Malingering as role taking

32 Journal of Clinical Psychology, January, 1976, Vol. 32, No. 1.

REFERENCES 1. CONGER, A. J. Estimating profile reliability and maximally reliable composites. MuU. behav. Res., 1974, 9, 85-104.

2. CONGER, A. J. and LIPSHITZ, R. Measures of reliability for profiles and test batteries. Psycho- metrika, 1973, 38, 411-427.

3. FASCHINGBAUER, T. R. A 166-item short form of the Group MMPI: The FAM. J . consult. c h . Psychol., 1974, 42, 645-655.

4. HAYS, W. L. Statistics for the Social Sciences. (2nd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1973.

5 . KINCANNON, J. C. Prediction of the standard MMPI scale scores from 71-items: The Mini- Mult. J . consult. clin. Psychol., 1968, 32, 319-325.

6. LORD, F. M. and NOVICK, M. R. Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores. Reading, Mass.: ~. Addison-Wesley, 1968.

7. MCNEMAR, Q. Psychological Statistics. (3rd ed.) New York: John Wdey, 1962. 8. NEWMARK. C. S.. BOAS, B. and ME~SERVY. T. An abbreviated MMPI for use with college students. Piychol. ‘Rep,, 1974, 34, 631-634. ‘

NEWMARK, C. S., COOK, L., CLARKE, M. and FASCHINGBAUER, T. R. Application of Fasching- bauer’s abbreviated MMPI to psychiatric inpatienta. J . consult. elin. Psychol., 1973, 41, 416-421.

NEWMARK, C. S. and GLENN, L. Sensitivity of Faschingbauer’s abbreviated MMPI to hospitalized adolescents. J. abn. child Psychol., in press.

NEWMARK, C. S., NEWMARK, L. and FASCHINGBAUER, T. I?. Utility of three abbreviated MMPIs with psychiatric out atients. J . nerv. ment. Dis., 1974, 169, 336-341.

of three abbreviated MMPIs for psychiatric patients and normals. J. pers. Assess., in press.

ing of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans 1974.

- 9.

10.

11.

12. NEWM.4RK, c. s., OWEN, d., NEWMARK, L., COOK, L. and FASCHINGBAUER, T. R. Comparison

13. RICKS, J. H. Remarks concerning abbreviated MMPI forms. Discussant at the annual meet-

MALINGERING AS ROLE TAKING’ NICHOLAS ANTHONY~

Cincinnati Health Department

PROBLEM

Previous studies of “faking bad” on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (RIMPI) have been concerned primarily with the detection of this response set 7 - l o ) . This concern for successfully detecting a malingering response set has grown out of the viewpoint that the usefulness of the MMPI is dependent upon the honesty of the S or the ability of the interpreter to detect dishonest reporting. Recent investigations (6 , 11), however, have indicated that the simulator’s ability to present deliberately an altered picture of himself may be related to his psychological adjustment. As Canter@, p . 253) states, “It is specifically suggested that falsification of test scores and the capacity to do so may be a personality variable of considerable importance in its own right rather than merely an undesirable and incidental factor t o be (corrected for’.’’ Indeed, there is evidence of a positive relationship between the ability to feign psychological health and psychological adjustment(*, 19* 21). Sarbin p . 233), “It is a widely accepted postulate that the more roles in a person’s behavior repertory, the ‘better’ his social adjustment-other things being equal.” Milgram ( 2 0 ) specifically states that the well- adjusted person should be able to simulate not only adequate behavior, but also inadequate behavior. Lanyon (l’) supported this contention with the finding that well-adjusted college males were better able to simulate a psychopathic MMPI profile than were maladjusted college males.

‘The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. William Seeman, Dr. Joe Senter, and Dr. Beth Wales

*Requests for reprints should be sent to Nicholas Anthony, 3611 Burch Avenue, Cincinnati, for their assistance and guidance throughout this study.

Ohio, 45208.

Malingering as Role Taking 33

Generally, the relationship between role-taking ability and intelligence is unclear. Sarbin(”) interprets the data as an indication of a “slight positive relationship.”

The present study investigates : (1) the relationship between simulation ability and the simulator’s psychological adjustment; and (2) the correlation between intelligence and role-taking ability. The MMPI is used to measure role-taking ability, and psychological adjustment is assessed by the Psychological Screening Inventory (la) (PSI) and the Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire (NSQ). Intelligence is measured by the Quick Word Test (QWT), which correlates .84 with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( 6 ) .

It is necessary to eliminate a high degree of similarity between the S and his simulation target to control for the artifacts of real and assumed similarity. Though there is 12) that most people tend to “assume similarity” with simulation targets, this artifact has not been controlled in previous studies. Thus, Ss who are more similar to their simulation target would assume similarity more successfully, but not due to their role-taking ability. In this study, Ss were assigned a simulation target other than their diagnostic label, and the PSI scale indicative of their simulation target was not above a scaled score of 70.

The degree of similarity between the simulated and criteria profiles was evalu- ated via the application of Marks and Seeman’s(19) configural rules for definition of the simulation target and duMas’s rpa(8). Previous studies have devised discrete rules for the evaluation of successful simulation, which results in a dichotomous hit-or-miss evaluation. Marks and Seeman’s rules emphasize the elevation and scatter elements, while the duMas rps emphasizes the shape or configural elements. When Marks and Seeman’s rules were applied, a T-score was given from each rule that the simulated profile successfully met, to the degree that the rule was met. For example, the 2-7 simulation: the number of T-scores that scales 2 and 7 were above 70 was the score for rule 1. When scales 2 and 7 were not above 70, no score was given. The number of T-scores that scale 2 was greater than scale 7 was the score for rule 2. When scale 2 was not greater than scale 7, no score was given. Success of simulation measured by the Marks and Seeman’s rules was a total of the scores from the nine empirically validated configural rules that defined each of the simulation targets. duMas’s coefficient of profile similarity, rps, is a number that describes the similarity of the simulated to the criteria profiles in terms of the slope of corresponding segments. The MMPI has 11 profile segments, 2 that connect its three validity scales and 9 that connect its 10 clinical scales.

Previous studies have categorized Ss discretely as either adjusted or maladjusted. The PSI and NSQ placed Ss along different psychopathology dimensions, which were correlated with their simulation success.

The two hypotheses were: (1) there will be a significant negative relationship between the psychopathology and simulation scores; and (2) there will be a significant positive relationship between the simulation and intelligence scores. These correlations were obtained on all Ss and subgroups by sex, race, diagnosis, and simulation target.

METHOD Subjects. The 132 Ss were 48 inpatients, 48 outpatients, and 36 nonprofessional

employees of a state psychiatric hospital, at least 21 years of age. Of the 96 patient Ss, 28 had neurotic, 10 personality disorder, and 58 psychotic diagnoses. The Index of Status Characteristics (24) placed 103 Ss in the upper-lower class, 27 in the lower-lower, 1 in the lower-middle, and 1 in the upper-middle class. The Ss’ edu- cational level ranged from 5 to 17 years, and their age ranged from 21 to 62. There were 99 Caucasians and 32 blacks, 63 male and 69 female Ss. There were 45 simulations of the 2-7, 43 of the 4-9, and 44 of the 6-8 MMPI profile type.

Procedure. All Ss were given, in order, the demographic data sheet, the Index of Status Characteristics, NSQ, PSI, QWT, land simulation MMPI task. The Ss


were assigned in serial order to the 2-7, 4-9, or 6-8 simulation targets, unless their current diagnoses and/or immediately scored PSI profile characterized them to be that type of personality. That, is, the 4-9 MMPI profile simulators’ Social Non- conformity scale, 2-7 simulators’ Discomfort scale, and 6-8 simulators’ Alienation scale was not above 70. In such cases, the next simulation target was assigned. The simulation personality descriptions were copied pretty closely from the MMPI Manual(13), with changes in wording for clarity. This personality description was presented with a case study of that profile type(14).

The 10 psychopathology scores from the PSI and NSQ were correlated with the 2 success-of-simulation scores. The intelligence score also was correlated with the success of simulation scores. Additionally, the 2 success-of-simulation scores were correlated in a Pearson r to determine whether they were measuring similar elements in the profiles. The PSI and NSQ also were correlated to determine whether they were measuring similar elements of psychopathology.

RESULTS Psychopathology Measures. The total S pool created a wide range along dif-

ferent dimensions of psychopathology, which could be correlated with role-taking ability (see Table 1). TABLE 1. MEASURES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND THE VERBAL INTELLIGENCE SCORE OF ENTIRE

S POOL (N = 132)

Mean Median Mode SD ~~

Psychopathology PSI: Alienation (Al) PSI : Social Non-conformity (Sn) PSI: Discomfort (Di) PSI: Expression (Ex) PSI: Defensiveness (De) NSQ: Emotional Sensitivity (I) NSQ: Depression (F) NSQ: Submissiveness (E) NSQ: Anxiety (An) NSQ: Total (T)

Intelligence QWT

59 53 55 48 49 43 57 56 70 62

29

58 53 55 49 50 33 50 51 68 57

21

54 57 53 51 51 40 49 39 59 56

5

14 9

12 8

10 16 20 18 19 21

17

Note: PSI = Personality Screening Inventory, NSQ = Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire, = Quick Word Test

QWT

The PSI and NSQ characterize the 8s as highly anxious, as indicated by the Discomfort and Anxiety scales, and similar to hospitalized psychiatric patients, as indicated by the Alienation scale. The Social Nonconformity, Expression, and Defensiveness scales’ means and standard deviations are not significantly deviant from normal. The Emotional Sensitivity component indicates that they are slightly more tough-minded than sensitive. The Depression dimension indicates them to be rather depressed and inhibited, but not as much as they are anxious. The Sub- missiveness scale does not characterize them as particularly more submissive or assertive, although the range is greater than normal. The Total score indicates a strong neurotic trend; Ss within one standard deviation of the mean are characterized as belonging in the neurotic category.

Verbal Intelligence Measure. There was wide variation in the verbal intelligence of the Ss, as reflected in the large standard deviation (see Table 1). The QWT


mode was 5, median 21, and mean 29, which indicates a positive skew. This con- verts to Otis-Gamma estimated equivalent IQs of 79, 95 and 105, respectively ( 6 ) .

Success of Simulation Measures. Success of simulation scores obtained from Marks and Seeman’s profile rules’ definition of the target profiles and duMas’s coefficient of profile similarity were found to be related insignificantly, r = 22, which supports the hypothesis that these two measures are sensitive to different dimensions of similarity between the simulated and criteria profiles. The duMas r,, measure of the configural similarities and the Marks and Seeman’s rules are more sensitive to scatter and elevation similarities.

Entire S Pool. The hypothesis of a negative relationship between role-taking ability and psychopathology was not confirmed broadly. Pearson correlations between the 10 psychopathology measures and the 2 success of simulation measures indicate a range of correlations from .31 t o -.23 (see Table 2). Most correlations are positive rather than negative, with the NSQ Emotional Sensitivity and the PSI Expression scale significantly ( p < .OOl) correlated with simulation. The PSI Alienation and Defensiveness scales and the NSQ Depression scale, however, do bear a consistently negative relationship to the simulation scores.

TABLE 2. ENTIRE S POOL CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND SIMULATION SCORES

Psychopathology Scales

duMas MMPI Profde *Ps Rules

PSI Alienation (Al) r Simulation Social Nonconformity (Sn) Discomfort (Di) Expression (Ex) Defensiveness (De)

NSQ Total (T) Emotional Sensitivity (I) Depression (F) Submissiveness (E ) Anxiety (An)

-.17 .13 . O l .08

- .07

. 01 .10

- .04 , 00 .oo

-.15 .16 .06 .27*

- .09

.08 .31*

- .13 .10 .07

* p < .001

The relationships between simulation ability and general psychopathology are: (a) measures of extraversion (Ex) and emotional sensitivity (I) are correlated positively and significantly with simulation scores ; (b) the antisocial behavior measure (Sn) is related positively to simulation success; and (c) indicators of anxiety (Di and An), similarity to clinically defined neurotics (Total), and submissiveness (E) bear a negligible relationship to role-taking scores.

In general, the hypothesis of a positive relationship between role-taking ability and verbal intelligence is confirmed. With the use of Marks and Seeman’s configural rules, successful simulation bears a significant, positive relationship ( p < .OOl) to verbal intelligence, r = .30. Simulation ability defined by duMas’s rps is also positively, though not significantly, related to verbal intelligence, r = .17.

Male and Female Ss. With male Ss: (a) similarity to hospitalized psychiatric patients (Al) and depression (F) was related significantly and negatively to suc-

TA

BL

E 3.

DIR

EC

TIO

N

OF

CO

RR

EL

AT

ION

S B

ET

WE

EN

PS

YC

HO

PAT

HO

LO

GY

A

ND

IN

TE

LL

IGE

NC

E

AN

D T

HE

SIM

UL

AT

ION

SC

OR

ES OF

A

LL S

GR

OU

PS

PSI

PSI

PSI

PSI

PSI

NSQ

N

SQ

NSQ

N

SQ

NSQ

A

L SN

D

I E

X

DE

I

F

E

AN

T

OT

AL

Q

WT

rp

a M&

S rP

M&

S rP

M$S

r,

M

&S

rP M

&S

rps M

&S

r,

M&

S rP

M&

S r,

M

&S

rpa M

&S

rps M

&S

-

All

ss -

- +

+ +

+ +

+*

*-

-

++

**

--

0 +

0

+ +

+ +

+**

M

8If-S

-

-**

+

+

-

+

+

+

- +

+*

* -

-**

++

-+

++

**

Fem

ales

-

+ +

+ $

4 +

+ -

- -

+ +

-

+ +

-

+ +*

+**

Cau

casi

ans

- -

++

++

++

*-

-

Bla

cks

-* -

++

--

++

++

++

++

++

++

++

-+

N

euro

tics

+ +

+**

+ +*

+*

-

-

Pers

onal

ity

+-

++

-

-

+-

+

+*

* - -

--

++

++

--

+* +

* +

+ +

+*

+-

+-

--

--

-+

Ps

ycho

tics

- -

++

++

--

++

++

+-

+-

++

+-

++

-

+ -

+ -

+

Empl

oyee

s -

- +

+ -

- +

+ -

- +

+ -

-

--

-

- -

-

Dis

orde

rs

+ +

- +

-

+ +

+**

-

- -

-

2-7 S~U-

lato

rs

--

--

-

+ -

+ +

+**

+ +*

* +

+ +*

* +

+ -

+ +

+**

+**

49

sim

u-

lato

rs

6-8 Sirnu-

lato

rs

-+

-

-**

- -

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

++

++

++

**

--

+

+ +

+ -

+ -

- +

+*

* +

-

--

-

AL

= A

!iena

tion,

SN

= S

ocia

l Non

conf

orm

ity, D

I =

Dis

com

fort

, EX

= E

xpre

ssio

n, D

E =

Def

ensi

vene

ss, I

= E

mot

iona

l Sen

sitiv

ity,

F =

Dep

ress

ion,

E =

Sub

mis

sive

ness

, AN

= A

nxie

ty, T

OT

AL

= T

otal

Neu

rotic

isni

Sco

re, Q

WT

= Quick W

ord

Tes

t, T

of p

rofil

e sim

ilari

t =

duM

as c

oeff

icie

nt

M&

S =

Mar

ks a

nd S

eem

an p

rofil

e ru

les

*p <

.005

; %

p <

.001

i b.

Q

N


cessful simulation ( p < .OOl) (see Table 4, Table A)a; (b) anxiety indices (D and An) were related consistently and negatively to simulation scores; (c) measures of defensiveness (De), overall neurotic trends (T), and submissiveness (E) had negligible and inconsistent relationships to role-taking ; (d) scales that measure social nonconformity (Sn) and extraversion (Ex) are related consistently and positively to role-taking scores; and (e) emotional sensitivity (I) is correlated significantly and positively ( p < .OOl) with successful simulation.

With female Ss: (a) the measures of anxiety (Di) and extraversion (Ex), were related consistently and positively to the simulation scores (see Table B) ; (b) the scales that assess depression (F), similarity to incarcerated prisoners (Sn), anxiety (An), and similarity to hospitalized psychiatric patients (Al) had a rather negligible relation to simulation ability; (c) test-taking attitude (De) and submissiveness (E) were related negatively to successful simulation; and (d) depending upon the simulation score used, emotional sensitivity (I) and similarity to patients clinically judged to be neurotic (Total) fluctuated in the relation to role-taking.

The correlation of verbal intelligence with successful simulation was positive and stronger for the females than for the males. For the females, the correlation between intelligence and successful simulation when measured by the duMas rps was .26 and when measured by Marks and Seeman’s MMPI rules was .37 ( p < .OOl). For the males, the relationship between intelligence and successful simulation when measured by the duMas rps was .07 and when measured by the Marks and Seeman MMPI rules was .19.

Caucasians and Blacks. Caucasian Ss had no significant negative correlations between psychopathology and simulation scores (see Table 4, Table C). However, successful simulation was related positively and significantly to the emotional sensitivity (I) ( p < .001) and extraversion (Ex) ( p < .005) measures. Both of these significant correlations occur only when Marks and Seeman’s configural rules measure successful simulation. The black Ss had no positive significant correlations between the simulation and psychopathology measures ; however, the PSI Alienation scale was related significantly and negatively ( p < .005) to role- taking, r = -.48 (see Table D).

The Caucasians’ intelligence scores correlate significantly with success of simulation as measured by the Marks and Seeman profile rules ( p < .OOl), r = .35, and as measured by the duMas r,, ( p < .005), r = .26. The black Ss’ QWT scores were not correlated significantly with successful role taking, whether measured by the duMas rps, -.04, or the MMPI profile rules, r = .12.

Neurotics, Personality Disorders, Psychotics, and Employees. The Ss diagnosed as neurotic had Sn, Di, and An scales that correlated positively and significantly with their simulation scores, .73 ( p < .001), .67 ( p < .OO5), and .59 ( p < .005), respectively (see Table 4, Table E). Ss with a personality disorder diagnosis had a positive significant correlation ( p < .OOl) of .72 between the extraversion measure (Ex) and successful simulation, as measured by the Marks and Seeman profile rules (see Table F). Those Ss with psychotic diagnoses and the employees exhibited no significant correlations between the psychopathology measures and simulation scores (see Tables G and H).

For the Ss diagnosed as neurotic, the QWT scores correlated positively with simulation success as measured by the duMas rw, -32, and the MMPI profile rules, .55 ( p < .005). For Ss with psychotic diagnoses, simulation measured by the duMas and Marks and Seeman measures correlated with intelligence .07 and .14,

3Tables of the correlations between psychopathology and simulation scores for nll subgroups have been deposited with the National Auxiliary Publications Service. Order Document No. 02618 from National Auxiliary Publications service of the American Society for Information Science, c/o CCM Information Sciences, Inc., 909 Third.Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10022. Remit in advance $5.00 for photocopies and $.50 for microfiche and make checks payable to: Research and Microfilm Publications, Inc.


respectively. The relationship between role-taking and verbal intelligence is negative for the personality disorders, - .11, and employees, - .26, when role-taking success is measured by the rps. This relationship is positive, but weak, when role- taking is measured by the Marks and Seeman profile rules for the personality disorders, .25, and employees, .02.

The 2-7, 4-9, and 6-8 Simulation Targets. Successful simulations of the 2-7 MMPI profile were not related significantly and negatively to any of the psychopathology measures (see Table 4, Table I). However, the 2-7 simulation scores were related significantly ( p < . O O l ) and positively to the submissiveness (E), emotional sensitivity (I), and defensiveness (De) measures. All of the measures of psychopathology were related negatively to successful simulation of the 4-9 MMPI profile type (see Table J). The PSI’S Alienation scale was significantly ( p < .001) so related. Simulation scores of the 6-8 profile pattern were related significantly ( p < .OOl) and positively only to the NSQ measure of emotional sensitivity (I) (see Table K).

In simulations of the 2-7 MMPI profile, the QWT scores are related significantly ( p < .OOl) to successful simulation, as measured by the duMas rps, .45, and the Marks and Seeman profile rules, .56. The verbal intelligence scores also are related positively and significantly ( p < .OOl) to successful role-taking of the 6-8 profile type, as measured by the Marks and Seeman profile rules, .45, and positively related as measured by the duMas rps, .14. Simulation of the 4-9 profile was not related significantly t o verbal intelligence, -.15 and .17.

DISCUSSION In general, the hypothesis of a negative relationship between psychopathology

and the ability to simulate a pathological role was not supported. A differential pattern of correlations with some dimensions of psychopathology significantly correlated with the simulation scores of particular S groups, in the simulation of certain personality types, using particular simulation success measures was found, Thus, the validity of this hypothesis is contingent upon the dimension of psychopathology that is being measured; the sex, race, and diagnostic categorization of the S ; the personality type that is being simulated; and the measure of simulation success.

Only the psychopathology dimension of similarity to hospitalised psychiatric patients, PSI’S Alienation scale, consistently indicated a negative relationship between psychological adjustment and successful pathological simulation (see Table 3). The scale was correlated negatively with the simulation scores on 19 of the 24 correlations. x2 one-sample test finds this to be a significantly greater ( p < .01) number of negative than positive correlations (23).

There were, however, psychopathology scores that correlated positively with successful pathological role-taking. The PSI measures of similarity to incarcerated prisoners (Sn) and extraversion (Ex) were related positively to the role-taking scores on 19 and 16 of the 24 correlations, respectively. Similarly, the NSQ component of emotional sensitivity (I) was related positively to the simulation scores on 19 of the 24 correlations. The Sn and I scales have a significantly greater number of positive than negative correlations with successful simulation ( p < .O l ) . The Social Nonconformity scale’s positive relationship to successful simulation (see Table 3) is at variance with Gough’s (lo) theory that psychopathic personalities are characterized by a deficiency in role-taking skills and the findings of Baker@) and Lanier(16) that psychopathic individuals are less able to take on other roles.

The relationship between psychopathology and successful pathological simulation also changes according to the S population. The hypothesis that successful role-taking is related inversely to psychopathology seems more applicable to males than females, to blacks than to Caucasians, and to neurotics than to personality disorders, psychotics, or normals. Lanyon’s study dealt only with male Ss; thus his results may have been influenced by a failure to balance for sex.


The personality type that was being simulated also affected the relationship of psychopathology to successful pathological simulation. Dimensions of psychopathology more frequently were correlated negatively with successful simulation of a psychopathic deviate personality than a neurotic or psychotic personality. All of the correlations of psychopathology with simulations of the MMPI 4-9 profile pattern were negative. Since Lanyon studied only simulations of the 4-9 profile pattern, his finding of a negative relationship between psychopathology and successful malingering may be restricted only to simulations of a psychopathic deviate.

Only Lanyon (l’) and Hefland (15) have investigated whether the relationship between psychological adjustment and role-taking includes the feigning of pathological as well as healthy roles. As some difficulties have been indicated in Lanyon’s study and the present study has not found confirmatory evidence with regard to SS diagnosed as psychotic, it must be considered that psychopathology may inter- fere with successful simulation of healthy roles, but is not related broadly to successful simulation of pathological roles; simulation of the psychopathic deviate personality may be an exception. This interpretation is at variance with Milgram’s (20)

prediction that psychological adjustment would affect the simulation of both well- adjusted and pathological roles. However, Gough (11) explains that role-taking skills are based on interpersonal interactions and role-taking experiences. Pre- vious studies that found psychological adjustment to be related to role-taking ability used a simulation target of general psychological adjustment. The present study used specific, psychologically maladjusted simulation targets and did not find such a broad relationship. Thus, previous studies’ measure of role-taking skills is based on experiential knowledge of general psychological adjustment, whereas the present study’s measure of simulation ability is based on interpersonal experiences with anxiety neurotics, psychopathic deviates, and paranoid schizo- phrenics. It is suggested that such an experientially based knowledge of specific psychopathological personalities is not as available as knowledge with regard to a generalized notion of normality. Thus based on such experiences, there would be a greater capacity to assume successfully the role of a broadly defined, well-adjusted personality than a specifically defined, maladjusted one.

Since this is the first study that controls for similarity between the personality of the simulator and the simulation target, the lack of significant correlations may be attributable to elimination of the degree of simulation success that was due to this factor. That is, previous studies may have been measuring the degree to which Ss assumed similarity with their role-taking target (3) . This would account for the fact that more psychologically healthy Ss were better able to assume psychologically adjusted roles than were relatively more pathological Ss. A direct comparison of role-taking success between groups that have and have not controlled for this condition could evaluate the degree of simulation success attributable to real and assumed similarity.

Thus three explanations are advanced for the finding that malingering pre- sents inconsistent patterns of correlation with psychopathology: (1) the hypothesis is too broad, as the terms psychopathology and role-taking are general terms that encompass a wide range of behaviors. So, when the hypothesis is tested along specific dimensions of psychopathology, with certain Ss, in particular role-taking tasks, and simulation success is measured in a specific manner, a differential pattern of correlations will emerge; (2) the negative relationship between psychopathology and role-taking holds for the simulation of psychologically well-adjusted roles, but not broadly for psychopathological roles. This hypothesis is consistent with Gough’s explanation of the development of role-taking skdls. The simulation of the psychopathic deviate personality possibly may be an exception; and (3) previous research has not controlled for similarity between the simulator’s personality and the simulation target; thus, what has been labeled successful role-taking may be a function of 8s’ real and assumed similarity to the role-taking target. If this is true, much of the role-taking research would have to be reconsidered.

40 Journal of Clinical Psychology, January, 1976, Vol. 32, No. 1 .

The positive relationship between general intelligence and simulation success was supported rather broadly among the entire S pool. Intelligence scores correlated positively with simulation scores on 19 of the 24 correlations, which is a significantly greater ( p < .01) number of positive than negative correlations. This finding supports Sarbin’s (22) interpretation of the data as indicating a “slight positive relationship” between role-taking ability and intelligence. However, the intelligence-simulation correlations, like the psychopathology-simulation correlations, vary with the population studied, the simulation target, and how simulation is measured. The intelligence-simulation correlations were significant with Caucasians, males, Ss with neurotic diagnoses, and in simulation of the 2-7 and 6-8 profile configurations. This relationship was insignificant, but negative in direction with the employees, blacks, and simulators of the MMPI 4-9 profile. The relationship also changes according to the measurement of simulation success. The duMas coefficient of profile similarity was the measure that reflected all of the negative relationships. The Marks and Seeman profile rules reflected overall higher and most of the significant, positive relationships.

These findings are limited mainly by the S population and the tests used to measure psychopathology and intelligence. The Ss are not representative of the general populat,ion, but are 75% Caucasian, predominantly middle-aged, from the upper-lower socioeconomic class, with 9-13 years of education, and 52% female. The PSI, NSQ, and QWT tests represent a savings in time in comparison to more complex, usually superior measures; however, to conduct research in a treatment facility places severe time constraints upon the Ss.

SUMMARY This study investigated the relationship among psychopathology, intelligence

and the simulation of psychopathological roles. The 132 Ss were 48 inpatients, 48 outpatients, and 36 nonprofessional employees. Each S simulated the MMPI profile of an anxiety neurotic, psychopathic deviate, or paranoid schizophrenic. Their simulation target was dissimilar to their diagnosis and/or Personality Screening Inventory profile. The findings were : (1) the hypothesized negative relationship between psychopathology and psychopathological role-taking was not supported broadly, but was supported more with males, blacks, neurotics, and simulators of the psychopathic deviate personality; and ( 2 ) the hypothesized positive relationship between intelligence and the simulation of psychopathological roles was supported in a small but definite relationship, with greater support among the Caucasians, males, neurotics, simulators of the 2-7 and 6-8 profile patterns, and when the simulation measure emphasized scatter and elevation similarities.

REFERENCES 1. ANT~IONY, N. Com arison of clients’ standard, exaggerated, and matching MMPI profiles. J . consult. elin. Psychof, 1971, 36, 100-103.

2. BAKER, B. Accuracy of social perceptions of sychopathic and non sychopathic prison inmates. In Lindzey, G. (Ed.) Handbook of Social Psychopogy. (vol. 1) Cambri&e, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1962, p. 246.

3. BRONFENBRENNER, V., HARDING, J. and GALLWEY, M. The measurement of skill in social perception. In McClelland, D. C. (Ed.) Talent and Society. New York: Van Nostrand, 1958, DD. 29-111. rr- ~-

4. BLOOM, E. L. and ARHOFF, A. Role-playing in acute and chronic schizophrenia. J . consult.

5. BORGATT.4, E. F. and CORSINI, R. J. The Quick Word Test (QWT) and the WAIS. Psychol. Psychol., 1961, .86, 2428.

. . Rep., 1960, 6: 201-205.

the simulator. J . consuU. Psychol., 1963, 87, 253-256.

phasic Personality Inventory.

8, 8&83.

6. CANTER, F. M. Simulation on the California Psychological Inventory and the adjustment of

7. COFER, C. N., CHANCE, J. and JUDSON, A. J. A study of malingering on the Minnesota Multi- J . Psychol., 1949, 27, 491-499.

8. DUMAS, F. M. A quick method of analyzing the similarity of profiles. J . clin. Psydwl., 1946,

9. FIEDLER, F. E. Assumed similarity measures as predictors of team effectiveness. J . abn. sac. PSyChd., 1954, 49, 381-388.


10. GOUGH, H. G. Some common misconceptions about socialization. J . consult. Psychol., 1954,

11. GOUGE, H. G. Theory and measurement of socialization. J . consult. Psy~hol., 1960, 94, 23-30. 12. HATCII, R. S. A n Evaluation of a Forced Choice Differential Accuracy Approach to the Measure-

13. HATEAWAY, S. R. and MCKINLEY, J. C. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Manual.

14. HATHAWAY, S. R. anJMEEHL, P. E. A n Atlas for the Clinical Use of the MMPI . Minneapolis:

15. HEFLAND, I. Roletaking in schizophrenia. J . consult. Psychol., 1956, 801 37-41. 16. LAMER, N. S. MMPI role taking by sociopathic and nonsociopathic pnson inmates. Unpub-

17. LANYON, R. I. Simulation of normal and psychopathic MMPI personality patterns. J . consult.

18. LANYON, R. E. Development and validation of a psychological screening inventory. J . c o d .

19. MARKS, P. A. and SEEMAN, W. The, Actuarial Description of Abnormal Personality. Baltimore:

20. MILGRAM, N. A. Cognitive and empathetic factors in rolotaking by schizophrenic and brain-

21. RAPAPORT, G. M. Ideal self” instructions, MMPI profile changes, and the prediction of clinical

22. SARBIN, T. R. Role theory. i n Lindxey, G. (Ed.) Handbook of So&Z Psychology. (vol. 1)

23. SIEGEL, S. Nonparametric Statastics for the gehaviotal Scknces. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956. 24. WARNER, W., MEEKER, &I. and EELS, K. Social Class in America. Chicago: Science Research

287-292.

ment of Supeniisory Empathy. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, 1962.

(rev. ed.) New York: Ps chological Corporation, 1967.

University of RIinnesota Press, 1951.

lished doctoral dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1972.

Psychol., 1967, 31, 94-97.

Psychol., 1970, S6, ( 1 Pt. 2).

Williams & Wilkins, 1963.

damaged patients. {; abn. SOC. PsychoL, 1960, 60, 219-224.

improvement. J. consult. Psychol. 1958, 22, 459-563.

Cambridge, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1962, p

Associates, 1949.

223-258.

THE “SICK BTT SLICIP SYNDROME AS A PERSONALITY COMPONENT OF PARENTS OF BATTERED CHILDREN

LOQAN WRIQHT

Children’s Hospdal of the University of Oklahoma Health Scienees Center

PROBLEM The battered child represents a very important developmental and social

as well as mental health problem and very appropriately has become the object of widespread interest by clinicians and researchers alike. Discovery of any existing personality profile, or description of any personality characteristics common t o battering parents, is a prerequisite to identifying and treating suspected or poten- tial child abusers. Researchers(1-4. 6 - 9 , 11, 12) have reported a variety of characteristics of battering parents. One is they are emotionally immature, poorly prepared for the problems of parenthood, and maintain unrealistic fantasies and expecta- tions for their child’s rate of development and his ability to take care of himself:

“Henry J., in speaking of his sixteen month old son, Johnny, said, “He knows what I mean and understands it when I say ‘come here.’ If he doesn’t come immediately, I go and give him a gentle tug on the ear to remind him of what he’s supposed to do. In the hospital it was found that Johnny’s ear was lac- erated and partially torn away from his head.@# P .

These parents also seem to see their children as agents for providing emotional support to mother rather than vice versa:

“I have never felt really loved all my life. When the baby was born, I thought he would love me; but when he cried all the time, it meant he didn’t love me, so I hit him. Kenny, age three weeks, was hospitalized with bilateral subdural hematomas. (6, llo)”

Documents

Malingering as role taking