Management Accounting Made Easy

Managerial Accounting and Control Made Easy (MACME) – Prof. K.S.Ranjani

[MACME]

Session Plan for MAC II

Module 1 COST ACCOUNTING BASICS

Session 1 IntroductionReading(s) 1. Basics of Cost Accounting (MACME) 2. Breezy Boat Company(MAC)

Session 2 Cost terms, purpose& approachReading(s) Classification of Cost(MACME)Case Cost classification exercise (IIMA/F&A 377)

Session 3 Break Even AnalysisReading(s) Break Even Analysis(MACME)“Do you know where your "break even" point is?” By John H. Nardozzi, CPA“Using Break-Even Analysis to Determine Your Company’s Financial Health”Arthur F. Rothberg, Managing Director, CFO Edge, LLCCase: The Craddock Cup(MAC)

Module 2 COSTING SYSTEMS &METHODS

Session 4 Absorption CostingReading(s) Absorption Costing(MACME)Case Class Exercise(MACME)

Session 5 Job Costing and Process CostingReading(s) Job Costing and Process Costing(MACME)Wendy’s Chili: A costing Conundrum(MAC)

Session 6 Activity Based CostingReadings: Activity Based Costing(MACME)Case: Classic Pen Company: Developing an ABC Model (HBS/9-198-117)

Session 7 Activity Based Management and use of ABC in service industriesReading(s) ABM (MACME)Activity Based Costing at UPS2. Activity Based Costing & Capacity (HBS/9-105-059)Case Wilkerson Co (HBS/9-101-092)

This material is prepared by Prof.K.S.Ranjani for PGP/RAK MAC-II at IIM Indore Page 2

[MACME]

Session 8 Cost allocation and Customer ProfitabilityReading(s) Activity Based Costing(MACME)

Case Dakota Office Products(HBS/9-102-021)

Module 3 COST ANALYSIS FOR DECISION MAKING

Session9 In-sourcing and Outsourcing decision analysisReading(s) Marginal Costing and Decision Analysis(MACME)Case Fine print Company(A),(B) and (C)

Session 10 Product mix decisions with capacity constraintsReadings(s) Marginal Costing and Decision Analysis(MACME)Case Moti Heera (P) Ltd (A) & (B) (IIMA/QM0003(A & B))

Session 11 Pricing and cost managementReading(s) Pricing and Cost Management(MACME)Case Mridula Ice Cream Parlour (A) (IIMA/F&A 0315(A))

Session 12 Target costing & life cycle cost managementReading(s) Target costing & life cycle cost management(MACME)

2. Achieving Full Cycle Cost management (SMR 153, Fall 2004)Case Toyota Motor Company: Target Costing (HBS/9-197-031)

Module 4 BUDGETING & VARIANCE ANALYSIS

Session 13 Standard Costs and BudgetsReading(s) Standard Costs and Budgets(MACME)Case Wilmont Chemical Corporation(MAC)

Session 14 Variance AnalysisReading(s) Variance Analysis and Flexible Budget(MACME)2. Variance Analysis and Flexible Budget (HBS/9-101-039)Case Entertainment now.com(MAC)

Session 15 Wrap-up* * *


[MACME]


[MACME]

1. BASICS OF COST ACCOUNTING

Cost:

“A unit of product or service in relation to which costs are ascertained”

Meaning of cost:

Cost is the resource foregone in order to receive anything of value.

Definition of Cost

CIMA (Chartered Institute of Management Accountants) defines cost as follows:“the amount of expenditure(actual or notional) incurred on or attributable to a specified thing or activity”.

Cost Unit

Costs need not always be incurred on output units. It can be incurred on hourly basis, it can be incurred on an activity, a department etc. Therefore a cost unit is any unit with respect to which cost can be ascertained. For example, in an aircraft, cost can be incurred per passenger and in a bottle manufacturing unit, it could be ascertained per bottle.

Composite cost units

Sometimes costs need not be incurred on a single output function, but could be a combination of two or more functions. For a tour operator, the cost could be calculated for a passenger mile, for a hotel it could be per guest per night.

Cost Centre

Cost centre refers to the point of accumulation of cost. A cost centre is a part of the company that does not generate any profit for the company, but they add cost to the company. The manager of a cost centre incurs costs and the centre is evaluated on how well they control their costs (Horngren, Sundem, Stratton, and Burgstahler, Schatzberg, 2008). Unlike what the term sounds like, it has no reference to a physical place, it is an activity or set of activities that create costs. For example, an administrative office is a cost centre. An Engineering or product development function is a cost centre. This is because, performing that activity results in costs being incurred.


[MACME]

Other examples of cost centre are employees, support functions in an organisation and any other activity where costs can be meaningfully accumulated.

Cost pool

Costs are assembled into meaningful groups called cost pools (e.g., by type of cost or source). Similar activities that can be grouped together usually makes a cost pool. For example, repairs and maintenance of equipment is a cost pool. Quality control costs and inspection costs can be combined into a single cost pool.

Cost Driver

Any factor that has the effect of changing the level of total cost is called a cost driver. For example, number of machine hours worked will affect the equipment maintenance cost. Therefore machine hours is a cost driver for equipment maintenance.


[MACME]

2. Classification of Cost

Cost can be classified on the basis of nature, behavior , traceability, inventoriability, controllability and marginality.

On the basis of nature of cost, we can classify cost as follows:

Material Cost :

Cost incurred to obtain material and receive them within the organization. The cost of having them brought into the organization is called carriage inwards.

Labour costs are those that are incurred in respect to salaries and wages together with related employment costs

Overheads or indirect costs:

Broadly classified into:

Factory or manufacturing overheads

Office or administrative overheads

Selling and distribution overheads

Manufacturing overheads can be further sub divided into indirect material costs, indirect labour and indirect expenses.

Indirect Material

Indirect Labour

Production overheads

Administration and selling overheads

On the basis of behaviour of cost with respect to volume, we can classify cost as follows:

Fixed costs are those that remain constant within a level of activity


[MACME]

Variable costs are those that vary as a function of output

Mixed costs are those costs which vary partly on account of output and partly remain constant

Step costs vary with the cost driver but do so in steps

A word of caution :

Fixed costs need not be FIXED..It does not vary as a function of output- eg rent is a fixed cost. Rent could alter because of increase in floor space, rising cost of real estate, but, not because we produce more number of units. Hence, please note that fixed do not vary as a function of output, but could vary due to other factors.

On the basis of traceability, cost can be classified as follows:

Direct and indirect cost:

Direct costs are those costs that can be related to a unit of output or to a cost object (example- product, division, department etc)

All costs that are not direct costs are called indirect costs

On the basis of inventoriability cost can be classified as follows:

Inventoriable and Period costs:

Costs that are assets when they are incurred and become expenses as they are consumed are called as inventoriable costs

Period costs are those that are incurred as a function of a period of time

On the basis of Controllability cost can be classified as:

Controllable and Uncontrollable costs:

Controllable costs are those that can be controlled at a responsibility centre

Uncontrollable costs are those that are incurred at a responsibility centre, but cannot be controlled at the level of that responsibility centre


[MACME]

Marginality

Marginal and Absorption cost:

The additional cost to produce an additional unit is called as marginal cost

Marginal costing is formally defined as:

‘the accounting system in which variable costs are charged to cost units and the fixedcosts of the period are written-off in full against the aggregate contribution. Its specialvalue is in decision making’

Absorption Cost:

The cost that includes all direct costs as well as the absorbed overheads in the cost is called as absorption cost or full cost

The basic difference between the two costs is that under marginal costing the stock is valued at variable cost, whereas, under absorption costing, stock is valued at marginal cost and a proportion of manufacturing fixed overheads

The following is an illustration of how entire costs of a product are factored into a cost sheet:

Particulars Amount AmountDirect material 100Direct labour 50Direct expenses 10PRIME COST 160Production overheadIndirect material 10Indirect labour 15Indirect expenses 35 60FACTORY COST/PRODUCTION COST 220Selling Distribution and Administration overhead

30

COST OF GOODS SOLD 250SELLING PRICE 300


[MACME]

PROFIT 50

Case Cost classification exercise (IIMA/F&A 377) will be part of this session

3. Break even Analysis

Meaning

Break even analysis occupies an important place in economic theory. It analyses the relationship between cost of production, revenue and profit.

Breakeven point is that point at a particular level of output at which total revenue is equal to total cost. It implies a no profit no loss zone. At this point, the firm neither makes a profit nor loss. Here, total revenue is exactly equal to total cost.

Definition

According to Matz, Curry and Frank” A break even analysis indicates at what level of output cost and revenue are in equilibrium”

Elements of Break even analysis

Fixed costs:

It is a cost incurred even at zero production. Fixed costs do not change with the change in the quantity of output. For example, rent, insurance, research and development etc.

Variable cost:

These expenses vary directly with the level of output. For example, labor cost, raw materials etc.

Contribution Margin

The revenue net of variable expenses is called as contribution margin. The contribution margin is available to cover fixed expenses of a business.

Break even Point

When the contribution margin covers the fixed cost, it is called as break even point-that is, the sales that generates just enough contribution to cover the fixed cost. At this point the firm makes neither profit nor loss.

Margin of Safety


[MACME]

The sales achieved over and above the Break even Sales is called Margin of Safety. It is expressed as Actual Sales-Break even sales.

A Break Even Chart is shown below for better understanding:

Illustration 1

A German Biscuit Company plans to sell 50000 units at Rs. 20 per unit. They incur a fixed cost of Rs.80000 and variable cost Rs.10 per unit. Calculate breakeven point in sales, and margin of safety and profit.

Solution:

BEP in sales = FC/ CM ratio

CM ratio or the Contribution Margin ratio is calculated as Contribution/Sales and is usually expressed as percentage.

CM ratio = 1000000 – 500000/1000000 = 50%

BEP in sales = 80000/ 50% = 160000

Margin of safety = Sales – BEP in sales

= 1000000 – 160000


[MACME]

= 840000

Contribution = Sales – Variable cost

= 1000000 – 500000

= 500000

Profit = contribution – Fixed cost

Profit = 500000 – 80000

= 420000

Explanation: The breakeven point in sales, margin of safety and profit calculation depends upon the number of units, fixed cost and variable cost.

The breakeven point in sales, margin of safety and profit will change if there is a change in any of these variables.

Readings

DO YOU KNOW WHERE YOUR "BREAK EVEN" POINT IS?

by

John H. Nardozzi, CPANardozzi Consulting, LLC

Is your business profitable? Most oilheat dealers can answer that question with a fair degree ofaccuracy-for last year. You know how the numbers added up, and whether or not the ink on thebooks was black or red. But what about this year? Are you making money now? How manygallons will you have to sell this year before you turn a profit? At what price? Knowing your "break even" point is a relatively uncomplicated yet important business planning tool. Having an idea of when your costs will be covered and profits begin can help you make better purchasing decisions, and is a vital part of the price setting process. There is a way to determine your break even point without consulting a crystal ball or palm reader.Through a simple analysis of three key factors, you can know what it will take this year for your company to make money. The first factor is the number of gallons you expect to sell this season. Analyzing your company's past history and factoring in predicted weather patterns will provide a fairly accurate gauge of what you'll be delivering this year. Your state oilheat dealers association can help you with degree day estimates and weather history. By determining how many customers you expect to have this year, and the average use per customer, you can come up with a total gallons figure.


[MACME]

The next factor is your margin per gallon. Like all retailers, oilheat dealers continually struggle with pricing. The object is to price your product - in this case, a gallon of heating oil - low enough to be competitive, yet as high as possible to make the maximum profit. Too often, this becomes an exercise in hand wringing, guesswork and gut reaction. Worse, many oilheat dealers simply copy the next guy up the Yellow Pages list, without regard to the differences in the two businesses. It need not be that way. Our break even analysis can help make this decision more clear cut.The third factor in our break even equation is overhead (administration) costs. Again, an examination of your overhead costs (including payroll, rent, equipment, interest payments, insurance, taxes, etc.) from previous years will provide an indication of what your expected overhead will be for the upcoming season. We do not include the cost of product (oil) or owner'ssalary in this analysis.At this point you have the information available to establish your break even point for two criticalareas: gross margin and minimum gallons. Your break even point comes when total overhead cost is met by total gross margin. How would this work in practice? What are you trying to establish? First, you want to know how many gallons you need to sell at your expected margin in order to break even. Second, you want to determine the minimum margin you need to achieve when you sell the expected gallons so that you will cover costs.Let's take a simple set of facts. Your company expects to sell five million gallons, and your grossmargin (sale price less the cost of product and delivery) is targeted at 30¢ per gallon. Finally, your overhead/administrative expenses run about $1 million.

BREAK EVEN GALLONS - If you divide your overhead expenses ($1 million) by your targetedmargin ($0.30), you establish the minimum number of gallons you need to sell before you showany profit. In our example, this would be 3,333,000 gallons ($1 million ÷ $0.30). This tells you that the margin on every gallon after 3,333,000 goes directly to the bottom line of the company.

BREAK EVEN MARGIN - Here we are trying to establish the smallest margin you can get awaywith for all five million gallons you expect to sell. Once this level is set, you'll know that everypenny added to the margin goes directly to the bottom line. If you divide your overhead/administrative expenses ($1 million) by your total expected gallons (5 million) you show that your minimum margin per gallon is $0.20.In our analysis we do not include the owner's salary in the overhead expenses, as we considercompany profit and any salary drawn by the owner to be part of the overall benefit of ownership. In your analysis, you might decide to include some part of your salary in the calculation.This break even analysis is not complex. To be more accurate, we factor in degree days andmarket trends. But even in its simplest form, a break even analysis can be a powerful tool to help you plan your season's buying, and in determining a selling price for your product. You


[MACME]

have the information on hand to make this analysis, and should take the time to sit down with your financial officer or accountant to locate your own "break even" point.

USING BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE YOUR COMPANY’S FINANCIAL HEALTH

Arthur F. Rothberg, Managing Director, CFO Edge, LLC

Determining the break-even point is crucial to determining margins, which, in turn, aid in financialplanning for the next year. Break-even analysis determines both the minimum amount of sales required to avoid a loss or to “break-even” at the end of the fiscal year and permits you to adjust sales estimates accordingly. While there are a number of different variations on break-even analysis, they are all useful in determining the lower limits of profits for calculating margins. These variations are all dependent on a number of cost factors, which should be determined before attempting any kind of break-even analysis.Cost Components of Break-Even AnalysisBreak-even analysis is primarily dependent on a few key factors. First and foremost, it is necessary to have the capacity to accurately forecast your company’s costs and sales. The result will then bedependent on fixed costs, average per-unit variable costs, and per-unit revenue as allocated across the whole business. With these numbers, break-even analysis becomes a matter of simple math: Break-Even Point = Fixed Costs / (Unit Selling Price - Variable Costs).As mentioned, there are several types of costs that must be considered when conducting break-even analysis. Among these, the most relevant are fixed costs, which are those expenses that are the same regardless of the number of items sold. Fixed costs also generally would remain the same, even if the company discontinued all sales. The most common fixed costs are rent and insurance. The cost of maintaining corporate property would be the same, no matter the amount of product sold. However, labor should also be considered as a fixed cost, since replacing a skilled labor force is extremely difficult to do. In-place labor will usually not vary with moderate changes in volume.The other main category of cost to be considered while conducting break-even analysis is variablecosts. These are expenses that are based on the number of units processed. As such, they willfluctuate depending on the volume of the business. As the business and sales grow, variable costs will also increase. The most common variable costs are those pertaining to raw materials necessary for manufacturing products.The Margin of SafetyThe margin of safety is a notable outcome of break-even analysis as it is indicative of the strength of the business. For any level of sales, the margin of safety indicates specifically the


[MACME]

amount of sales dollars above or below the break-even point. In essence, this number makes it possible for the company to determine the exact amount of money it may have gained or lost during the period in question.

When sales are above the break-even point, then the margin of safety is positive, typically indicatingoverall gains. However, when sales are below the break-even point, then the margin of safety isconsidered negative, which indicates an overall loss for the period.

Contribution Margin AnalysisWhen conducting a break-even analysis, it is helpful to keep in mind the concept of Contribution Margin, which is defined as revenue less variable costs. Contribution margin differs from gross profit, as only variable costs are taken into account, whereas in gross profit analysis all costs of sales are considered.Typically a company’s optimal output lies where the contribution margin exceeds variable marginal cost, meaning that the revenue from selling a product exceeds the variable cost of production. However, if a lower price than normal is offered, all other factors being equal, that offer ought to be considered so long as the price still exceeds variable costs. Such a price, which still covers all variable costs, may yet be considered profitable since it will help to absorb any fixed costs. Only when the contribution margin is positive will any losses imbued through the acceptance of a lower offer be compensated through increases in the volume of sales.In SummaryBreak-even analysis is an exceptionally useful tool for assessing the state of the company’s finances. However, in order to successfully conduct break-even analysis, there are a few figures that must first beascertained:_ Fixed costs are those expenses that remain the same regardless of company success. They must be factored in when determining overall gains or losses._ Variable costs are also important to consider during break-even analysis. These are expenses that will fluctuate in accordance with company sales figures, such as primarily raw materials._ The margin of safety is a useful tool in the analysis process as it supports assessment of long-term investments._ Contribution margin analysis is an indispensable part of price setting, as it allows setting lower than normal price, especially when volume considerations are taken into account.The break-even process is invaluable in assessing the financial health of your company. Los Angeles CEOs and CFOs who feel that they do not have the internal expertise or bandwidth to conduct a breakeven analysis can benefit significantly from consulting with an outsourced CFO services firm. A professional services firm of this nature can lend their expertise to your financial analysis and provide an objective report for your use.

References and Further Reading


[MACME]

Chapter 11: Conventional Linear Cost Volume Profit Analysis; James R. Martin; ManagementAccounting: Concepts, Techniques, & Controversial Issueshttp://maaw.info/Chapter11.htm#The%20Margin%20of%20SafetyBreak-Even Analysis; Tim Berry; Business Know-How; 2003http://www.businessknowhow.com/startup/break-even.htmWhat is Process Analysis; University of Central Floridahttp://oeas.ucf.edu/process_analysis/what_is_pa.htm

Case: The Craddock Cup(MAC)

Section 2- Costing Systems and Methods

4. ABSORPTION COSTINGMeaning Absorption costing means that all of the manufacturing costs are absorbed by the units produced. In other words, the cost of a finished unit in inventory will include direct materials, direct labor, and both variable and fixed manufacturing overhead. As a result, absorption costing is also referred to as full costing or the full absorption method.

Definition

A managerial accounting cost method of expensing all costs associated with manufacturing a particular product. Absorption costing uses the total direct costs and overhead costs associated with manufacturing a product as the cost base. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) require absorption costing for external reporting.\

Difference between Absorption and Marginal Costing

When absorption costing is used all stock items are valued at their full production cost. This includes fixed production overheads which have been absorbed into cost.

In contrast, marginal cost values all stock items at their variable or marginal costs only. Fixed costs are treated as period costs and are written off in full against the contribution earned in that period.

Illustration

.ABC Company sells its products for Rs 66 each. The current production level is 25000 unit, although only 20000 units are sold.


[MACME]

Calculate value of closing stock using

a. Marginal Costb. Absorption Cost

Other information are as follows:

Unit manufacturing cost

Direct material Rs.12 Direct labour Rs.18 Variable manufacturing overhead Rs.9Variable marketing overhead Rs.6

Fixed manufacturing overheads are Rs.175,000/- and fixed marketing overheads are Rs.60,000/- for the period.

Solution

Value of closing stock using absorption cost:

Absorption cost uses all variable costs and the proportion of fixed expenses relating to production.

So cost per unit will be calculated as follows:

Direct material Rs.12 Direct labour Rs.18 Variable manufacturing overhead Rs.9Proportion of fixed overhead absorbed will be =175,000/25000

Rs.7

Cost per unit Rs.46

Value of closing stock= 46*5000=Rs.230,000/-

Value of closing stock using marginal cost:

Calculation of cost per unit

Direct material Rs.12 Direct labour Rs.18


[MACME]

Variable manufacturing overhead Rs.9Cost per unit Rs.39/-

Value of closing stock=39*5000=195,000/-

Note: Marketing overheads are treated a speriod costs and are consequently written off in the same year under both the methods.

Role of Absorption Costing in Pricing Decisions

Absorption costing allows companies to clearly and completely show information about their financial condition. It also allows companies to price more accurately, ensuring that the final price of a product or service takes into account the actual costs that went into them. This is particularly useful for small businesses which need to give more consideration to overhead expenses.

Absorption costing is taken in opposition to variable costing. Under variable costing, which may also be referred to as direct costing, only variable expenses are included in the computation. Therefore, fixed manufacturing costs are not included in the computation.

Since variable costing focuses more on expenses which can be modified or adjusted, it helps management plan and make decisions on how expenses can be minimized. Data taken from absorption costing shows the entire picture, together with fixed costs, so does not conveniently provide this information. On the other hand, since variable costing only shows part of the picture, it may not be taken by investors as reliable information. Also, since fixed costs are included in the computation of absorption costing, it might be more beneficial to use this information when sales change, since the figures won’t fluctuate too much.

Due to the huge differences between the two costing methods, it is important to specify which method is being used. One way in which absorption costing can be helpful is when a company wants to make sure that a retail price accurately reflects the costs involved in the production of a good. This can be especially critical with small companies which lack financial reserves, and therefore cannot afford to take a loss or to sell products without accounting for overhead. For example, a garment manufacturer might think not just about the cost of wool and labor for making a sweater, but also the costs of knitting machines, the factory where the machines are installed, the cost of running the machines, insurance, and other types of overhead costs.


[MACME]

5. JOB AND PROCESS COSTING

Specific order costing:

The choice of method of costing to be used by an organization depends upon the nature of activity undertaken by the organization

Specific order costing methods are appropriate for organizations which produce cost units which are separately identifiable from one another

Job costing , batch costing and contract costing are all types of specific order costing

We would, in the following section, cover job costing in detail.

Job Order Costing

Job Costing is method of costing in which we calculate the cost of each job. Job here means a small work or group of small activities which we can identify in any product’s production.

A job order costing system is used when a job or batch is significantly different from other jobs or batches .Cost accounting is usually fairly simple in these systems. Labour and materials are entered on a job ticket

Overhead is usually added to the amount the customer will be charged for labour and materials

Job costing involves keeping an account of direct and indirect costs. Overhead is added to the price customers will be charged for labor and material. Such method is used in construction, motion picture, and shipping industries, in fabrication, repair, and maintenance works, and in services such as auditing etc.

If you go to an auto repair shop, they will start a job ticket just for the work to be done on your car Your job ticket will show charges for labour and materials, just for your job. Let's


[MACME]

say they charge you Rs.350 per hour for labour. This charge includes the mechanic's payroll cost.

But it also includes an overhead charge - which is generally not stated separately .The overhead charge covers the costs of operating the garage - tools and equipment, rent, insurance, maintenance, utilities, etc. It is a way to allocate overhead (discussed below), and build it in to the amount charged to customers

The garage will also make a gross profit on the parts they use to repair your car. This gross profit covers the cost of buying and maintaining a parts inventory, including department employee wages, insurance and warehousing costs

Allocating overheads

Let's look at a typical product -Before production starts, no costs have been incurred. Workers stand ready to make the product, inventory waits patiently in the warehouse and the manufacturing plant contains all the resources necessary to perform the manufacturing operation.

We first add materials into production, from the inventory. At the same time the accounting department transfers the cost of inventory items to the ‘Work in Process’ account, and the product or job now has a value.

Next the workers start to convert the raw inventory into a product. As labour is added, the accounting department transfers payroll costs to the Work in Process account, increasing the value of the product or job.

Overhead costs are allocated to the product or job, based on the costing method used. As work progresses on the product or job, it accumulates labour, materials and overhead costs. Finally, the total finished product or job cost is transferred to Finished Goods, and when it is sold the cost is transferred to Cost of Goods Sold Accounting for Overhead Costs

Overhead is allocated to products or jobs using a reasonable allocation method. We try to find some part of the manufacturing process that is regular and predictable, which is called as cost driver


[MACME]

Labour hours used is the most popular allocation method. The number of labour hours in a year is fairly predictable. Differences in employees pay rates are not relevant when using hours. The information is readily available from existing payroll records. There is usually a direct correlation between labour and the production process

Labour cost is the second most popular allocation method. It is used by very large companies, with large work forces operating under labour contracts The labour costs are fairly predictable, and are closely linked to production. Because of the large number of employees, labour costs tends to be a very stable and predictable measure of the progress of production

Other overhead (simpler) methods include:

number of units produced

machine hours use (jet engines, diesel locomotives),

square footage of floor space (heating, cooling & janitorial costs)

miles (taxis, trucking) Some companies use a sophisticated method involving service departments such as maintenance and computer processing. These departments provide services to other departments. Service departments are widely used in hospital accounting. Simple Overhead Allocation

The simplest form of overhead allocation is to treat all annual overhead as a single cost pool, and allocate it to one annual cost driver

Some terminology that would be useful in the discussion of distribution of overheads are discussed as follows:

Cost allocation: Allocation is the process of identifying and attributing a cost to a specific cost centre-eg. product development cost for a new product can be allocated to that product.

Cost Apportionment: When it is not possible to allocate a cost to a particular cost centre, since the cost has been incurred for the joint benefit of several cost centres, a


[MACME]

reasonable estimation of the benefits received by each of the cost centre is made and cost is apportioned accordingly.

Cost Absorption: The last stage of distribution of costs where overheads are absorbed into the production units of a cost centre

We determine the predetermined overhead absorption rate as the budgeted overheads divided by the budgeted cost driver.

Illustration 1

Assume Johnson's Bakery produces 2,000,000 loaves of bread per year, and incurs Rs60,000 in annual overhead cost. How much overhead cost must Johnson allocate to each loaf of bread?

Total Annual Overhead

------------------------ Units of Cost Driver

= cost per unit of cost driver

Rs60,000 ------------------------ 2,000,000 loaves

= 30 paise per loaf

In addition to direct costs (labour & materials), Johnson will allocate 30 paise per loaf to overhead costs

Decision making using overhead costs

Illustration 2

Assume Johnson's Bakery must lease a new oven for Rs20,000 per year, to replace an old oven. Direct costs per loaf will not change. Johnson charges all lease costs to the Overhead account All other overhead costs will stay the same How will the new oven lease


[MACME]

change Johnson's overhead costs?

60,000 + 20,000 ------------------------ 2,000,000 loaves

= 40 paise per loaf

Johnson's overhead cost per loaf will increase 10 paise, from 30 to 40 paise

Illustration 3

Sonia Auto parts has 8 mechanics working full time, 1,500 hours per year each, for a total of 12,000 hours that will be billed to jobs They incur Rs120,000 per year in overhead costs Sonia allocates overhead costs to car repair jobs, based on the number of hours worked on each job How much will Sonia allocate per labour hour?

120,000 ------------------------ 12,000 hours

= Rs10/- overhead per labour hour

Sonia Auto parts will allocate Rs10/- per labour hour for overhead

Illustration 4

Example of Overhead Allocation to a Job

Sonia Auto parts works on the delivery truck belonging to Johnson's Bakery. The job takes 200 hours How much overhead cost will Sonia allocate to this job?

Overhead per labour hour X labour hours on job = overhead allocated to job

10 x 200 = Rs.2000

Sonia Auto parts will allocate Rs2000 in overhead costs to the repair job

Why don't you see Overhead costs listed separately on repair tickets? Customers usually don't understand what overhead costs are, or why they are important for a business Overhead costs are generally "built in" to other costs. Sonia Auto parts will add the overhead cost to it's regular labour rate .Since overhead is allocated by labour hour, this is an


[MACME]

easy method for a garage, or similar types of businesses Overhead costs are generally "hidden" from customers in this way, but the company must charge the customer for these costs in some way

Under/Over Absorption of overheads

We discussed in the preceding sections that direct expenses are fairly easy to trace. However, a lot of approximation is used in predicting and subsequently distributing over heads to a job. While overheads are predicted(this predicted overheads is called the budgeted overheads) and allocated to jobs, the actual overheads incurred at the end of an accounting period may be more or less than the budgeted overheads.

When the budgeted overheads is less than the actual overheads, then there is an under absorption of overheads and when budgeted overheads is more than the actual overheads, there is over absorption of overheads.

Illustration 5

In the example discussed above, suppose Sonia Auto parts works a budgeted 3000 labour hours across several jobs including that of Johnson’s Bakery. At the end of the accounting period, the total overheads incurred by Sonia totals Rs.32,000/- Calculate under/over absorbed overheads.

Solution

Budgeted overheads= Budgeted labour hours*over head allocation rate

=3000*10=Rs.30,000/-

Actual overheads=Rs.32,000/-(given)

Since the budgeted overheads (this is also referred to as absorbed overheads in some texts) is less than the actual overheads, there is an under absorption of overheads by Rs.2000/-

Illustration 6

X ltd follows job order costing. The following are the details of jobs during the period October 2010 to March 2011.

Particulars Opening WIP Material Labor

Job 101 240000 400000 160000

Job 102 90000 300000 400000

Job 103 ----------- 500000 300000


[MACME]

Job 104 ----------- 220000 240000

Job 105 ----------- 240000 260000

Production Overheads charged to job is 50% of labor cost and administration overhead charged to jobs is 50% of material.

Administration overheads are charged after completion of job.

During March, Job 101, 102 and 105 were complete. Job no 103 and 104 were still in process.

Selling price is determined after marking up 33.33% profit on Cost.

Calculate the following:

(1) Cost of completed jobs.(2) Value of closing work in process.(3) Under absorption/Over absorption of production overheads assuming that actual

overheads incurred during the period is Rs.500000/-(4) Selling price of Job 101,102 and 105.

Solution

(1) Cost of completed jobs.

Particulars 101 102 105Opening WIP 240000 90000 0

Material 400000 300000240000

Labor 160000 400000260000

Production Overheads 80000 200000130000

Works Cost 880000 990000630000

Administration Overheads 200000 150000

120000

Total Cost1080000

1140000

750000


[MACME]

(2) Value of closing work in process.

Particulars 103 104Opening WIP 0 0Material 500000 220000Labor 300000 240000Production Overheads 150000 120000Closing WIP 950000 580000

(3) Under absorption/Over absorption of production overheads assuming that actual overheads incurred during the period is Rs.500000/-

Budgeted Overhead:-

80000+200000+130000+150000+120000=680000

Actual Overhead:-500000.

Over Absorption:-

680000-500000=180000.

(4) Selling price of Job 101,102 and 105.

Total Cost1080000 1140000 750000

Profit 359964 379962 249975

SP1439964 1519962 999975

PROCESS COSTING - METHOD AND TECHNIQUES

Process costing is a costing methodology that arrives at an individual product cost through the calculation of average costs for large quantities of identical products.A process costing system is used when a business is producing a large number of identical products. In this situation, it is most efficient to accumulate costs at an aggregate level for a large batch of products, and then allocate them to the individual units produced.


[MACME]

Process Costing may be adopted using any of the techniques of costing. The technique adopted would decide the procedure adopted in relation to various accounting aspects. For example, for the purpose of valuation of stocks:

Fixed costs will be considered along with Variable costs, if "Absorption Costing" is adopted as the technique

Only variable costs will be considered, if "marginal costing" is adopted as the technique

Example of an area where Process Costing is applied

A common example of an industry where process costing may be applied is "Sugar Manufacturing Industry”

The processes in this industry are:


[MACME]

Cane Shredding

The cane is broken/ cut into small pieces to enable easier movement through the milling machine

MillingThe shredded cane is passed through rollers which crush them to extract cane juice [Similar to the cane juice extracted by the vendors who sell you sugar cane juice]

Heating and Adding limeThe extracted juice is then heated to make it a concentrate and lime is added to the heated juice

ClarificationMuddy substance is removed from the concentrate through this process

EvaporationWater is removed from the juice by evaporation

Crystallisation and SeparationSugar crystals are grown from the dry juice concentrate in this process

SpinningMolasses are separated from sugar using Centrifugals in this process

DryingSugar is obtained by drying the wet raw sugar obtained in the spinning process

The following features may be identified with process costing:

The output consists of products which are homogenous Production is carried on in different stages (each of which is called a process) having a

continuous flow Production takes place continuously except in cases where the plant and machinery

are shut down for maintenance etc Output is uniform and all units are identical during each process It would not be possible to trace the identity of any particular lot of output to any lot of input

The input will pass through two or more processes before it takes the shape of the output The output of each process becomes the input for the next process until the final product is obtained, with the last process giving the final product


[MACME]

The output of a process (except the last) may also be saleable in which case the process may generate some profit

The input of a process (except the first) may be capable of being acquired from the outside sources

The output of a process is transferred to the next process generally at cost to the process It may also be transferred at market price to enable checking efficiency of operations in comparison to the market conditions

Normal and abnormal losses may arise in the processes

Illustration 7

In a factory, process cost accounts are in use for a certain period the production of the commodity was 1000 tones. Three processes, viz., A, B, C and the raw material were added in all the processes. The costs were as follows:

Particulars Process A Process B Process C

Material 3000 1500 1500

Labor 1500 3000 5250

Mfg Expenses 1500 4500 5250

Assume that there was no work in process either at the beginning or at the end. Show the process costs for each cost of the finished product. The production is 1000 tones at the end of process.

Process A A/cParticulars Amt Particulars AmtTo material 3000 By transferred out 6000To Labor 1500 To Mfg Expenses 1500

Total 6000 Total 6000

Process B A/CParticulars Amt Particulars AmtTo material 1500 By transferred out 9000To Labor 3000 To Mfg Expenses 4500


[MACME]


Process C A/CParticulars Amt Particulars AmtTo material 1500 By COGS 12000To Labor 5250 To Mfg Expenses 5250


How Process Cost is Applied in Business

If you have ever spilled milk, there is a good chance that you used Bounty paper towels to clean up the mess. Procter & Gamble (P&G) manufactures Bounty in two main processing departments—Paper making and Paper Converting. In the Paper Making Department, wood pulp is converted into paper and then spooled into 2,000 pound rolls. In the Paper Converting Department, two of the 2,000 pound rolls of paper are simultaneously unwound into a machine that creates a two-ply paper towel that is decorated, perforated, and embossed to create texture. The large sheets of paper towels that emerge from this process are wrapped around a cylindrical cardboard core measuring eight feet in length. Once enough sheets wrap around the core, the eight foot roll is cut into individual rolls of Bounty that are sent down a conveyor to be wrapped, packed, and shipped. In this type of manufacturing environment, costs cannot be readily traced to individual rolls of Bounty; however, given the homogeneous nature of the product, the total costs incurred in the Paper Making Department can be spread uniformly across its output of 2,000 pound rolls of paper. Similarly, the total costs incurred in the Paper Converting Department (including the cost of the 2,000 pound rolls that are transferred in from the Paper Making Department) can be spread uniformly across the number of cases of Bounty produced. P&G uses a similar costing approach for many of its products such as Tide, Crest toothpaste, and Pringles

Joint products and By-products

When a production process yields two or more products simultaneously out of common raw material, the output products are termed as joint products.

The joint products which arise out of common raw material may have wanted or unwanted value. Those which have insignificant value are termed as by-product. By- products are


[MACME]

secondary products. For example, from crude oil, we get petrol and diesel which has high significant value and therefore known as joint products. At the same time we also get some lubricant which is unwanted, so it is termed as by-product.

CIMA(Chartered Institute of Management Accountants) defines joint product as ‘two or more product separated in processing each having a sufficiently high sale value to merit recognition as a main product” and by product as “output of some value produce incidentally in manufacturing something else (main product)”.

Some examples of Joints products are as follows:

1. Oil refining: Petrol, Diesel, Liquid Petroleum Gas, Kerosene, Paraffin, Lubricants2. Meat Processing: Meat, Hides, Bones, Grease.3. Mining: Iron, copper, Silver.4. Sheep Rearing: Meat, Wool, Hides.

Some examples of By- products are as follows:

1. Sugar manufacture: Molasses used for industrial alcohol2. Iron and Steel manufacture: Furnace slag used in construction activities3. Meat trade: Bones, Grease4. Coke industry : Linoleum

Joint product costing- Joint product is defined as a costing of a production process that yields multiple products simultaneously.

By-products costing- By product costing is defined as, costing of products in the joint production process with low sales value. The costing is done at the time of production or at the time of sales.

Common costs: These costs cannot be identified with a particular joint product. By definition, joint products incur common costs until they reach the split-off point. Split-off point: At this stage, the joint products acquire separate identities. Costs incurred prior to this point are common costs, and any costs incurred after this point are separable costs. Separable costs: These costs can be identified with a particular joint product. These costs are incurred for a specific product, after the split-off point.

At or beyond the split off point, decisions relating to the sale or further processing of each identifiable product can be made independently of decisions about the other products. The characteristic feature of joint products is that all costs incurred prior to the split-off point are


[MACME]

common costs, and cannot be identified with individual products that are derived at split-off.Distinction among main products, joint products and byproducts are not so definite in practice. For example some companies may classify kerosene obtained when refining crude oil as a byproduct because they believe kerosene has a low total sales value relative to the total sales values of gasoline and other products. Other companies may consider the vice versa. Moreover the classification of products can change over time depending on the price of the product in that year.

Illustration 8

Work out the estimated pre separation cost per ton of by - products Y & Z from the following data:

Costs of manufacturer before separation: 25, 60,000.

Main product is X. There are two by-products Y & Z whose normal selling price is as follows:

Sales price of Y: 500 per ton

Sales price of Z: 800 per ton

Selling and distribution expenses have been estimated to be 25% of SP and the net profit is expected to be 10% of SP.

Costs to manufacture each ton after separation from the main product are :

95 (Y) and 145 (Z).

Assume equal weight for Y and Z

Solution:

Particulars Product Y Product Z

Selling Price 500 800

Less: Selling and Distribution Exps (25% of SP) 125 200

375 600

Less: Net profit(10% of SP) 50 80

325 520

Less: Post separation cost 95 145


[MACME]

Pre Separation Cost 230 375

Illustration 9

Two products P & Q are obtained in a crude form and require further processing at a cost of Rs.5 for P and Rs. 4 for Q unit before sale. Assuming a net margin of 25% on cost, their sales are fixed @ Rs.13.75 and Rs.8.75 per unit respectively. During the process, joint cost incurred was Rs. 88,000 and the outputs were:

P- 8,000 units, Q-6,000 units.

Ascertain the joint cost per unit

Product Q Product P

Output(units) 6000 8000

Selling Price 13.75 8.75

Less: Profit(25% on cost, ie.20% on SP) 2.75 1.75

Cost of Sales 11.00 7.00

Less:Further processing cost after separation 5.00 4.00

Pre Separation Cost 6.00 3.00

Share of Joint Cost(8:3)* 64,000 84,000

Joint Cost per unit 8.00 4.00

*Ratio in Apportioning Joint Costs:

P = 8,000 units * 6 = 48,000


[MACME]

Q = 6,000 units * 3 = 18,000

Therefore, 48,000:18,000 = 8:3

Case: Wendy’s Chili: A costing Conundrum(MAC)


[MACME]

6. Activity Based Costing

Activity Based Costing (ABC) is a system that Assigns Overhead cost to the activities performed in a manufacturing or Services delivery process. –Leslie G.Eldenburg (2005)

ABC is a costing that first assigns cost to activities and then to goods and services based on how much each goods and service uses the activity. – Ronald W.Hilton, Michael W.Maher and Frank H Selto (2006)

We have already seen in the foregoing discussions in Job and Process Costing that traditional costing methods use a single base(Labour hours that we had seen in the job costing example) or at most, a combination of two bases of cost.

However, Activity based Costing is based on the principle that a single absorption base cannot justifiably reflect the behaviour of overhead costs.

Overhead costs are not always directly relatable to time or production volume. In a modern manufacturing environment, overheads are more dependent on the complexity of the production. An ABC approach attempts to ensure that overheads are traced to products in a way that more accurately reflects the overhead costs that have been incurred on their behalf.

According to Ray H Garrison and Eric W Noreen, there are six basic steps required to implement an ABC system:

Identify and define activities and activity pools Directly trace costs to activities (to the extent feasible) Assign costs to activity cost pools Calculate activity rates Assign costs to cost objects using the activity rates and activity measures previously

determined Prepare and distribute management reports

This analysis of overhead costs into activities and their absorption using a variety of cost drivers is believed to produce more accurate results in allocating overheads to product cost.

Activity based costing focuses on activities and costs are allocated to activities using resource drivers. Resource drivers show the cause of costs and are used to allocate costs to activities. Cost is allocated depending on how much of the resource driver is used in the activity. It increases awareness of cause and effect relationships and promotes performance improvement. It also helps to identify non-value added activities and motivates cost reduction.


[MACME]

.Illustration 1

XYZ Company is considering Activity based costing to allocate Overheads. Following information is given for the production of two products A and B.

Activity Cost

Set-up 200000

Machine maintenance 90000

Total Manufacturing Cost 290000

Product A B TotalNumber of setups 40 60 100Machine Hours 1500 3500 5000

XYZ Company plans to produce 350 units of product A and 250 units of product B. Compute the manufacturing cost for each product.

Solution

First, we will identify the activities performed by the company and assigning cost to each activity then choosing the cost driver for calculating the allocation rate.

After calculating the allocation rate we can allocate the coat to product.

In above case company performs two activities i.e. Setup and maintenance of machine.

Now, we will calculate Allocation rate for each activity

1. Setup Cost:

Total Cost /Total No.of Setups = 2, 00,000 = Rs 2000 per setup

100

2. Machine Maintenance:

Total Machine Maintenance cost/ Total Machine Hour

= 90000 / 5000 hrs = Rs 18 per hour


[MACME]

Since, we have calculated the Allocation Rate; next step is to allocation of cost to each product,

Following table shows the allocation of cost.

Activity Product A Product B

Setup No.of Setup *cost per Setup

40*2000 = 80,000 60*2000 = 1,20,000

Machine Maintenance Machine Hour*Cost per Hour

1500*18 = 27000 3500*18 =63000

Total Cost Rs 107000 Rs 183000

Number of units 300 250

Unit cost Rs.306/- Rs.732/-

Case: Classic Pen Company: Developing an ABC Model (HBS/9-198-117)


[MACME]

7. Activity Based Management

Activity-based management and activity-based costing (ABM/ABC) have brought about radical change in cost management systems. ABM has grown largely out of the work of the Texas-based Consortium for Advanced Manufacturing-International (CAM-I). No longer is ABM’s applicability limited to manufacturing organisations. The principles and philosophies of activity-based thinking apply equally to service companies, government agencies and process industries.

The acronym itself has evolved from ABC to ABCM (activity-based cost management) to ABM, and the application of ABC evolved from a manufacturing product costing orientation to a management philosophy of activity management applied in industries and organisations other than manufacturing. Activity-based costing and activity-based management have been around for more than fifteen years. Most forward-thinking companies have implemented them, or are in the process of doing so.

ABM draws on ABC to provide management reporting and decision making. ABM supports business excellence by providing information to facilitate long-term strategic decisions about such things as product mix and sourcing. It allows product designers to understand the impact of different designs on cost and flexibility and then to modify their designs accordingly. ABM also supports the quest for continuous improvement by allowing management to gain new insights into activity performance by focusing attention on the sources of demand for activities and by permitting management to create behavioural incentives to improve one or more aspects of the business.

ABM is a fundamental shift in emphasis from traditional costing and performance measurement. People undertake activities which consumeresources – so controlling activities allows you to control costs at their source.

The real value and power of ABM comes from the knowledge and information that leads to better decisions and the leverage it provides to measure improvement.mABM enables management to make informeddecisions on the following:

Lines of business, product mix, process and product design, what services should be offered,


[MACME]

capital investments, and pricing.

ABM is more than an accounting tool; it's a system for continuous improvements. It is not a single answer but merely one of the many tools that can be used to enhance organisational performance management.

ABM will not reduce costs, it will only help you understand costs better to know what to correct.The process of ABM does consume resources, and the manpower costs can be significant. Companies considering or already implementing ABM should realise that although certain product or market factors might make it potentially beneficial, those same factors might not lead to a successful implementation. ABM gives us a much better chance of establishing a useful costing for outputs. But there is a price to pay. It can be difficult to find out what costs apply in a particular activity, and those involved may be suspicious of others charged with finding out. Some areas of activity overlap and are difficult to separate. And, of course, ABM is a costly exercise in its own right. Other priorities, top management commitment, IT capabilities, and integration with financial and budgeting systems should be considered before implementation.

Organisations have begun to look at ABM for a variety of reasons. Among the most commonly cited are:— top-down pressure to reduce costs;— competitive pressure/market conditions;— organisation-wide programme;— the introduction of benchmarking;— regulatory issues;— seeking world-class status through processmanagement.

ABC and ABM are a continuum of value. ABM is the application of ABC data to manage product portfolios and business processes better.

Reading: Activity Based Costing and Capacity By Robert.S.Kaplan

Case Wilkerson Co (HBS/9-101-092)


[MACME]

8. MARGINAL COSTING AND DECISION ANALYSIS

Some important definitions:

Relevant cost:Cost that can be avoided if a decision is not implemented is called relevant cost

Sunk Cost:Costs that cannot be reversed or do not alter irrespective of any future decision

Opportunity cost:Cost of the opportunity foregone in order to select a decision option This presupposes two important factors- pre existence of an opportunity, and a reasonable possibility of accessing it

Contribution:Contribution margin is the amount remaining from sales revenue after variable expenses have been deducted. Thus it is the amount available to cover fixed expenses and then to provide profits for the period.

Contribution Margin Ratio (CM Ratio):The contribution margin as a percentage of total sales is referred to as contribution margin ratio (CM Ratio). Contribution margin ratio can be used in cost-volume profit calculations.

Objectives of CVP Analysis:

Cost volume profit analysis (CVP analysis) is one of the most powerful tools that managers have at their command. It helps them understand the interrelationship between cost, volume, and profit in an organisation by focusing on interactions among the following five elements:

1. Prices of products 2. Volume or level of activity 3. Per unit variable cost 4. Total fixed cost 5. Mix of product sold

Because cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis helps managers understand the interrelationships among cost, volume, and profit it is a vital tool in many business decisions. These decisions include, for example, what products to manufacture or sell, what pricing policy to follow, what marketing strategy to employ, and what type of productive facilities to acquire.


http://www.accountingformanagement.com/contribution_margin_ratio.htm

[MACME]

Applications of Cost Volume Profit (CVP) Concepts:

Now we can explain how CVP concepts developed on above pages can be used in planning and decision making. We shall use these concepts to show how changes in variable costs, fixed costs, sales price, and sales volume effect contribution margin and profitability of companies in a variety of situations.

Change in fixed cost and sales volume Change in variable cost and sales volume Change in fixed cost, sales price and sales volume Change in variable cost, fixed cost, and sales volume Change in regular sales price

Importance of Contribution Margin:

CVP analysis can be used to help find the most profitable combination of variable costs, fixed costs, selling price, and sales volume. Profits can sometimes be improved by reducing the contribution margin if fixed costs can be reduced by a greater amount.

Break Even Analysis:

Break even is the level of sales at which the profit is zero. Cost volume profit analysis is some time referred to simply as break even analysis. This is unfortunate because break even analysis is only one element of cost volume profit analysis. Break even analysis is designed to answer questions such as "How far sales could drop before the company begins to lose money."

Cost Volume Profit (CVP) Consideration in Choosing a Cost Structure:

Cost structure refers to the relative proportion of fixed and variable costs in an organization. An organization often has some latitude in trading off between these two types of costs. For example, fixed investment in automated equipment can reduce variable labor costs. The purpose of management is to reduce the cost by choosing a blend of fixed and variable cost that maximizes the ultimate objective i.e.; profit.

Some illustrations on CVP analysis:

Make or Buy:


http://www.accountingformanagement.com/cost_structure_and_CVP.htm

http://www.accountingformanagement.com/importance_of_contribution_margin.htm

http://www.accountingformanagement.com/change_in_regular_sales_price.htm

http://www.accountingformanagement.com/change_in_variable_cost_fixed_cost_sales_volume_.htm

http://www.accountingformanagement.com/change_in_fixed_cost_sales_price_sales_volume.htm

http://www.accountingformanagement.com/change_in_variable_cost_sales_volume.htm

http://www.accountingformanagement.com/change_in_fixed_cost_sales_volume.htm

[MACME]

Illustration 1Suppose Division A in Priyanka Products had a capacity to produce 1000 units a month and the break up of cost is as follows:Particulars AmountMaterial cost 100Labour 75Variable overheads 25Sales commission 5Fixed overhead 20Total 225

Division B wanted 400 units from Division A. Division A has the capability to produce these additional units without incurring additional fixed costs. Division A quotes Rs.250/- per unit and Division B has an offer from the market to buy these units @ 240 per unit. Should Priyanka decide to stop producing these products in house?

SolutionCost of producing one unit(marginal cost)=100+75+25=200/-Cost of purchasing one unit=Rs.240/-

It is advisable to continue producing the products in house

Shut Down or Continue:

Illustration 2Rahul Enterprises is operating under difficult market conditions and are incurring monthly unavoidable costs of Rs.40,000/- Their contribution is showing the following trend:January 60,000/-February 50,000/-March 55,000/-April 45,000/-

Considering the volatile trend Rahul decides that it is better to suspend operations. Advise him.

Solution

The unavoidable cost will continue to be incurred even after suspending operations

However, the contribution will not be earned if operations are suspended. Hence operations should be continued till contribution becomes zero.


[MACME]

Illustration 3

Product mix decisions with capacity constraints

The following costs and other data apply to two component parts used by Bajaj Electricals limited.

Particulars Part X Part Y

Direct material 0.80 16.00

Direct labour 2.00 9.40

Overheads 8.00 4.00

Unit cost 10.80 29.40

Units needed per year 6,000 8,000

Machine hours per unit 2 1

Unit cost, if purchased 10 30

The company hitherto has been manufacturing all required components. However, in the current year, only 14,000 hours of otherwise idle machine time can be devoted to the production of component. Accordingly some of the parts must be purchased from outside suppliers. In producing parts, overheads are applied at Rs.4 per machine hour. Fixed capacity costs, which will not be affected by any make or buy decision represent 70% of the applied overhead.Required:

1. Assuming that 14,000 hours of available machine time is to be scheduled so that the company realizes maximum potential cost savings, determine the relevant production costs that should be considered in the decision to schedule machine time.

2. Compute the number of units that Bajaj Electricals should produce if it allocates machine time on the basis of the potential cost savings per machine hour.

Solution


[MACME]

Whenever there is a limiting factor or capacity constraint, product mix should be decided so as to maximise the profits.

Hence we use marginal costing to support this decision.

The contribution per unit is arrived at. Then the contribution is calculated with respect to the constraining factor. For example, if labour hours are in short supply, then contribution is calculated with respect to labour hour. The product that yields maximum labour hour contribution is given priority in ranking.

The top ranked product is produced as per requirement and the least ranked product is produced to the extent that the constraining resource is available.

In the above illustration, let us first calculate the contribution per unit:

Particulars Part X Part Y

Direct material 0.80 16.00

Direct labour 2.00 9.40

Variable Overheads (30%) 2.40 1.2

Unit variable cost 5.20 26.60

Cost to purchase from outside 10.00 30.00

Savings if produced in house 4.80 3.40

Limiting factor-Machine hour/unit 2 1

Savings/machine hour 2.40 3.40

Rank 2 1

Number of units 3000** 8000

** After producing 8000 units of Y number of machine hours available is 3000. So we can only produce 3000 units of X.

Case Moti Heera (P) Ltd (A) & (B) (IIMA/QM0003(A & B))


[MACME]


[MACME]

9. Pricing and Cost Management

Pricing a product is a veritable challenge for most organizations since markets are dynamic and several variables that influence prices are either too volatile or unpredictable. Pricing and cost are the prime factors that maximize profit.

Profit Optimization model

Profit optimization model is based on the economic theory that profit is maximized at the output level where the marginal cost is equal to the marginal revenue. However, many of the variables in this model are quite difficult to predict. Demand function is very difficult to be predicted accurately.

Owing to the above, selling price based profit maximization or demand based profit maximization may be difficult to achieve for businesses.

Hence several of the pricing strategies are based on cost.

Some of the cost based pricing strategies are as follows:

a. Full Cost plus pricingThis pricing method is used widely by producers. This is a traditional method of pricing popularly used by wholesalers, retailers, construction contractors In this method prices are set by adding a % of profit to the total cost of the output. This is known as the mark up price or a margin price. In this method, the cost of a product is calculated and a margin of profit is added on. There is empirical evidence to show that the producers usually set their prices on the basis of a cost plus a fair margin of profits. Fair profit is mostly a fixed percentage of profit , which is arbitrarily determined. Fair profit may differ from industry to industry or among firms in the same line of production. The variations occur due to factors like differences in turnover rate, differences in risks, intensity of competition etc. Full cost pricing is the simplest pricing method. In this method, basically the firm calculates the cost of a product and the markup % is added to arrive at the selling price. Full cost pricing can be done in two ways ie.full cost pricing which takes into consideration both variable and fixed costs and adds a percentage as markup

b. Marginal Cost plus pricingThe marginal cost pricing method considers the allocation of resources as a base for pricing. The pricing is done in such a way so as to allocate the resources efficiently. For instance, in the case of publtc undertakings, the returns may not cover the costs. As a result, in the case of public undertakings the returns may not even cover the costs and hence in many cases pricing on the basis of marginal cost may not be profitable to the investor. Some public sector undertakings may have falling marginal costs. Marginal cost may be lower than average cost. In


[MACME]

such a situation if the price is fixed by equating marginal cost and average revenue,it will lead to losses.This type of pricing may be resorted to to enable the public to buy certain essential goods.

Other pricing strategies are broadly described as follows:

Creaming or skimming

In most skimming, goods are sold at higher prices so that fewer sales are needed to break even. Selling a product at a high price, sacrificing high sales to gain a high profit is therefore "skimming" the market. Skimming is usually employed to reimburse the cost of investment of the original research into the product: commonly used in electronic markets when a new range, such as DVD players, are firstly dispatched into the market at a high price. This strategy is often used to target "early adopters" of a product or service. Early adopters generally have a relatively lower price-sensitivity - this can be attributed to: their need for the product outweighing their need to economise; a greater understanding of the product's value; or simply having a higher disposable income.

This strategy is employed only for a limited duration to recover most of the investment made to build the product. To gain further market share, a seller must use other pricing tactics such as economy or penetration. This method can have some setbacks as it could leave the product at a high price against the competition.

Limit pricing

A limit price is the price set by a monopolist to discourage economic entry into a market, and is illegal in many countries. The limit price is the price that the entrant would face upon entering as long as the incumbent firm did not decrease output. The limit price is often lower than the average cost of production or just low enough to make entering not profitable. The quantity produced by the incumbent firm to act as a deterrent to entry is usually larger than would be optimal for a monopolist, but might still produce higher economic profits than would be earned under perfect competition.

The problem with limit pricing as a strategy is that once the entrant has entered the market, the quantity used as a threat to deter entry is no longer the incumbent firm's best response. This means that for limit pricing to be an effective deterrent to entry, the threat must in some way be made credible. A way to achieve this is for the incumbent firm to constrain itself to produce a certain quantity whether entry occurs or not. An example of this would be if the firm signed a union contract to employ a certain (high) level of labor for a long period of time. In this strategy price of the product becomes the limit according to budget.

Loss leader

A loss leader or leader is a product sold at a low price (i.e. at cost or below cost) to stimulate other profitable sales. This would help the companies to expand its market share as a whole.


[MACME]

Market-oriented pricing

Setting a price based upon analysis and research compiled from the target market. This means that marketers will set prices depending on the results from the research. For instance if the competitors are pricing their products at a lower price, then it's up to them to either price their goods at an above price or below, depending on what the company wants to achieve .

Penetration pricing

Penetration pricing includes setting the price low with the goals of attracting customers and gaining market share. The price will be raised later once this market share is gained.[3]

Price discrimination

Price discrimination is the practice of setting a different price for the same product in different segments to the market. For example, this can be for different classes, such as ages, or for different opening times.

Premium pricing

Premium pricing is the practice of keeping the price of a product or service artificially high in order to encourage favorable perceptions among buyers, based solely on the price. The practice is intended to exploit the (not necessarily justifiable) tendency for buyers to assume that expensive items enjoy an exceptional reputation, are more reliable or desirable, or represent exceptional quality and distinction.

Predatory pricing

Predatory pricing, also known as aggressive pricing (also known as "undercutting"), intended to drive out competitors from a market. It is illegal in some countries.

Case Mridula Ice Cream Parlour (A) (IIMA/F&A 0315(A))

c.


[MACME]

10. Target Costing and life cycle costing

Target costing:

Target costing means a cost of product which can be incurred when we need to achieve the required profit.

Target costing helps to improve the process, design and at the same time to reduce cost to offer a good competition to the other players in the market.

The estimated cost is also known as Target cost

How Target Cost is Set:

Target cost is set for a product based on the company’s strategic policy. Design-to-cost responsibility is then assigned to cross-functional teams with extremely broad authority. This authority includes, of course, product features, and can also extend to all upstream and dowi1stream support activities and their method of delivery. Cost-reduction activity continues until the target cost is achieved or all parties realize it is not possible.

Target costing is an innovative technique that enables companies to deliver a customer-defined product at the lowest possible cost. Without proper planning, however, target costing can be difficult to implement effectively. Target Costing presents a framework for managers to understand how target costing works and how to plan and implement an effective system.

Target costing can be related with the backward integration model. Here instead of calculating costs first and then setting the price based on these calculated costs, target costing does it the other way around. Target costing is convenient for firms operating in perfect competition.

The steps in target costing are as follows:

Determine the price the consumer is willing to pay for the specific product; well this can be done by conducting a market research. For e.g. the consumers are ready to pay Rs.10000/-(hypothetical figures) for high end mobile phones, which has all the best & the latest features in it.

After that the company should decide the profit margin that it will accept, say for e.g. here company is planning to have a profit margin of 10 %( hypothetical figures). i.e. Rs.1000/-


[MACME]

Subtract the price the consumer is willing to pay with the profit margin the company is willing to have i.e. 10000-1000=9000. This is the target cost which is been determined. Hence Rs.9000/- is the target cost.

Illustration 1

A company is planning a new product. Market research information suggests that the product should sell 10,000 units at Rs.21.00/unit. The company seeks to make a mark-up of 40% product cost. It is estimated that the lifetime costs of the product will be as follows:

1 Design and development costs Rs.50, 000 2 Manufacturing costs Rs.10/unit3 End of life costs Rs.20, 000

The company estimates that if it were to spend an additional Rs.15, 000 on design, manufacturing costs/ unit could be reduced.

Solution

The target cost of the product can be calculated as follows:

(a) Cost + Mark-up = Selling price 100% 40% 140% Rs.15 Rs.6 Rs.21

(b) The original life cycle cost per unit = (Rs.50, 000 + (10,000 x Rs.10) + Rs.20, 000)/10,000 = Rs.17

This cost/unit is above the target cost per unit, so the product is not worth making.

(c) Maximum total cost per unit = Rs.15. Some of this will be caused by the design and end of life costs:

(Rs.50, 000 + Rs.15, 000 + Rs.20, 000)/10,000 = Rs.8.50

Therefore, the maximum manufacturing cost per unit would have to fall from Rs.10 to (Rs.15 – Rs.8.50) = Rs.6.50.

In conclusion, it can be said that although target cost is used throughout the product life cycle,it is primarily used and most effective in the product development and design stage. The market-driven philosophy, target costing is based on the price-down, cost-down strategy, which has allowed companies to win considerable share of their respective markets.

There will probably be a range of products and prices, but the company cannot dictate tothe market, customers or competitors. There are powerful constraints on the product and its price


[MACME]

and the company has to make the required product, sell it at an acceptable and competitive price and, at the same time, make a profit. If the profit is going to be adequate, the costs have to be sufficiently low.

Therefore, instead of starting with the cost and working to the selling price by adding on the expected margin, target costing will start with the selling price of a particular product and work back to the cost by removing the profit element. This means that the company has to find ways of not exceeding that cost.

Life cycle cost management

Life cycle costing also emphasizes on cost reduction and not cost control. Life cycle cost management is a related approach that builds a conceptual framework that facilitates management’s ability to exploit internal & external linkages.

The following diagram represents the phases in the product life cycle:


[MACME]

In life cycle management specific cost is associated with each stage of the product or services.

Stage 1 Pre-production/Product development stage

Since this is the launching stage a high level of cost is incurred (preproduction costs), including research and development (R&D), product design and building of production facilities.

Stage 2 Launch/Market development stage

Extensive marketing and promotion cost is incurred in this stage as this stage works on creating awareness about the existence of product/services

Stage 3 Growth stage

Marketing and promotion will continue through this stage. In this stage sales volume increases dramatically, and unit costs fall as fixed costs are

recovered over greater volumes.

Stage 4 Maturity stage

Initially profits will continue to increase, as initial setup and fixed costs are recovered. Marketing and distribution economies are achieved. However, price competition and product differentiation will start to erode profitability as

firms compete for the limited new customers remaining

Stage 5 Decline stage

Marketing costs are usually cut as the product is phased out Production economies may be lost as volumes fall Meanwhile, a replacement product will need to have been developed, incurring new

levels of R&D and other product setup costs. Alternatively additional development costs may be incurred to refine the model to extend

the life-cycle (this is typical with cars where 'product evolution' is the norm rather than 'product revolution'.


[MACME]

Illustration 2

Company X is considering whether to pursue Project A or Project B.

Project B has an initial cost of Rs.2, 000, while Project A has an initial cost of Rs.3, 000. Company X is more inclined to take on Project B because of the perceived lower cost. However, applying the life cycle cost formula will help Company X determine if Project B is truly more cost-effective than Project A.

Calculating life cycle cost


PROJECT A PROJECT B

Initial Cost Rs.3, 000 Rs. 2,000

Annual Costs

Electricity

Maintenance

Rs. 150

Rs. 50

Rs. 250

Rs.150

Project Life

(Years)15 15

Discount Factor

(Based on an interest rate of 3%)0.64 0.64

CalculationsRs. 3,000 + (Rs.200 x 15 x 0.64)

Rs.2, 000 + (Rs.400 x 15 x 0.64)

LIFE CYCLE COST Rs.4, 920 Rs.5, 840

[MACME]

The formula for calculating life cycle cost is:

LIFE CYCLE COST = INITIAL COST + (ANNUAL COSTS x PROJECT LIFE x DISCOUNT FACTOR)

As the above comparison demonstrates, the lowest initial cost does not lead to the lowest cost overall. Project A is the more cost effective option to pursue.

When is life cycle costing useful?

When evaluating capital investment options, using Life Cycle Costing (LCC) can help you determine the option, which is most cost effective. Rather than evaluating projects solely on the basis of initial costs, LCC looks at the total cost of owning, operating and maintaining a project over its useful life (including its fuel, energy, labor and replacement components). Life cycle costing calculates operating and maintenance costs incurred during the lifetime of the project plus the initial capital costs.

Companies sometimes need to consider target prices and target costs for a product over a multi-year product life cycle. Product life cycle spans the time from initial R&D on a product to when customer service and support I s no longer offered for that product. For Automobile companies suggest Ford, Nissan, the product life cycle is from 12 to 15 years. In such high operations, life cycle costing is used in development period for R&D and design is long and costly. It is also being used for pricing the product, after all costs incurred for producing the product.

The decision making process involves a cross functional team, in which employees from various departments (Production, Engineering, R&D, Marketing, and Accounting) are given the responsibility of determining an acceptable market price and corresponding Return on Sales, as well as a feasible cost in which a given item may be produced. In order to minimize costs, team members focus on eliminating non-value-added costs of the process, improving product design and modifying process methods.

Achieving Full Cycle Cost management (SMR 153, Fall 2004)Case Toyota Motor Company: Target Costing (HBS/9-197-031)


[MACME]

11. Standard Cost and Budgets

When budgets are prepared, the costs are usually computed at two levels, in total dollars so an income statement can be prepared, and cost per unit. The cost per unit is referred to as a standard cost. A standard cost can also be developed and used for pricing decisions and cost control even if a budget is not prepared. A standard cost in a manufacturing company consists of per unit costs for direct materials, direct labor, and overhead.

The per unit costs can be further divided into the expected amount and cost of materials per unit, the expected number of hours and cost per hour for direct labor, and the expected total overhead costs and a method for assigning those costs to each unit. Within the expected amount of materials, waste or spoilage must be considered when determining the standard amount. For example, if a product, such as a chair, requires material, more material than is actually needed for the chair must be ordered because the shape of the seat and the fabric are usually not exactly the same. The scraps of material are called waste, which is not avoidable, given that the chair is being produced with this specific fabric. The cost of the full piece of material is used as the standard cost because the waste has no other use.

Similarly, when considering labor hours, downtime from production due to maintenance or start up and break time must be included in the number of hours it takes to make a product. Once standards are established, they are used to analyze and determine the reasons for actual cost variances from standards. The variances may be in quantity of materials or hours used to manufacture a product or in the cost of the materials or labor. Because overhead is normally applied on some basis, the variances in overhead will occur because the total overhead pool of dollars or the activity level (for example, direct labor dollars or hours) used to allocate the overhead is different from what was planned. Once standard costs are used in preparing budgets, analysis of variances can be used to provide management with information about whether a variance is caused by quantity or price so that appropriate action can be taken.

Standard Cost Variances

A variance is the difference between the actual cost incurred and the standard cost against which it is measured. A variance can also be used to measure the difference between actual and expected sales. Thus, variance analysis can be used to review the performance of both revenue and expenses.


[MACME]

There are two basic types of variances from a standard that can arise, which are the rate variance and the volume variance. Here is more information about both types of variances:

Rate variance. A rate variance (which is also known as a price variance) is the difference between the actual price paid for something and the expected price, multiplied by the actual quantity purchased. The “rate” variance designation is most commonly applied to the labor rate variance, which involves the actual cost of direct labor in comparison to the standard cost of direct labor. The rate variance uses a different designation when applied to the purchase of materials, and may be called the purchase price variance or the material price variance.

Volume variance. A volume variance is the difference between the actual quantity sold or consumed and the budgeted amount, multiplied by the standard price or cost per unit. If the variance relates to the sale of goods, it is called the sales volume variance. If it relates to the use of direct materials, it is called the material yield variance. If the variance relates to the use of direct labor, it is called the labor efficiency variance. Finally, if the variance relates to the application of overhead, it is called the overhead efficiency variance.

Thus, variances are based on either changes in cost from the expected amount, or changes in the quantity from the expected amount. The most common variances that a cost accountant elects to report on are subdivided within the rate and volume variance categories for direct materials, direct labor, and overhead. It is also possible to report these variances for revenue.

A budget usually refers to a department‘s or a company’s projected revenues, costs, or expenses. A standard usually refers to a projected amount per unit of product, per unit of input (such as direct materials, factory overhead), or per unit of output.

Budgeting may be defined as the process of preparing plans for future activities of the business enterprise after considering and involving the objectives of the said organisation. This also provides process/steps of collection and preparation of data, by which deviations from the plan can be measured. This analysis helps to measure performance, cost estimation, minimizing wastage and better utilisation of resources of the organisation. Thus, budgets are prepared on the basis of future estimated production and sales in order to find out the profit in a specified period. In other words Budget is an estimate and a quantified plan for future activities to coordinate and control the uses of resources for a specified period. According to Institute of Cost and Works Accountants, “A budget is a financial and / or quantitative statement prepared prior to a defined period of time, of the Policy to be pursued during that period for the purpose of attaining a given objective.” Budgeting is a process which includes both the functions of budget and budgetory control. Budget is a planning function and budgetory control is a controlling system or a technique.


[MACME]

Case; Wilmont Chemical Corporation


[MACME]

12. Variance Analysis and Flexible Budgets

Meaning of Variance Analysis

Variance is the difference in the actual result and the standard result. It is a controlling technique in which the standard result is first set in the beginning of the month or year according to the accounting rules or company standards. Then the actual results are processed after the period. Then the actual results are compared with the expected or set standard results. When there is a difference in the result, this difference is known as variance. This difference is studied by the cost accountant to understand why this gap was formed and the reasons for it. This study or the reasons found out by the accountants on the basis of variance is known as variance analysis. If the actual result is better than the set result then it is known as a favourable result and if the actual result is worst then the standard result then it is unfavourable or adverse result.

Taking revenue into consideration, if actual is more than expected than favourable and standard more than actual than unfavourable result.

Taking cost into consideration, if actual more than expected than unfavourable and standard more than actual than favourable result.

Definition In accounting, a variance is defined as the difference between the expected amount and the actual amount of costs or revenues. Variance analysis uses this standard or expected amount versus the actual amount to judge performance. The analysis includes an explanation of the difference between actual and expected figures as well as an evaluation as to why the variance may have occurred. The purpose of this detailed information is to assist managers in determining what may have gone right or wrong and to help in future decision-making.

Favourable VarianceA variance can be put into the favorable category when the results are better than expected. This means that revenues were more than the expected amount or costs were below the budgeted amount. In accounting practice, a favorable variance is shown by noting a letter F in parenthesis on the reports. A favorable variance might earn a bonus for a manger, or perhaps a move up the corporate ladder.

Unfavourable VarianceIn contrast, the variance can be judged as unfavorable if the results are worse than expected. If the revenues were below expectations or the costs were higher than standard, the variance would be termed unfavorable or adverse. This would be denoted on the reports with the letter A or U. Consistently creating an unfavourable variance might result in a manger being reprimanded or losing their job. However, the analysis is typically used to help mangers prevent a negative situation from recurring by providing information about what went wrong.


[MACME]

Common Uses Variance analysis is commonly used in several aspects of business accounting. One of the most common is in the purchase of manufacturing materials. The variance is the price paid for the materials less the expected cost and then multiplied by the actual number of units used in the process. Another commonly seen usage is the selling price variance or the actual sales price minus expected, times the number of units. The analysis is also used with overhead and labor spending and efficiency.

Problems

Not all companies use variance analysis in their managerial process. There are several reasons for this, one of which is that it can be quite complex for the accountants to process all of the information necessary to discover why there may have been a problem or benefit that caused the variance. Finally, the standard figures used to calculate the variance may not be as accurate as the actual figures, thus the analysis may have little usefulness.

Many people think that adverse result is not good for the company but it is not true. Many a time what happens that the sales crosses the expected so in case of revenue there is a favourable result, and that time obviously the costs will be incurred more than expected i.e. adverse. So at this time you cannot say that the results were bad, the results eventually were better than expected. Therefore adverse effects are not always bad.

Item Budget Actual Variance Favourable

£'000 £'000 £'000 or Adverse

SALES REVENUE

Standard product 75 90 15 F

Premium product 30 25 -5 A

Total sales revenue 105 115 10 F

COSTS

Wages 35 38 3 A

Rent 15 17 2 A

Marketing 20 14 -6 F

Other overheads 27 35 8 A

Total costs 97 104 7 A


[MACME]

Profit 8 11 3 F

In the given illustration

1) Standard product actual is better than the expected thus the result is favourable2) Premium products actual sales are less than expected therefore unfavourable result.3) Therefore overall sales are better than expected.4) Wages, rent and other overheads has its actual cost more than the expected thus

adverse result.5) Marketing cost has its actual less than the expected thus its result is favourable.6) Thus overall cost has its actual more than the expected, the result is adverse.7) The overall revenue is better than the overall cost structure in actual condition thus the

total profit is favourable.

In the given illustration though the cost is adverse the total profit is more than expected, thus the total variance has a positive effect on the cost account.

Variance analysis helps in finding out where the actual results have been increased or decreased and thus corrective action can be taken by the managers to improve the profitability of the company by doing variance analysis. They can see where the costs have increased and thus they can either increase the sales value or reduce other costs to keep the profit per unit of the product same.

Reconciliation of Actual and Budgeted profits

Budgeted Profit is the profit which financial analysts of a company expect to have in a specific period of time (which normally is one year) in the future and Actual Profit is the profit which is actually earned by the company

Budgeting for a business is a process of preparing a detailed statement of financial results that are expected for a given time period in the future. There are two keywords in that statement. The first keyword is "expected." Expected means something that is likely to happen. The second keyword is "future" which is a period in the time to come. So, budgeting is the process of preparing a detailed statement of financial results that are likely to happen in a period in a time to come.

Reconciliation is the process of analyzing two related records and, if differences exist between them, finding the cause and bringing the two records into agreement. The more closer the Budgeted profits are to the actual profits , the better the accuracy of estimated utilisation of resources.


[MACME]

A variance is the difference between an actual result and a budgeted amount. We classify a variance as favourable or unfavourable based on their effect on current profit. A favourable (F) variance means that performance exceeded expectations—actual revenue exceeded budgeted revenue or actual cost was less than budgeted cost. An unfavourable (A) variance or adverse variance means that performance fell short of expectations—actual revenue was less than budgeted revenue or actual cost exceeded budgeted cost.

The flexible budget is a tool for performance evaluation. It is prepared at the end of the period. A flexible budget adjusts the fixed budget as per the actual level of output. The motivation for the flexible budget is to compare apples to apples. If the factory actually produced 10,000 units, then management should compare actual factory costs for 10,000 units to what the factory should have spent to make 10,000 units, not to what the factory should have spent to make 9,000 units or 11,000 units or any other production level.

Relationship between the budgeted and actual profit

Budgeted profit

plus

All favourable variances

minus

All adverse (unfavourable) variances

equals

Actual profit


[MACME]

Illustration 1

Amt in Rs

Per unit

Fixed Budget

Flexible Budget

Actual Result

Sales volume 1,000 1,200 1,200

Sales900.00 9,00,000 10,80,000 9,60,000

Purchases500.00 5,00,000 6,00,000 5,76,000

Installation costs 80.00 80,000 96,000 97,000

Delivery 5.00 5,000 6,000 6,000

fixed costs

Delivery 1,000 1,000 1,000

Overheads 1,20,000 1,20,000 1,23,000

Solution:

Per unit

Fixed Budget

Flexible Budget

Actual Result

Variance

Sales volume 1,000 1,200 1,200

Sales 900 9,00,000 10,80,000 9,60,000120,000 A

Less variable costs Purchases 500 5,00,000 6,00,000 5,76,000 24,000 FInstallation costs 80 80,000 96,000 97,000 1000 ADelivery 5 5,000 6,000 6,000 0 5,85,000 7,02,000 6,79,000 Contribution 3,15,000 3,78,000 2,81,000 63000 FLess fixed costs Delivery 1,000 1,000 1,000 0Overheads 1,20,000 1,20,000 1,23,000 3000 A 1,21,000 1,21,000 1,24,000


[MACME]

Net profit 1,94,000 2,57,000 1,57,000 37000 A

Reconciliation between Actual and Budgeted Profit

Budgeted Profit 194000

Add Favourable variances

24000

63000 87000

Less adverse variances

120000

1000

3000 -124000

Actual profit 157000

Although the budget report shows variances, it does not explain the reasons for the variance. The budget report is used by management to identify the sales or expenses whose amounts are not what were expected so management can find out why the variances occurred. By understanding the variances, management can decide whether any action is needed. Favourable variances are usually positive amounts, and unfavourable variances are usually negative amounts


[MACME]


Documents

Management Accounting Made Easy