexperience.Howmuchtimedidyouspendreadingandwritingemailsandattachments,texts,wikientries,memos,andreports?DidyouuseInternetcommunicationlikeTwitterforbusiness?DidyouusetextsandInstantMessagingforwork?

Chancesarethatyouspentmoretimewritingthanyourealized.

WritingIsGettingMoreImportant

WritingIsGettingMoreImportant

Ironically,moderndigitalmediatendtorelyonaveryoldmeansofcommunicating:writing.

In2011,1.88billionpeoplewereusingemailworldwide,sending32billionlegitimateemails(notspam)perday.Inthatyear,25billionTweetsweresentonTwitter,andFacebookhad600millionusers.

In2011,businessusershandledanaverageof110emailmessagesaday.Theysentabout36messagesadayor180perweek.Eventhoughmanymessagesmightbeshort,emailaloneaccountsforsignificantwritingtimeeachday.Addinmemos,reports,texts,andTweets,andthevolumeofwritingbecomesamajorpartof

amanager'sworkload.

Globalizationhasaddedtothewritingbusinesspeopledo.

Workteamsareoftenscatteredthroughouttheworld.Membersmayrarelyornevermeetfacetoface.Duetotimedifferencesandotherobstacles,theycarryonmuchoftheircommunicationinwriting.Skillinwritingnowhasacentralroleinhowwellpeopleworktogether.

CommunicationChallengesintheFuture

Thedigitalageofbusinessneedsgoodwriters.

AlthoughEnglishhasbecomethecommonlanguageofinternationalbusiness,differencesintheculturalnormsofaudiencescomplicatecommunicationacrossborders.Awrittenreportthatseemslaboriousandoverlyformaltomembersofaglobalteaminonecountrymaystriketeammembersfromanotheraswellpacedandrespectful.

Communicationskillsnowmustincorporatesomeawarenessofhowaudiencesdifferaccordingtoculture.Inthiscourse,theexamplesandexercisesincludecrossculturalissues.

WritingClarifiesandPreservesThinking

WritingClarifiesandPreservesThinking

Thetranscriptofaspontaneousconversationtypicallycontainsmanyverbalstumbles,pauses,falsestarts,gapsinlogic,unfinishedthoughts,andunexplainedreferences.

Althoughpeopledomanagetounderstandoneanother,oralspeechisn'twellsuitedforcommunicatinglargequantitiesofinformationorextendedthinkingonacomplicatedtopic,asinareportonfuturemarketopportunitiesforacompany.Also,oncesomethingisspoken,it'sgoneunlesswewriteitdown.Ourmemoryoforalcontentsimplyisn'treliable.

Writingenablespeopletopreservetheirthinking,animportantfunctioninbusiness.Muchofacompanysinstitutionalmemoryresidesinwrittendocumentssuchasanemployeehandbookorfieldreportsontroubleshootingequipment.Whensomeonestartsanewjob,heorsheisoftenhandedastackofdocumentsandreferredtowrittenresourcesonthecompanyintranet.

TheWritingProcess

TheWritingProcessWemayhaveaninnatecapacityforlanguageandspeaking,butwedontseemtohavethatkindofcapacityforwriting.Nearlyeveryonelearnstotalkandcanspeakwithease,butwritingisdifferent.Puttingourthoughtsintowritingthatisreadilyunderstoodbyotherstakesmoreeffortthanspeaking.

Someresearchonworkplacewritingindicatesthatexperiencedwritersuseaconsciousprocessforwritingwhileinexperiencedwritersdon't.Thedifferenceshowsupinthefinishedproductsforonething,thewritingofexperiencedwritersisoftenmorelogicallyorganizedthanthewritingofnovices.

Anotherstudysoughttolearnwhetheragroupofengineeringgraduatesusedthewritingprocesstheyhadbeentaughttoworkplacewriting.Theydid.Infact,theyfounditindispensableforwrittencommunication.

Thisevidenceconfirmsthatstudyofthewritingprocessisntanacademicexercise.Theprocesscanbeapracticaltoolformanagers.

Everywriterhasapersonalwritingprocess.Reflectingonhowyouwrite,asopposedtowhatyouwrite,canmakeyourprocessmorereliableandefficient.

Howdoyouwrite?Describetheprocesstoyourself.Doyouhavetroublegettingstarted?Areyouawareofpointsintheprocesswhereyoustruggle?Thefollowingexplanationofthewritingprocessincludesdiscussionofprocessproblemsthatmakewritingharderthanitshouldbe.

Writerstypicallyhavemessyprocessesthatjumpfromoneactivitytoanotherinunpredictablepatterns.However,experiencedwritersuseamethodtocontrolthemessiness.Theythinkofthewritingprocessasfourinterconnectedactivities:

Butevenexperiencedwritersdon'tnecessarilymovefromactivitytoactivityinastraightline.Theymay,forexample,discoverwhilerevisingthatthedraftneedsmorecontent.Theythengobacktoaltertheirwritingplanandresearchthecontent.Orwhileeditingandcorrecting,theymayrealizefurtherrevisionsneedtobemade.

Preparing

Preparing

Preparingconsistsofdoingresearch(ifnecessary),definingyourpurpose,understandingtheaudience,andorganizingyourthinkinginawritingplan.Youfollowthewritingplantocreatethefirstdraft.

Theproductofpreparingisawritingplanyoucanfollowforthefirstdraft.

Somewritersdispensewiththepreparingstage.Theycomposetheirthoughtsandarrangethemastheygo.Theapproachcanworkwellforwriterswhoknowtheirsubjectextremelywellandhavewrittenaboutitbefore.Theyalreadyhavelogicaltemplatesintheirmemoriesthattheycanapply.

Thedownsideofthisapproachisthatitasksyourbraintodotwodifficulttasksatonce:Putyourthoughtsintowritingandarrangetheminalogicalorder.Youmayhaveexperiencedthestresscausedbyaskingtoomuchofyourbrain.Tofreemoreworkingmemorywhenyouwrite,firstplanwhatyouaregoingtosay.

ResearchandNotesResearchandNotes

Preparingfrequentlybeginswithresearchandnotetaking.Physicaldocuments,thecompanyintranet,onlinedatabases,andthewebcanfurnishvastquantitiesofinformation.Paradoxically,theaccessibilityofsomuchinformationbothfacilitatescommunicationandhampersit.Theinformationcanprovidecompellingevidenceforanargument,butitcanalsoleadtoinformationoverloadthatparalyzesthought.

Everyoneinbusinessexperiencessomedegreeofinformationoverload.Tolimititwhenwriting,usepurposeandaudiencetosetboundariesontheinformationyouneedforamessage.Forexample,ifyouarewritingareportonwhyphonecallsaredeclininginimportance,youwouldrestrictyourresearchtoinformationthatdocumentsthedeclineandhelpsidentifythecauses.

Notescanbeusedformorethanrecordinginformation.Theycanbeadialogwithyourmaterial.Youcanwritedownquestionsyouneedtoanswerwithresearchorinthemessageyouwillwrite.Youcancapturepointstoincludeinthewritingandbegintomapoutanorganization.

Becausemostwritingisdoneoncomputers,youcantakeadvantageofsoftwareforwebresearchsuchasEvernote,Ubernote,ZohoNotebook,andMemonic.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism

AccordingtotheCouncilofWritingProgramAdministrators,plagiarismoccurswhenawriterdeliberatelyusessomeoneelse'slanguage,ideas,orotheroriginal(notcommonknowledge)materialwithoutacknowledgingitssource.

Plagiarismviolatesatrustwiththeaudience.Unlessinformedbyasourc