Mamluk

An Egy ptian Mamlukwarrior in f ull armor andarmed with lance, shield,sabre and pistols

Mamluk lancers, early16th century (etching byDaniel Hopf er)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mam luk (Arabic: mamlk (singular), mamlk (plural), meaning "property" or "ow ned slave" of the king, alsotransliterated as mamlouk, mamluq, mamluke, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke or marmeluke) is an Arabic designation forslaves.More specif ically, it refers to:

Khw arazmian dynasty in Persia (10771231)Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi) (12061290)Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) (12501517)Mamluk dynasty of Iraq (17041831, under Ottoman Iraq)

The most enduring Mamluk realm w as the military caste in medieval Egypt that rose f rom theranks of slave soldiers w ho w ere mainly Turkic,[1] Circassian,[2] Georgian,[3][4][5] and CopticEgyptian.[6] Many Mamluks could also be of Balkan origin (Albanian, Greek, and South Slavic).[7][8] The "mamluk phenomenon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specif ic w arriorclass,[9] w as of great political importance and w as extraordinarily long-lived, lasting f rom the9th to the 19th centuries AD.Over time, mamluks became a pow erful military caste in various societies that w ere controlledby Muslim rulers. Particularly in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and India, mamluksheld political and military pow er. In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, w hile in othersthey held regional pow er as amirs or beys. Most notably, mamluk factions seized the sultanate for themselves in Egypt andSyria in a period know n as the Mamluk Sultanate (12501517). The Mamluk Sultanate famously beat back the troops of theIlkhanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut and fought the Crusaders, effectively driving them out f rom the Levant and Egypt in1213-1221 and 1154-1169 then off icially in 1302 f rom the Levant ending the era of the Crusades.[10]While mamluks w ere purchased, their status w as above ordinary slaves, w ho w ere not allow ed to carry w eapons or performcertain tasks. In places such as Egypt f rom the Ayyubid dynasty to the time of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, mamluks w ereconsidered to be true lords" and "true w arriors" w ith social status above the general population in Egypt and the Levant.[6][11]

Overview [ edit ]The origins of the mamluk system are disputed. Historians agree that the story of anentrenched military caste like the mamluks in Islamic societies begins w ith the 9th centuryAbbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The question is more precisely w hen in the 9th century. Thedominant view up to the 1990s w as that the earliest mamluks w ere know n as ghilman (anotherterm for slaves, broadly synonymous [12]) and w ere bought by the Abbasid caliphs, especiallyal-Mu'tasim (833-842). By the end of the 9th century, these slaves had become the dominantelement in the military. Conf lict betw een these ghilman and the population of Baghdad promptedthe caliph al-Mu'tasim to move his capital to the city of Samarra, but this did not succeed incalming tensions; the caliph al-Mutaw akkil w as assassinated by some of these slave-soldiersin 861 (see Anarchy at Samarra).[13] A more recent interpretation w ould distinguish betw een aghilman system, in Samarra, w ithout training and relying on pre-existing Central Asianhierarchies, mixing adult slaves and f reemen, and a later creation of an actual mamluk system,w ith the systematic training of young slaves, af ter the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in the870's.[14] The Mamluk system w ould have been a small-scale experiment of al-Muw affaq,combining the eff iciency as w arriors w ith improved reliability. This recent interpretation seemsto have been accepted.[15]After the f ragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, know n as either mamluks or Ghilman, became the basis of

1

A Mamluk nobleman f romAleppo, 19th century

Ottoman Mamluk heav ycav alry armour, circa 1550

military pow er throughout the Islamic w orld. The Fatimids of Egypt had forcibly taken Armenian,Turkic, Sudanese and Coptic Egyptian adolescents f rom their families in order to be trained asslave soldiers, w ho formed the bulk of their military and of ten their administration.[16] Thepow erful vizier Badr al-Jamali, for example, w as a mamluk of Armenian origin. In Iran and Iraq,the Buyids used Turkic slaves throughout their empire, such as the rebel al-Basasiri w hoeventually ushered in Saljuq rule in Baghdad af ter attempting a failed rebellion. When the laterAbbasids regained military control over Iraq, they also relied on the military slaves calledGhilman.[17]Under Saladin and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the pow er of the mamluks increased until theyclaimed the sultanate in 1250, ruling as the Mamluk Sultanate.[6] Military slavery continued to beemployed throughout the Islamic w orld until the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire's devirme,or "gathering" of young slaves for the Janissary corps, lasted until the 17th century, w hilemamluk-based regimes thrived in such Ottoman provinces of the Levant and Egypt until the 19thcentury.

Organization [ edit ]Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, Mamluks w ere purchased w hile still young and w ereraised in the barracks of the Citadel of Cairo. Because of their particular status (no social tiesor political aff iliations) and their austere military training, they w ere of ten trusted as theirtraining consisted of strict military education.[11] When their training w as completed they w eredischarged, but remained still attached to the patron w ho had purchased them. Mamluks reliedon the help of their patron for career advancement and likew ise the patrons reputation andpow er depended on his recruits. A Mamluk w as also "bound by a strong esprit de corps to hispeers in the same household."[11]Mamluks lived w ithin their garrisons and mainly spent their time w ith each other. Theirentertainments included sporting events such as archery competitions and presentations ofmounted combat skills at least once a w eek. The intensive and rigorous training of each newrecruit helped ensure continuity of Mamluk practices.[6]Sultans had the largest number of mamluks, but lesser amirs could have their ow n troops as

w ell. Many Mamluks rose to high positions throughout the empire, including army command.[6] At f irst their status remainednon-hereditary and they w ere strictly prevented f rom follow ing their father's role of life. How ever, over time, in places suchas Egypt, the Mamluk forces became linked to existing pow er structures and gained signif icant amounts of inf luence on thosepow ers.[6]

Relations with other backgrounds [ edit ]In Egypt, Georgian mamluks retained their native language, w ere aw are of the politics of the Caucasus region, receivedfrequent visits f rom their parents or other relatives, and sent gif ts to family members or gave money to build useful structures(a defensive tow er, or even a church) in their native villages in Georgia.[18]

Egypt [ edit ]Early Mamluks in Egypt [ edit ]Throughout the past centuries, Egypt w as controlled by the rulers notably the Ikhshidids, Fatimids and Ayyubids. Throughoutthese dynasties, thousands of mamluk servants and guards continued to be employed, and even took high off ices. Thisincreasing level of inf luence w orried the Ayyubids in particular, foreshadow ing the eventual rise of a Mamluk sultan.[6][19]According to Fabri a historian, had asserted that mamluks of Egyptian origin w ere all Christian born then became renegades byforce once they w ere forcibly taken f rom their family.[6] Although Egyptian mamluks came from Christian families, they w erealso believed by Islamic rulers to be not either true believers of Islam despite f ighting as slave soldiers on behalf of the Islamic

2

The battle of Wadi al-Khazandar,1299. depicting Mongol archers andMamluk cav alry (14th-centuryillustration f rom a manuscript of theHistory of the Tatars)

Mosque-Madrassa of SultanHassan (lef t) along with the laterAl-Rif a'i Mosque (right) and twoOttoman mosques (f oreground) Cairo

Mamluk-Sy rian glassware v esselsf rom the 14th century ; in the courseof trade, the middle v ase shownended up in Yemen and then China.

empire.[6]By 1200 Saladin's brother Al-Adil succeeded in securing control over the w hole empireby defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephew s in turn. With eachvictory Al-Adil incorporated the defeated mamluk retinue into his ow n. This processw as repeated at Al-Adil's death in 1218, and at his son Al-Kamil's death in 1238. TheAyyubids became increasingly surrounded by the pow er of the mamluks, actingsemi-autonomously as regional atabegs, and soon involved them in the internal courtpolitics of the kingdom itself .[6]

French attack and Mamluk takeover [ edit ]In June 1249, the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France landed in Egypt and tookDamietta. The Egyptian troops retreated at f irst, spurring the sultan to hang more than50 commanders as deserters. When the Egyptian sultan As-Salih Ayyub died, thepow er passed brief ly to his son Turanshah and then his favorite w ife, the ArmenianShajar al-Durr (or Shajarat-ul-Dur). She took control w ith mamluk support and launcheda counterattack. Troops of the Bahri commander Baibars defeated Louis's troops. Theking delayed his retreat too long and w as captured by the Mamluks in March 1250, andagreed to a ransom of 400,000 livres (150,000 of w hich w ere never paid).[20] Politicalpressure for a male leader made Shajar marry the mamluk commander Aybak; he w aslater killed in his bath, and in the pow er struggle that ensued vice-regent Qutuz tookover. He formally founded the f irst Mamluk sultanate and the Bahri dynasty.The f irst Mamluk dynasty w as named Bahri af ter the name of one of the regiments, theBahriya or River Island regiment. The Arabic name Bahri ( Arabic: meaning "of thesea or river"in Arabic) referred to their center in al-Rodah Island in the Nile. Theregiment consisted mainly of Kipchak Turks/Cumans.[21]

Mamluks and the Mongols [ edit ]When the Mongol Empire's troops of Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad in 1258 andadvanced tow ards Syria, Mamluk Emir Baibars lef t Damascus for Cairo w here he w asw elcomed by Sultan Qutuz.[22] Af ter taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuzsurrender Egypt but Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, w ith Baibars' help, mobilizedhis troops. Although Hulagu pulled the majority of his forces out of Syria to attend thekurultai w hen great Khan Mngke died in action against the Southern Song, he lef t hislieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge w ith a token force of about 18,000 men as agarrison.[23] Qutuz drew the Ilkhanate army into an ambush near the Orontes River,routed them at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 and captured and executed Kitbuqa (seeQutuz).Af ter this great triumph, Qutuz w as assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It w as said

that Baibars, w ho seized pow er, w as involved in the assassination. In the follow ing centuries the rule of mamluks w asdiscontinuous, w ith an average span of seven years.The Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanates a second time in the First Battle of Homs and began to drive them back east. In theprocess they consolidated their pow er over Syria, fortif ied the area, and formed mail routes and diplomatic connectionsbetw een the local princes. Baibars's troops attacked Acre in 1263, captured Caesarea in 1265, and took Antioch in 1268.Mamluks also defeated new Ilkhanate attacks in Syria in 1271 and 1281 (Second Battle of Homs). They w ere defeated by theIlkhanates and their Christian allies at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, but soon af ter that the Mamluks defeated theIlkhanate again in 1303/1304 and 1312. Finally, the Ilkhanates and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in 1323.

Burji dynasty [ edit ]

3

Mamluks attacking at theFall of Tripoli in 1289

By the late fourteenth century, Circassians f rom the North Caucasus region had become themajority in the Mamluk ranks.[2] In 1382 the Burji dynasty took over, as Barkuk w as proclaimedsultan, so ending the Bahri dynasty. Burji (Arabic: Burji is an Arabic term meaning "of thetow er") referred to their center in the citadel of Cairo. The dynasty consisted mainly ofCircassians.Barkuk became an enemy of Timur, w ho threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria,sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus af ter defeating the Mamluk army. The Sultan of theOttoman Empire Bayezid I then invaded Syria w hich w as regained by the Mamluk sultan Farajw hen Timur died in 1405, but continually facing rebellions f rom local emirs, he w as forced toabdicate in 1412. In 1421, Egypt w as attacked by the Kingdom of Cyprus, but the Egyptiansforced the Cypriotes to acknow ledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan Barsbay. DuringBarsbay's reign Egypt's population w as greatly reduced f rom w hat it had been a few centuriesbefore, w ith only 1/5 the number of tow ns.Al-Ashraf came to pow er in 1453 and had f riendly relations w ith the Ottoman Empire, w hocaptured Constantinople later that year, causing great rejoicings in Egypt. How ever, under thereign of Khoshqadam Egypt began the struggle betw een the Egyptian and the Ottoman sultanates. In 1467 sultan Kait Beyoffended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II, w hose brother w as poisoned. Bayezid II seized Adana, Tarsus and other placesw ithin Egyptian territory, but w as eventually defeated. Kait also tried to help the Muslims in Spain by threatening the Christiansin Syria, but w ithout effect. He died in 1496, several hundred thousand ducats in debt to the great Venetian trading families.

Portuguese-Mamluk Wars [ edit ]Vasco da Gama having in 1497 found his w ay round the Cape of Good Hope pushed his w ay across the Indian Ocean to theshores of Malabar and Kozhikode, attacking the f leets that carried f reight and Muslim pilgrims f rom India to the Red Sea, andstruck terror into the potentates all around. Various engagements took place. Cairo's Mamluk sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuhal-Ghaw ri w as aff ronted at the attacks upon the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traff ic, the indignities to w hich Mecca and itsport w ere subjected, and above all at the fate of one of his ships. He vow ed vengeance upon Portugal, f irst sending monksfrom the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as envoys, he threatened Pope Julius II that if he did not check Manuel I of Portugal inhis depredations on the Indian Sea, he w ould destroy all Christian holy places.[24]The rulers of Gujarat and Yemen also turned for help to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Their chief concern w as the f itting-out ofa f leet in the Red Sea w hich could protect their sea routes f rom Portuguese attack. Jeddah w as soon fortif ied as a harbor ofrefuge so Arabia and the Red Sea w ere protected, but the f leets in the Indian Ocean w ere at the mercy of the enemy.The last Mamluk sultan Al-Ghaw ri accordingly f itted out a f leet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval w arfare,the naval enterprise w as carried out w ith the help of the Ottomans.[25] In 1508 at the Battle of Chaul the Mamluk f leet w on overthe Portuguese viceroy's son Loureno de Almeida, but in the follow ing year the Portuguese w on the Battle of Diu in w hich thePort city of Diu w as w rested f rom the Gujarat Sultanate. Some years af ter, Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Aden, w hile theEgyptian troops suffered disaster in Yemen. Al-Ghaw ri f itted out a new f leet to punish the enemy and protect the Indian trade;but before its results w ere know n, Egypt had lost her sovereignty, and the Red Sea w ith Mecca and all its Arabian interestshad passed into the hands of the Ottoman Empire.

Ottomans and the end of the Mamluk Sultanate [ edit ]The Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II w as engaged in Europe w hen a new era of hostility w ith Egypt appeared in 1501. It arose outof the relations w ith the Safavid dynasty in Persia. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to the Republic of Venice via Syria, invitingVenice to ally w ith Persia and recover her territory taken by the Ottomans. Mameluk Egyptian sultan Al-Ghaw ri w as chargedby Selim I w ith giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their w ay to Venice and harboring refugees. To appeasehim, Al-Ghaw ri placed in conf inement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but af ter a year released them.[26]After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim attacked the bey of Dulkadirids, as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof , and sent hishead to Al-Ghaw ri. Now secure against Persia, in 1516 he formed a great army for the conquest of Egypt, but gave out thathe intended further attacks on Persia.

4

Charge of the Mamluk cav alry byCarle Vernet

Charge of the Mamluks during theBattle of the Py ramids by FelicianMy rbach. An elite body of cav alrywhom the French encountered duringtheir campaign in Egy pt in 1798, theMamluks could trace their lineage ofserv ice to the Ottomans back to themid-13th century.

In 1515, Selim began the w ar w hich led to the conquest Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for theOttoman artillery and Janissary infantry. On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, Sultan Al-Ghaw ri w as killed. Syriapassed into Turkish possession, an event w elcomed in many places as it w as seen as deliverance f rom the Mamelukes.[26]The Mamluke Sultanate survived in Egypt until 1517, w hen Selim captured Cairo on 20 January. Although not in the same formas under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burjifamily succeeded in regaining much of their inf luence, but as vassals of the Ottomans.[26][27]

Mamluk independence from the Ottomans [ edit ]In 1768, Sultan Ali Bey Al-Kabir declared independence f rom the Ottomans. How ever,the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position af ter his defeat. By thistime new slave recruits w ere introduced f rom Georgia in the Caucasus.

Napoleon invades [ edit ]In 1798, the ruling Directory of the Republic ofFrance authorised a campaign in "The Orient" toprotect French trade interests and undermineBritain's access to India. To this end, NapoleonBonaparte led an Arme d'Orient to Egypt.The French defeated a Mamluk army in the Battle of the Pyramids and drove thesurvivors out to Upper Egypt. The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changedonly by the addition of musket. The French infantry formed square and held f irm.Despite multiple victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, mountingconf lict in Europe and the earlier defeat of the supporting French f leet by the BritishRoyal Navy at the Battle of the Nile decided the issue.On 14 September 1799 General Jean Baptiste Klber established a mounted companyof Mamluk auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries f rom Turkish troops captured at the siegeof Acre. Menou reorganized the company on 7 July 1800, forming 3 companies of 100

men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la Rpublique". In 1801 General Jean Rapp w as sent to Marseille to organize asquadron of 250 Mamluks. On 7 January 1802 the previous order w as canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. Thelist of effectives on 21 April 1802 reveals 3 off icers and 155 other ranks. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks w ereorganized into a company attached to the Chasseurs--Cheval of the Imperial Guard (see Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard).Napoleon lef t w ith his personal guard in late 1799. His successor in Egypt, General Jean Baptiste Klber, w as assassinatedon 14 June 1800. Command of the Army in Egypt fell to Jacques-Franois Menou. Isolated and out of supplies, Menousurrendered to the British in 1801.

After Napoleon [ edit ]After the departure of French troops in 1801 Mamluks continued their struggle for independence, this time against the OttomanEmpire and Great Britain. In 1803, Mamluk leaders Ibrahim Beg and Usman Beg w rote a letter to the Russian consul-generaland asked him to act as a mediator w ith the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-f ire, and a return to their homelandGeorgia. The Russian ambassador in Constantinople categorically refused to mediate because the Russian government w asafraid of allow ing Mamluks to return to Georgia, w here a strong national liberation movement w as on the rise that might havebeen encouraged by a Mamluk return.[26]In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This w as an excellent opportunity for the Mamluks to seize pow er, but internaltension and betrayal prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces severaltimes, and in June the rival parties concluded a peace treaty by w hich Muhammad Ali, w ho had been appointed as governor ofEgypt on 26 March 1806, w as to be removed and the state authority in Egypt w as returned to the Mamluks. How ever, theyw ere again unable to capitalize on the opportunity due to conf licts therefore Muhammad Ali kept his authority over them.[6]

5

Massacre of the Mamelukes at theCairo citadel, 1811

End of Mamluk power in Egypt [ edit ]Muhammad Ali knew that he w ould have to deal w ith the Mamluks if he w anted tocontrol Egypt. They w ere still the feudal ow ners of Egypt and their land w as still thesource of w ealth and pow er. How ever the economic strain of sustaining the militarymanpow er necessary to defend the Mamluks's system from the Europeans and Turksw ould eventually w eaken them to the point of collapse.[28]On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace tocelebrate the declaration of w ar against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Betw een 600 and 700Mamluks paraded in Cairo. Near the Al-Azab gates, in a narrow road dow n fromMukatam Hill, Muhammad Ali's forces ambushed and killed almost all, in w hat came to beknow n as the Massacre of the Citadel. According to contemporary reports, only oneMamluk, w hose name is given variously as Amim (also Amyn), or Heshjukur (a Besleney), survived w hen he forced his horseto leap f rom the w alls of the citadel.[29]During the follow ing w eek an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives w ere killed throughout Egypt, by Muhammad'sregular troops. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 Mamluks died.Despite Muhammad Ali's destruction of the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and f led south into w hat is now Sudan.In 1811, these Mamluks established a state at Dunqulah in the Sennar as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan ofSennar informed Muhammad Ali that he w as unable to comply w ith a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the pashasent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it for Egypt. The pasha's forces received the submission ofthe kashif , dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered Kordofan, and accepted Sennar's surrender f rom the last Funj sultan,Badi VII.

Other Mamluk regimes [ edit ]There w ere various places in w hich mamluks gained political or military pow er as a self -replicating military community.

South Asia [ edit ]In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in the Indian subcontinent, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, proclaimed himself Sultan,becoming in effect the f irst independent Sultan-e-Hind. This Mamluk Sultanate lasted until 1290.

Iraq [ edit ]Mamluk corps w ere f irst introduced in Iraq by Hasan Pasha of Baghdad in 1702. From 1747 to 1831 Iraq w as ruled, w ith shortintermissions, by Mamluk off icers of Georgian origin[4][30] w ho succeeded in asserting autonomy from the Sublime Porte,suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the pow er of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization ofthe economy and the military. In 1831 the Ottomans overthrew Daw ud Pasha, the last Mamluk ruler, and imposed direct controlover Iraq.[31]

Mamluk rulers [ edit ]In Egypt [ edit ]Bahri Dynasty [ edit ]

1250 Shajar al-Durr (al-Salih Ayyub's Widow de facto ruler of Egypt)1250 al-Muizz Izz-ad-Din Aybak1257 al-Mansur Nur-ad-Din Ali1259 al-Muzaffar Saif ad-Din Qutuz1260 al-Zahir Rukn-ad-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari1277 al-Said Nasir-ad-Din Barakah Khan

6

A Mamluk on horseback,with a Piton or f oot Mamluk,and a Bedouin Arab soldier,1804

1280 al-Adil Badr al-Din Solamish1280 al-Mansur Saif -ad-Din Qalaw un al-Alf i1290 al-Ashraf Salah-ad-Din Khalil1294 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalaw un first reign1295 al-Adil Zayn-ad-Din Kitbugha1297 al-Mansur Husam-ad-Din Lajin1299 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalaw un second reign1309 al-Muzaffar Rukn-ad-Din Baybars II al-Jashankir1310 al-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalaw un third reign1340 al-Mansur Saif -ad-Din Abu-Bakr1341 al-Ashraf Ala'a-ad-Din Kujuk1342 al-Nasir Shihab-ad-Din Ahmad1342 al-Salih Imad-ad-Din Ismail1345 al-Kamil Saif ad-Din Shaban1346 al-Muzaffar Zein-ad-Din Hajji1347 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan first reign1351 al-Salih Salah-ad-Din Ibn Muhammad1354 al-Nasir Badr-ad-Din Abu al-Ma'aly al-Hassan second reign1361 al-Mansur Salah-ad-Din Mohamed Ibn Hajji1363 al-Ashraf Zein al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali ibn Shaban1376 al-Mansur Ala-ad-Din Ali Ibn al-Ashraf Shaban1382 al-Salih Salah Zein al-Din Hajji II first reign

Burji Dynasty [ edit ]1382 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq, first reign1389 Hajji II second reign (w ith honorif ic title al-Muzaffar or al-Mansur) Temporary Bahrirule1390 az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Barquq, Second reign Burji rule re-established1399 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj1405 Al-Mansoor Azzaddin Abdal Aziz1405 An-Nasir Naseer ad-Din Faraj (second time)1412 Al-Adil Al-Musta'in (Abbasid Caliph, proclaimed as Sultan)1412 Al-Muayad Sayf ad-Din Shaykh1421 Al-Muzaffar Ahmad1421 Az-Zahir Saif ad-Din Tatar1421 As-Salih Nasir ad-Din Muhammad1422 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Barsbay1438 Al-Aziz Djamal ad-Din Yusuf1438 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq1453 Al-Mansoor Fahr ad-Din Osman1453 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Enal1461 Al-Muayad Shihab ad-Din Ahmad1461 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Khushkadam1467 Az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Belbay1468 Az-Zahir Temurbougha1468 Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qaitbay1496 Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad first reign1497 Qansuh Al-Burji

7

The mausoleum of Qutubud Din Aibak in Anarkali,Lahore, Pakistan.

1497 Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad second reign1498 Qansuh Al-Ashraf i1500 Al-Bilal Ayub1500 Al-Ashraf Janbalat1501 Al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tuman bay I1501 Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghaw ri1517 Al-Ashraf Tuman bay II

In India [ edit ]1206 Qutb-ud-din Aybak, founded Mamluk Sultanate, Delhi1210 Aram Shah1211 Shams ud din Iltutmish. Son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aybak.1236 Rukn ud din Firuz. Son of Iltutmish.1236 Razia Sultana. Daughter of Iltutmish.1240 Muiz ud din Bahram. Son of Iltutmish.1242 Ala ud din Masud. Son of Rukn ud din.1246 Nasir ud din Mahmud. Son of Iltutmish.1266 Ghiyas ud din Balban. Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish.1286 Muiz ud din Qaiqabad. Grandson of Balban and Nasir ud din.1290 Kayumars. Son of Muiz ud din.

In Iraq [ edit ]1704 Hasan Pasha1723 Ahmad Pasha, son of Hasan1749 Sulayman Abu Layla Pasha, son-in-law of Ahmad1762 Omar Pasha, son of Ahmad1780 Sulayman Pasha the Great, son of Omar1802 Ali Pasha, son of Omar1807 Sulayman Pasha the Little, son of Sulayman Great1813 Said Pasha, son of Sulayman Great1816 Daw ud Pasha (18161831)

In Acre [ edit ]1805 Sulayman Pasha al-Adil, mamluk of Jezzar Pasha1819 Abdullah Pasha ibn Ali (1819-1831)

"Mamluk" as derogatory term [ edit ]The term Mamluk became know n throughout Europe follow ing the Ottoman conquests of Egypt and the Levant in 15161517. Itw as used as a derogatory term in Geneva, just prior to the overthrow of Savoy rule in 1526 by the supporters of PhilibertBerthelier, to describe the faction in the state council that advocated the continued rule of the Savoy dynasty. As Mamlukmeans "slaves of the king", the republican faction in Geneva used it to suggest that the supporters of Savoy rule w ere theenemies of f reedom.

Office titles and terminology [ edit ]The follow ing terms originally come from either Turkish or Ottoman language (it is developed form of Turkish) that is composedof Turkish, Arabic, and Persian w ords and grammar structures.

English Arabic Notes

8

Alama Sultaniya The mark or signature of the Sultan put on his decrees, letters anddocuments.Al-Nafir al-Am General emergency declared during w arAmir PrinceAmir Akhur supervisor of the royal stable (f rom Persian meaning stable)Amir Majlis Guard of Sultan's seat and bed

Atabek Commander in chief (literally "father-lord," originally meaning anappointed step-father for a non-Mamluk minor prince)Astadar Chief of the royal servantsBarid Jawi Airmail (mail sent by carrier-pigeons, amplif ied by Sultan Baibars)Bayt al-Mal treasuryCheshmeh A pool of w ater, or fountain (literally "eye"), f rom Persian

Dawadar Holder of Sultan's ink bottle (f rom Persian meaning bearer of theink bottle)Fondok Hotel (some famous hotels in Cairo during the Mamluk era w ere Daral-Tofah, Fondok Bilal and Fondok al-Salih)Hajib Doorkeeper of sultan's courtIqta Revenue f rom land allotmentJamkiya Salary paid to a MamlukJashnakir Food taster of the sultan (to assure his beer w as not poisoned)

Jomdar An off icial at the department of the Sultan's clothing (f rom Persian, meaning keeper of cloths)Kafel al-mamalekal-sharifah al-islamiyaal-amir al-amri

Title of the Vice-sultan (Guardian of the Prince of Command [lit.Commander-in-command] of the Dignif ied Islamic Kingdoms)

Khan A store that specialized in selling a certain commodity

Khaskiya Courtiers of the sultan and most trusted royal mamluks w ho functionedas the Sultan's bodyguards/ A privileged group around a prominent Amir(f rom Persian , meaning close associates)

Khastakhaneh Hospital (f rom Ottoman Turkish , f rom Persian)Khond Wife of the sultanKhushdashiya Mamluks belonging to the same Amir or Sultan.

Mahkamat al-Mazalim Court of complaint. A court that heard cases of complaints of peopleagainst state off icials. This court w as headed by the sultan himself .Mamalik Kitabeya Mamluks still attending training classes and w ho still live at the Tebaq(campus)Mamalik Sultaneya Mamluks of the sultan;to distinguish f rom the Mamluks of the Amirs(princes)Modwarat al-Sultan Sultan's tent w hich he used during travel.Mohtaseb Controller of markets, public w orks and local affairs.

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Morqadar Works in the Royal Kitchen (f rom Persian meaning oneresponsible for the fow l)Mushrif Supervisor of the Royal KitchenNa'ib Al-Sultan Vice-sultanQa'at al-insha'a Chancery hallQadi al-Qoda Chief justiceQalat al-Jabal Citadel of the Mountain (the abode and court of the sultan in Cairo)

Qaranisa Mamluks w ho moved to the service of a new Sultan or f rom the serviceof an Amir to a sultan.Qussad Secret couriers and agents w ho kept the sultan informedOstaz Benefactor of Mamluks (the Sultan or the Emir) (f rom Persian )

Rank An emblem that distinguished the rank and position of a Mamluk(probably f rom Persian meaning color)Sanjaqi A standard-bearer of the Sultan.

Sharabkhana Storehouse for drinks, medicines and glass-w ares of the sultan. (f romPersian meaning w ine cellar)Silihdar Arm-Bearer (f rom Arabic + Persian , meaning arm-bearer)Tabalkhana The amir responsible for the Mamluk military band, f rom Persian Tashrif Head-covering w orn by a Mamluk during the ceremony of inaugurationto the position of Amir.Tawashi A Eunuch responsible for serving the w ives of the sultan andsupervising new Mamluks.Tebaq Campus of the Mamluks at the citadel of the mountain

Tishtkhana Storehouse used for the laundry of the sultan (f rom Persian ,meaning tub room)Wali viceroy

Yuq A large linen closet used in every mamluk home, w hich stored pillow sand sheets. (Related to the present Crimean Tatar w ord Yuqa, "tosleep". In modern Turkish: Yklk.)

Gallery [ edit ]

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Portrait of aMamluk, 1779

A Mamlukcavalryman,

drawing by CarleVernet, 1810

The Second of May 1808:The Charge of the Mamluks

by Francisco de Goya (1814)

Armenianmamluk

Roustam Razawas Napoleon's

personalbodyguard;portrait by

Jacques-NicolasPail lot deMontabert

Soldiers of Napoleon's62me rgiment de

ligne and a Mameluk(historical

reenactment)

Today's U.S. Marine Corps officers' Mameluke swordresembles those used by the Mamluks

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