Malaysian Townplan Journal 5

Vol. 05 | Issue 01 | SEPTEMBER 2008

Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular MalaysiaMinistry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia

FDTCP September 2008: Malaysian Townplan. Copyright © 2008 by the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia. All Rights Reserved. No part of this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any other means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing of the publisher. ISSN 1675-7629. Published in Malaysia by the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLANThis journal is a publication of the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia, Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Malaysia.

Jalan Cenderasari, 50646 Kuala Lumpur.Tel : 603 - 2699 2146 / 2691 5472Fax : 603 - 2693 3964Webpage : http://www.townplan.gov.myE-mail : [email protected]

ADVISORSDato’ Mohd. Fadzil Hj. Mohd. KhirKamalruddin Shamsudin

CHIEF EDITORMohamed Jamil Ahmad

COORDINATORMohd. Nasir Shaari

EDITORIAL BOARDLilian Ho Yin ChanDr. Zainah IbrahimKhairani MuhammadSanisah Shafi eMimi Zareena Md. NorMohd. Fazli Idris

EDITORIAL STAFFChe Zauliha Che LahNurul Ismah IbrahimNurul Dahlia YahyaSiti Noorhaslinda Abd Latif

EDITORIAL POLICYThe contents of this journal do not necessarily refl ect the views of the Federal Department of Town and Country Planning nor are they offi cial records. Manuscripts or articles submitted which do not conform to the conventions of the journal may be returned to the authors for revision. The Editorial Board will not take any responsibility for any information published in this journal for their authenticity.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLANSEPTEMBER 2008

04 Editor’s Jottings

05 Features 05 Automated Features Extraction From High Spatial Resolution Remote Sensing Data In Land Use Planning For Federal Department Of Town And Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia

17 Institutional Framework For Metropolitan Regional Planning: Challenges For The Klang Valley 25 Planning Law Ideologies 29 Penggunaan Penilaian Multi Kriteria Dalam Penyediaan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Rancangan Tempatan Daerah Kuala Langat

48 The Signifi cance Of Place Attachment Dimensions In Enhancing Local Place Identity

61 Palaver Lost In Transition

69 Review Books: Editor’s Choice

73 Updates Planning Updates

79 Blast from the Past

Contents

VOL. 05 / ISSUE 01 / SEPTEMBER 2008 3

‘ZEITGEIST’

Let us learn a new word today. Say ‘Zeitgeist’.

Zeitgeist (pronounced ['tsa tga st] is a German language expression literally translated as: Zeit, time; Geist, spirit; meaning ‘the spirit of the age and its society’. The word zeitgeist describes the intellectual, cultural, ethical and political climate of an era or also a trend. In German, the word has more layers of meaning than the English translation; including the fact that zeitgeist can only be observed for past events. Zeitgeist refers to the ethos of an identifi ed group of people expressing a particular world view which is prevalent at a particular period of socio-cultural progression.

In this issue of the Malaysian Townplan, we pay homage to zeitgeist in the planning world. The current theme of ‘Planning in Transition’ denotes the ever changing evolution of the planning process. The role of zeitgeist in the planning world with its own world view helps in the evolution of this process.

Remote sensing in planning has long been instrumental in helping decision making as well as plan making in more developed countries. From the Malaysian perspective, an emerging group of enthusiasts and practitioners are also establishing themselves in this fi eld namely in the universities and the public sector. An article by Rizal Osman and Helmi Zulhaidi Shafri on ‘Automated Features Extraction From High Spatial Resolution Remote Sensing Data’ is a testimony to this.

The application of multicriteria as a tool in the preparation of the Kuala Langat Local Plan by Hazizah Sulaiman, Ali Bakar and Nazri Abdullah describes the role and the growing importance of decision sciences in plan making and forms part of the articles featured.

The planning process would not be complete without the element of legislation. Y. Bhg. To’ Puan Rozaimi Zainuddin presents her views of several ideologies in planning law. Place attachment dimensions to formulate local identity by Norsidah Ujang and institutional framework challenges for the Klang Valley by Sharifah Zubaidah complete all the feature articles in this issue.

The object and subject of today’s Palaver is ‘Lost in Transition’. Sanisah Shafi e’s current obsession is transit planning - TOD, transportation and mobility and everything related.

Thus each of the proponents belongs to a certain group with their own world view and this makes planning a melting pot of people enriching the experience in the planning process. Mixing and marrying all these ideals and views to get the best outcome and solution in complex planning problems remain some of the challenges to any leader. But planning in itself is a debate. Planning solutions have to go through the argument agree-argument-agree stages. To make it worse, there are always three sides to a coin (catastrophic if you use a credit card) and woe befall on those who has to make that fi nal decision. So say zeitgeist!

On a different note, the GIS fraternity in Malaysia has recently lost a prolifi c proponent in the late Dr. Ahris Yaakup, himself a contributor of an article in Issue 1 Volume 2 of Malaysian Townplan. The editorial board conveys our deepest condolences to his family.

Mohamed Jamil AhmadChief Editor

MOHAMED JAMIL AHMAD [email protected]

Cove

r Des

ign

EDITORS JOTTINGS

The old and the new - symbols of the ever-changing planning world.

I I

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN4

VOL. 05 / ISSUE 01 / SEPTEMBER 2008 5VOL. 05 / ISSUE 01 / SEPTEMBER 2008

ABSTRACT

The urban environment encompasses all such interactive phenomena as they take place within the spatial confi nement of urban areas. In Malaysia, development is more complicated especially in the built–up areas which comprises of the residential, commercial and industrial area which also include the urban areas. The remedy to control the situation is to prepare a comprehensive development plan to control the uses of land and to provide the basic framework for development of new areas. In other words, land use plan can serve as the tool to guide development accordingly. The current practice of JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia in using satellite image for plan making depends on manual interpretations and is very subjective. This study aims to improve and develop a standardised approach for features extraction from high spatial resolution data in land use planning. The classifi cation process used eCognition software to extract urban features from high spatial resolution IKONOS satellite data and GPS locations were used in ground verifi cation. The methodology established in this study has been effective as a more automated method for land use mapping and has the potential to replace the manual traditional method. It can be adopted as a standardised approach for decision making and any development plan of JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia.

1. MOHD RIZAL [email protected]

Federal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia

2. HELMI ZULHAIDI MOHD SHAFRI

Department of Civil EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversiti Putra Malaysia

AUTOMATED FEATURES EXTRACTION FROM HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION REMOTE SENSING DATA IN LAND USE PLANNING FOR FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING, PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

FEATURES

1 2

FEATURES

INTRODUCTION

Urbanisation worldwide continues at a rapid rate and it is estimated by the United Nation’s Population Fund (1999) that by the year 2025, 80% of the world’s population will live in cities. Most major metropolitan areas face the growing problems of urban sprawl; residential and commercial developments are replacing undeveloped land at an unprecedented rate. Sprawl results in a loss of natural vegetation and open spaces and a general decline in the spatial extent and connectivity of wetlands, wildlife habitat, and agricultural lands. While land use changes are a consequence of national growth, regional assessments of historical and contemporary land use change are needed to anticipate the impacts associated with change and contribute to an understanding of productive environmental sustainability.

Land use is one the main factors through which man influence the environment (Lausch and Herzog, 2002). Considerable attention is being paid worldwide to monitor land use and land cover change. The formulation of policies relating to land use requires adequate and timely information on trends in land use.

The term land use has several meanings; it includes both land cover and land use. Land cover refers to the habitat or vegetation type present, such as forest and agriculture area. Land use is usually defined more strictly and refers to the way in which, and the purposes for which, humans employ the land and its resources (Meyer 1995). For example, a place that is in forest cover may be used for low-density housing or recreation. Land use change encompasses all the ways in which human uses of the land. On the other hand, land use planning is about ensuring the use of land resources in an organized fashion so that the needs of the present and future generations can be best addressed. Land use planning has as its basic purpose to ensure that each area of land will be used so as to provide maximum social benefits, especially including food production, without degradation of the land resource.

These land cover and land use changes can be substantial but are difficult to grasp when they occur incrementally. Recently, data from satellites has dramatically illustrated the rates at which these human-induced changes are occurring nationwide. Temporal mapping from satellite data has successfully demonstrated the utility of integrating existing historic maps with remotely sensed data and related geographic information to dynamically map urban land characteristics for large metropolitan areas. These regional databases provide a strong visual portrayal of recognized growth patterns, and dramatically convey how the progress of modern urbanisation results in profound changes to the landscape (Laymon.C, 2003).

CURRENT PRACTICE: JPBD’S LAND USE PLANNING

Planning practice in the past has merely been a straight forward process which was confined to simple land use planning and tackling issues such as bad junctions and poor housing layouts. Drawing boards and T-squares were the main tools used in every planning office and information was kept in paper files and sometimes went missing without notice. Although it took considerable time and effort, it was not a problem because data could be collected again and again since it was part of the planning routine (Nor Sallehi, 2005).

However the process has changed and planning has to face the complex urban problems due to rapid development of the country. The rapid urban development and increasing land use changes due to increasing population and economic growth is being witnessed of late in many urban areas. The rapid growth due to the urbanisation and industrialisation process has increased the pressure on land and environment in big cities. There are also many problems related to the fragmented conversion of agricultural land into urban use. Every city is expanding in all directions and this has resulted in large-scale changes in urban land uses. In meeting the demand of the ever changing urban land uses, new

programs and strategies in planning have been adopted which also require better approaches and reliable tools. The drawing boards and T-squares are considered obsolete and replaced by computer networking while Geographical Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing have become the main tools in plan making operations.

JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia has started to use GIS software as a tool for storing and analyzing the geospatial data collected in the Development Plan Studies (National Physical Plan, Structure Plan and Local Plan). Generally GIS database model of JPBD is National Land Use formed by layers of map with appropriate Malaysia Projection System. Database design addresses the contents, specifications, relationships, and sources of data to be incorporated into the GIS database. A GIS database model defines the nature and usage of spatial (geographic) data with database.

JPBD’s Land Use Classifications

Current land use information of urban areas is essential for urban planning and for other purposes. Urban land use patterns change rapidly in response to economic, social, and environmental forces. Timely information on land use change is the basis for the formulation of policy in anticipation of the problems that accompany growth. In addition, there is also a need a project future land use pattern as it supports the analysis of urban development pressures. The existing land use classification is version 8 that is used by JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia in development plans. There are 13 categories of land use and land cover that have been developed as part of the National Land Use Information System project. The classification has been published and disseminated to State and Local Governments to provide a framework for coordinating existing classifications, to facilitate consistent collection and reporting of land use information and to provide a basis for creation of national data sets. It is the intention that the classification will be adopted by all bodies that collect and make use of land use information.

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN6

FEATURES

METHODOLOGY

eCognition Standard 3.0 image processing software and Map Info Professional (GIS) were used for the preparation of feature extraction and land use plan as part of the procedure in land use plan making. There were several procedures conducted in achieving the objectives as listed including data acquisition and pre-processing. Such procedures include geometric correction, feature extraction and classification technique. Figure 2

shows the detailed methodology used in this study.

Automated Feature Extraction (AFE) tools were used to help the image analysts in the extraction of geospatial features, and address specific tasks such as object detection for change detection purposes. By using automated feature extraction (AFE) technology, extracted models over a small training set can then be applied to larger areas, reducing the extraction time required by several orders of magnitude.

Among the algorithms developed in order to deal with these issues, particular areas of interest are pixel-based and object-oriented classification tools that are able to produce overlays for the location, identification, and delineation of precise geospatial features within remotely sensed imagery. Such classification tools can be used by the image analysts for a variety of applications such as the detection of changes of a specific geospatial location, within a set of multi-temporal remotely sensed images.

eCognition is a stand-alone object-oriented classification package for the classification of imagery (Benz, 2004), based on attributes of the image objects and their mutual relations, rather than on the attribute of individual pixels. Within a multi-scale image analysis framework, and while segmenting the image into spectrally homogenous objects, eCognition uses geometric characteristics and topological properties to perform sample-based or knowledge-based supervised image classification (Benz, 2001). A multi-scale automated segmentation technique is incorporated to turn raster information into meaningful objects. Rule-based classification is employed where the manifold parameter set of objects characterizes the classes and features by means of fuzzy logic and geospatial relations. Once defined by the user in an assisted fashion, classification rules can then be applied to further images, enabling automation of the image analysis process.

NO LAND USE CATEGORY

1. Residential2. Industry3. Commercial & Services4. Institutions and Public Amenities5. Open Space & Recreation6. Vacant Land7. Transportation8. Infrastructure and Utility9. Agriculture10. Breeding & Aquaculture11. Forest12. Water Bodies13. Beach

Table 1: 13 Main Categories of Land Use Classifications

Figure 1: Land Use Classifications Version 8, JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia

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Figure 2: Flowchart of the Project Methodology

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN8

FEATURES

Automated Features Extraction: Knowledge-Based Classifi cation and Fuzzy Logic Classifi cation

In a knowledge-based classifi cation, a user needs to have certain level of knowledge regarding the spectral characteristic and inter-relation of the classes to be classifi ed.

Fuzzy logic is a mathematical approach in quantifying uncertain statements. The basic idea is to replace the two strictly logical statements “yes” and “no” by the continuous range of [0...1], where 0 means “exactly no” and 1 means “exactly yes.” All values between 0 and 1 represent a more or less certain state of “yes” and “no.” Thus, fuzzy logic is able to emulate human thinking and take into account even linguistic rules. Fuzzy classifi cation systems are well suited to handling most vagueness in remote sensing information extraction. Parameter and model uncertainties are considered as using fuzzy sets defi ned by membership functions. Instead of the binary “true” and “false” multivalued fuzzy logic allows transitions between “true” and “false.” Additionally, there are more or less strict realizations of the logical operations “and” or “or.”

For successful classifi cation a deliberate choice of membership function is crucial. This allows the introduction of expert knowledge (Knowledge Based) into the system. The better the knowledge about the real system is modelled by the membership functions, the better the fi nal classifi cation result.

It is possible to defi ne more than one fuzzy set on one feature, e.g., to defi ne the fuzzy sets low, medium and high for one object feature. The more the memberships overlap, the more objects are common in the fuzzy sets and the vaguer the fi nal classifi cation.

A fuzzy rule base delivers a fuzzy classifi cation, which consists of discrete return values for each of the considered output classes (see fi gure 5). These values represent the degree of class assignment.

The results of the fuzzy classifi cation are an important input for information fusion in current and future remote sensing systems with multidata sources. The reliability of class assignments for each sensor can be used to fi nd the most possible and probable class assignment.

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Figure 3: Rectangular and trapezoidal membership functions on feature x to defi ne crisp set M (red) and fuzzy set A (blue) lhcmpct = ——

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over the feature range X;

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Figure 4: The membership functions on feature x defi ne the fuzzy set low, medium and high for this feature.

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Figure 5: Fuzzy classifi cation for the considered land cover classes urban, water and vegetation. The image object is a member of all classes to various degrees ( μurban (object)= 0.6 , μwater (object)= 0.8 , μvegetation (object)= 0.3 )

The better the knowledge about the real system is modelled by the membership functions, the better the fi nal classifi cation result.


FEATURES

Creating Major Classes: Vegetation and Non-Vegetation

To differentiate Vegetation and Non-Vegetation, two types of vegetation Index (VI) are used, namely Ratio Vegetation Index (RVI) and Normalized Different Vegetation Index (NDVI).

The vegetation Index is an arithmetic combination of refl ectance measured in 2 or more spectral differences in cover type on the basis of strong vegetation absorption in the red band and strong refl ectance in the near-infrared band.

DATA SETS AND STUDY AREA

The data used is obtained from IKONOS satellite that produces 1-meter resolution black-and-white (panchromatic) and 4-meter resolution multispectral (red, blue, green, near infrared) imagery. For this study, the high spatial resolution data of IKONOS image is 1 meter and 0.6 meter panchromatic resolution acquired by CRIPS on date 02 March 2006, 03:46 GMT. The study area is located (geographical location) 101° 207’ E 3° 380’ N in the Kuala Selangor District, Selangor.

RESULT

The results obtained by applying the methodology on the data set over the study area are described in this section.

Vegetation Classes

The vegetation index is an arithmetic combination of refl ectance measured in two or more spectral channels. The Index has been developed to enhance spectral differences in cover type on the basis of strong vegetation absorption in the red channel and strong refl ectance in the near-infrared channel. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) can be used to gauge vegetation biomass and photosynthesis rates by using multi spectral satellite imagery. A principal advantage of band ratio operations of this type is that they are less affected by differences in illumination.

Figure 6: IKONOS Image of Kuala Selangor, 2006 Figure 7: The Membership Functions on Feature Red Band the Fuzzy Set for Vegetation

Formulas of RVI and NDVI for IKONOS images are:RVI = (NIR / Red) = (Band 4 / Band 3)

NDVI = (NIR – Red) / (NIR + Red) = (Band 4 – Band 3) / (Band 4 + Band 3)

FEATURES

MALAYSIAN TOWNPLAN10

Non-Vegetation Classes

For Non-Vegetation class, insert expression of “similarity to classes- vegetation”, and select “Invert expression”. Now, we have two major classes (Vegetation and Non-vegetation) in 1St level hierarchy. Next, we need to break down theses two major classes into more defi ned classes in the 2nd and 3rd hierarchy by inserting more classes and establishing unique expression for these classes. In the 2nd classes, “water bodies” and “man made” must be identifi ed based on fuzzy logic classifi cation.

Water Bodies

For water bodies classifi cation, the suitable band is near-infrared to detect water bodies based on fuzzy logic classifi cation.

The simplest fuzzy rule we can create with eCognition is to base the class assignment on only one condition and one single fuzzy feature. Take the following example:

The class water is defi ned by a low layer mean.

Figure 8: Invert Expression for Non Vegetation Classes

Figure 9: Result for the Vegetation Classifi cation

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Figure 10: Result for the Classifi cation of Two Classes: Vegetation and Non-Vegetation

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Figure 11: Result for the Water Bodies Classifi cation

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FEATURES

First, the membership function for the object feature “layer mean” has to be defi ned for the fuzzy set “low layer mean (LLM).” Then we formulate a fuzzy rule representing it based on knowledge about the relation between the values of layer mean and the class assignment:

If layer mean (object) Є LLM, then Land cover (object) = Water

In eCognition, this rule is carried out directly. Within the class hierarchy the class water is inserted and the object feature “layer mean” is selected. For this object feature the membership for fuzzy set LLM is defi ned using the graphical interface. Here, the fuzzy set LLM automatically corresponds to the land cover class water.

In the case of only one condition the image object’s membership to the class water equals the membership of the feature “layer mean” to the fuzzy set LLM.

µwater (Object) = µLLM (Layer mean (object))

Man Made

Accuracy Assessment

The classifi cation accuracy was evaluated using fi eld reference data. Sampled areas were imported by means of TTA mask (Defi niens Inc. 2003). Several measurements such as Producer’s, User’s, and Overall accuracy of agreement were computed for each class.

Figure 12: Invert Expression and Result for the Man-Made Classifi cation

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Table 2: Accuracy Assessment

DATA VEGETATIONNON

VEGETATIONWATERBODIES

MAN MADE PLANNED UNPLANNED ROW TOTALUSER

ACCURACY

Vegetation 164245 0 0 0 0 0 164245 100.00

Non Vegetation 0 100091 0 0 0 0 100091 100.00

Water Bodies 0 22324 22324 0 0 0 44648 50.00

Man made 0 77767 0 77767 0 0 155534 50.00

planned 0 0 0 0 77767 0 77767 100.00

unplanned 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Column Total 164245 200182 22324 77767 77767 0 542285

Producer’s Accuracy

100.00 50.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0

Overall Accuracy 75.00%


FEATURES

DISCUSSION

The homogeneous image object primitives produced by multi resolution segmentation do not yet represent image objects of interest. In a subsequent segmentation step, image object primitives ware merged and corrected into a shape based on their classification and the definition of structure groups in the class hierarchy. Finally in object-oriented classification, it is needed to output the classification to GIS for further analysis. Before exporting the classification it is required to edit structure class hierarchy dialog so that only the selected classes will be exported.

The proposed method based on feature extraction from remote sensing data for land use planning can be listed as below:

Procedure Features Extraction as Standardised Approach for JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia.

1. The first step is to get secondary data for the purpose of land use plan making:a. Digital Cadastral Map (JUPEM)b. Satellite Image; the

recommendation is High Resolution Data (0.6 to 1 Meter)

2. The second step is land use features extraction with a scientific approach: a. Choose the suitable image

processing software; ENVI, PCI Geomatica, ERDAS, eCognition,

etc.b. If the image is from high

resolution data, it is recommended to use the eCognittion software. The eCognition software is a stand-alone object-oriented classification package for the classification of imagery (Benz, 2004), based on attributes of the image objects and their

mutual relations, rather than on the attribute of individual pixels. Within a multi-scale image analysis framework, and while segmenting the image into spectrally homogenous objects, eCognition uses geometric characteristics and topological properties to perform sample-based or knowledge-based supervised image classification.

c. An integrated approach that characterizes the classes and features by means of fuzzy logic and geospatial relations of image classification to spectrally differentiate the images into spectral classes.

d. Classify the image to two major classes: - Vegetation - Non-vegetation

e. For vegetation extraction, layer mean value of red band is calculated to have the value of 10 to 670. For Non Vegetation class, insert expression of similarity to class vegetation, and select Invert expression. To create two major classes (vegetation and Non-vegetation).

f. From Non-vegetation, need to classify to two classifications: Water Bodies and Man-made.

g. To extract water bodies, layer mean value of near infra red (NIR) band is calculated from the layer value 10 to 350.

h. Man-made areas (urban) use the invert expression from water bodies. From man-made classification, need to classify based on Land Use Classification Version 8 produced by JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia. From this study, only classify on unplanned and planned area. It is very difficult to extract information based on land use classification. Need verification on the ground survey using GPS.

i. Using ancillary data, visual interpretation and expert knowledge of the area through GIS will further refine the classification results.

j. The final land use or land cover map that was generated reflected the complex land cover character of the catchments. It extends from urban and suburban settlements plus industry and commerce, through extended agricultural fields or other land use activities.

3. Land use plan output: To complete a land use map, ground truth observation using GPS is needed to identify a more detailed classification and building uses based on Land Use Classification Version 8 produced by JPBD Semenanjung Malaysia.

The assisted feature extraction method utilised in this project demonstrates the advantages of the eCognition software to provide the user with an easy way to extract urban features from satellite imagery without using the traditional image processing techniques. Other advantages of using the feature extraction software are that it is incorporated into GIS, it is quite user-friendly, and it produces results quickly. The completed output (shapefile) from Feature Analyst can be easily compared to previous years in order to effectively determine where urban encroachment is occurring. This approach appears to be very helpful and efficient in a decision support system, especially for generalizing urban growth and its potential impacts. The feature extraction software provides the user with a quick and easy method to extract single features from the satellite imagery.


FEATURES

Figure 14: Land Use Plan

Figure 13: Output in Shapefi le to Overlay with JUPEM’s cadastral lot

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CONCLUSION

As previously known, remote sensing is a potential tool to extract information such as urban features. With the right approach, process and analysis procedures that were provided in remote sensing and GIS, variations within the land use features can be discriminated and classified accordingly. The classification process used eCognition to extract urban features and was classified according to two categories: vegetation and non-vegetation. After that, the images were further classified into two classes: water bodies and man-made. These additional classes were added because many buildings were incorrectly classified as non-buildings, and vice versa. Once buildings were identified, all other classes were merged together. Without elevation information, some buildings were correctly differentiated from other spectrally similar objects, and some non buildings and buildings were incorrectly classified. From the result it is difficult to identify the features based on building categories or land use categories. Thus, man-made area is classified to only unplanned and planned area. To complete a land use map, a ground truth observation using GPS was carried out for verification. This research has paved the way for more automated methods of land use planning using remote sensing and GIS.


FEATURES

References:Baatz, M. and A. Schäpe (1999): Object-Oriented and Multi-Scale Image Analysis in Semantic Networks. In: Proc. of the 2nd International Symposium on Operationalization of Remote Sensing August 16th – 20th 1999. Enschede. ITC.Bandemer, H., Gottwald, S., Fuzzy Sets, Fuzzy Logic, Fuzzy Methods with Applications, Wiley Press, New York, 1995Benz, U.: Supervised Fuzzy Analysis of Single- and Multichannel SAR Data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 37, No. 2, (1999), S. 1023-1037,C. Small (2005), Global Analysis Of Urban Reflectance, International Journal of Remote Sensing Vol. 26, No. 4, pages 661-681Daniel A. Lavigne, Gang Hong, Yun Zhang (2006), Performance Assessment Of Automated Feature Extraction Tools On High Resolution Imagery, MAPPS/ASPRS 2006 Fall Conference, San Antonio, TexasDe Kok, R., Schneider, T., Baatz, M. & U. Ammer (1999): Object Based Image Analysis Of High Resolution Data In The Alpine Forest Area. In: Joint WSf ISPRS WG I/1, I/3 and IV/4: SENSORS AND MAPPING FROM SPACE 1999, Hanover, September 27-30, 1999. Definiens Inc. 2003. eCognition Object Oriented Image Analysis User Guide. Definiens Inc., Munchen, Germany,Forster, B.C. (1985): An Examination of Some Problems and Solutions in Monitoring Urban Areas From Satellite Platforms, International Journal Of Remote Sensing, Vol.65, No:4, pp.443-451.)Fogler, R., Koch, M., Moya, M., Hush, D., Feature Discovery on Segmented Objects in SAR Imagery Using Self-Organizing Neural Networks, Conf. proceedings 930445, p.12, 1993.Haverkamp, D., Tsatsoulis, C., “The Use of Expert Systems in combination with Active and Passive Microwave Data to Classify Sea Ice,” IEEE 1992, p. 1625-1627 Han-You Zhu*, Qiu Yin And Ding-Bo Kuang (2006), Using Characteristic Spectral Bands of Omis1 Imaging Spectrometer to Retrieve Urban Land Surface Temperature, International Journal of Remote Sensing Vol. 27, No. 8, pages 1661–1676Jäger, G., Benz, U.: Measures of Classification Accuracy based on Fuzzy Similarity, to be printed in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing

Jansen L.F. and Vander Well, J.M. (1994) Accuracy A Review, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, pp.419-425.JENSEN, J. R. (1996). Introductory Digital Image Processing – A Remote Sensing Perspective Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 2nd Ed. Jensen, J. R.,(2002) Introduction to Digital Image Processing of Remotely Sensed Data, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.pp 50-112Jie Shan and Scott D. Lee (2005),Quality of Building Extraction from IKONOS Imagery, Journal Of Surveying Engineering © Asce, pages 27-32Kaichang Di, Jue Wang, Ruijin Ma, Ron Li (2003), Automatic Shoreline Extraction From High-Resolution Ikonos Satellite Imagery, ASPRS 2003 Annual Conference Proceedings, Anchorage, AlaskaKarayiannis, N. B., “Generalized Fuzzy K-means Algorithms and Their Application in Image Compression,” Aerosense ‘95, Orlando, pp. 206-217, April 1995Klasifikasi Guna Tanah Versi 8 (2006), Terbitan Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa Semenanjung Malaysia & Rancangan Tempatan Majlis Daerah Kuala Langat 2003-2015, JPBD Semenanjung MalaysiaLausch, and Herzog. (2002). Calibration of Stochastic Cellular Automata: The Application to Rural-Urban Land Conversion. Int. Journal Geographical Information Science, 16(8), 795-818.Laymon.C. (2003), Satellite Remote Sensing of Land Use Change. Universities Space Research Association Space. Martin Herold, Meg Gardner, Brian Hadley and Dar Roberts (2002), The Spectral Dimension In Urban Land Cover Mapping From High Resolution Optical Remote Sensing Data Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium On Remote Sensing of Urban Areas, Istanbul, Turkey.Nor Sallehi Kassim (2005), Land Use Planning and Information System Geographical Information System in Land Use Planning: Direction and Implementation. Federal Department Of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia.Review Of The Implementation Of The Cairo Programme Of Action In The Caribbean (1994 - 2004): Achievements And Constraints. United Nations Economic Commission and United Nations Population Fund, 2003

R.G.Congalton: A Review of Assessing the Accuracy of Classifications of Remotely Sensed Data, Rem. Sens. Environ., vol. 37, pp. 35-46, 1991Sam S. Jackson and Scott G. Bourne (2005), Using Feature Extraction To Monitor Urban Encroachment, EOM - U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Missouri.Sunil Bhaskaran and Bisun Datt (2000), Applications of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing in Urban Regions, Journal; GIS Development Xiangming Xiao a.,Stephen Boles a., Jiyuan Liu b., Dafang Zhuang b., Mingliang Liu b., (2002). Characterization of Forest Types in Northeastern China, using Multi-temporal Spot-4 Vegetation Sensor Data., Journal Of Remote Sensing Of Environment (Elsevier) 82 335–348.Xiuying Zhang., Xuezhi Feng., (2005) “Detecting Urban Vegetation from IKONOS Data Using an Object-Oriented Approach (IEEE) Volume (2), pp 1475- 1478.Yijun, C., Y.A., Hussin, 2003. Object-oriented Classifier for Detection of Tropical Deforestation Using Landsat ETM+ in Berau, East Kalimantan, Indonesia”, Map Asia Conference 2003.


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ABSTRACT

Setting up an institutional framework for regional planning involves many players at different levels of government, a carefully drafted and diplomatic ‘rules of the game’, effi cient coordination of tasks and the need to ensure practicality of implementation. The interplay between politics and planning is tested with the possibility of setting up a regional planning authority. The question is, whether or not an authority can be effectively set up and functions in a region that crosses political and administrative boundaries? This paper looks at the problem of planning for the orderly development of growing metropolitan regions from the perspective of creating a statutory regional planning authority that crosses administrative boundaries and the institutional challenges associated with it. Malaysia has only recently enacted a provision allowing the creation of a regional planning committee under its planning law but no such authority has yet to be set up thus far. The possibility of setting up such an authority is examined, laying down challenges such as political will, state autonomy in a federal system of government, the problem of coordinating agencies and bodies in charge of infrastructure, utilities and services and the scope and powers of such authority. A comparison of the setting up of metropolitan regional authorities in Australia and Canada will also be including in this paper.

SHARIFAH ZUBAIDAH SYED ABDUL [email protected]

Assistant Professor, International Islamic University, Malaysia

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR METROPOLITAN REGIONAL PLANNING: CHALLENGES FOR THE KLANG VALLEY

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INTRODUCTION

When one considers an ‘institutional framework’ for regional planning, what comes to his mind is an exercise to identify the persons, bodies or agencies involved in making decisions to implement a regional plan and coming up with an organizational structure to show the workings of the system. Whenever a development plan for a region is announced, almost always the ‘powers that be’ will promote such plan in the hope of attracting private sector investment. Notwithstanding the fact that a regional plan is considered as a tool of governance (Olsson, 2002), which is its full utilization as such may be questionable. It is given much hype in the media by the government of the day and its fate subsequently falls on bodies and agencies that later on find it quite difficult to implement. Planners will begin justifying the slow progress of the plans’ implementation to a host of factors including the development of new assumptions, new realities, and new challenges. It is accepted that the conformity of land use development to any planning document is a constantly moving target (Kamalruddin in Hunud, et. al., 2006). Other than keeping an eye on this ‘moving target’, there is a need to consistently look at the changing ‘rules of the game’ and to make correct decisions on ‘how to play it right’. It would certainly be a brave and probably futile academic exercise to analyze how local politics actually influences planning in any country and this is not what this paper seeks to do. This paper intends to raise a few questions on the setting up an institutional framework for regional planning of a metropolitan area from a legal perspective by looking at the system of government as well as the planning system applied in such government system. This, it is contended, would be a good starting point for discussing the rules of the game in planning a metropolitan region that may cross administrative and political boundaries.

In Malaysia’s federal system, the local government is not autonomous and is empowered to act only in accordance with the existing written laws applicable to it, namely the Local Government Act, 1976, the Town and Country Planning Act, 1976 and the Street, Drainage and Building Act, 1974.


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achieving identified goals or vision and consensus on net regional benefit” (Glasson in Noble, et. al., 1998).

The word ‘metropolitan’ is used to describe a large urban area that includes a city, its suburbs and outlying areas (Encarta, 2006). In demographic terms, a metropolitan statistical area is a geographic area with a significant population nucleus, together with any adjacent communities having a high degree of economic and social integration with that nucleus (United States Census Bureau, 2006). A metropolitan region signifies a group of areas often administered by different local municipalities, and sharing geographical boundaries as well as infrastructure facilities like major roads and utilities including water and sewerage facilities, electrical and telecommunication cables.

Planning a metropolitan region requires tremendous foresight, political support, the ability to plan strategically to accommodate changes in policies and assumptions and most importantly, the ability to ensure effective coordination

DISCUSSION

Planning a Metropolitan Region

The term ‘planning’ here is used in the context of physical and locative planning as opposed to economic and development planning. Locative planning is identified as being concerned with co-ordination, the resolution of conflicts, and ensuring the existing system is ticking over efficiently through time in accordance with evolving policies (Glasson, 1992). A further dimension of planning a region is ‘innovative planning’ and this involves improving or developing the system as a whole, introducing new aims and attempting to mould change on a large scale. Another typology of planning that must be mentioned in the context of regional planning and the method of implementation is ‘indicative’ as opposed to ‘imperative’ planning. In planning a region that crosses administrative and political boundaries, what is often resorted to is ‘indicative planning’ which is merely advisory in. This means that the planning tools, whether in the form of circulars or

regional plans, are not binding, leaving ample room for departure from these tools in the decision-making process or that the regional planning authority only has advisory and at the most, supervisory powers and nothing more. Given the need to deal with conflicting political demands of multi decision-makers and stakeholders in such a set up, challenges abound if a regional planning authority were to be established seeking to implement a plan in any imperative manner.

A region is a delineation of areas with several common characteristics, be they geographical or functional that enable activities to be coordinated towards achieving efficient management of the areas. The need for regional planning is seen as filling in the gap between national planning and local planning. It is thus a species of ‘intermediate planning’. Regional planning is “an exercise in persuasion, seeking to encourage those agencies with the power to act and manage regional development, to adopt and use agreed strategies and to follow particular guidance in the interests of


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exert control over local government matters through the National Council for Local Government, a federal level council established under the Federal Constitution. This council is a consultative council to formulate from time to time, policies on the promotion, development and control of local government throughout Malaysia and the administration of laws relating to local government. Although the federal and state governments are expected to follow the policies, there have been cases of departure as there is a lack of censuring power.

There have been no local elections in Malaysia since 1963 and this is largely due to historical factors. Malaysia’s Local Government Act, 1976 today provides in section 15 that ‘all provisions relating to local government elections shall cease to have force or effect.’ The view is that the government of the day is not in favor of local government elections (possibly largely due to socio-political factors) and prefers the system of appointed councilors. The reason for departing from the system of electing councilors lies in national security as well as the achievement of the aims of Malaysia’s New Economic Policy, namely, ‘the restructuring of society’ (Kader, 2001).

In Malaysia’s federal system, the local government is not autonomous and is empowered to act only in accordance with the existing written laws applicable to it, namely the Local Government Act, 1976, the Town and Country Planning Act, 1976 and the Street, Drainage and Building Act, 1974.

In the day to day administration, the federal government deals with local governments primarily through the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Such dealings are carried out through the state government, in particular the State Local Government Division. Federal fiscal transfers include the provision and launching of annual grants, minor projects grants and the contribution in-lieu-of-rate that are made through this relationship. Beyond that, the federal government cannot interfere directly in the affairs of local authorities. The federal government is helpless even in reported cases where the state withholds, albeit temporarily, the Federal contribution in-lieu of rates for local authorities or the state refusal to impose new rates based on the

property revaluation done by the Ministry of Finance. In essence, for implementation purposes, financial initiatives greatly depend on the state government. The State Authority has direct financial powers over local authorities. Such powers are also incorporated in the Local Government Act, 1976 (UNESCAP, 2007).

Malaysia’s Town Planning System

Malaysia’s town planning system emanated from the English development plan system. The development plans under Malaysia’s Town and Country Planning Act, 1976 consists of a Structure Plan prepared at state level and local plans prepared at local levels. Although the planning statute has been amended a few times to make the planning system more consultative in nature, any proposed institutional framework must still work within a top-down approach in the planning hierarchy (Figure 1).

At the top of this planning hierarchy is the National Physical Planning Council, an advisory council at federal level chaired by the Prime Minister. Given the fact that under the Federal Constitution, land is a state matter, and town planning is a concurrent matter between the federal government and the state government, town planning in Malaysia is still very much a state stronghold notwithstanding the presence of this federal level council. Thus, each state has a State

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Figure 1 “Planning Hierarchy in Malaysia”

in implementing such plan. The outcome should be efficient use of land resources, more transportation options, better delivery of urban services and a generally better quality of life for its residents.

An institutional framework to govern a metropolitan region must necessarily depend on homogeneous features of the region as well as the government and planning system in place in the country. This paper looks at several metropolitan regions and begins with the Klang Valley in Malaysia.

Malaysia’s Local Government System

It is important to appreciate the local government system in Malaysia before any discussion on its planning system. The effectiveness of any institutional set up proposed under the planning system must be considered against the backdrop of the local government system in Malaysia.

Malaysia is a federation of states and practices parliamentary democracy. It has a Federal Constitution as the supreme law of the land, and a constitutional monarchy. There are three levels of government, at the top of the hierarchy being the federal government, after that, the state government and finally, the local government. ‘Local government’ is put under the State List under the Federal Constitution, and it is the state authority that appoints local councilors (section 10, Local Government Act, 1976.) The Federal government is to


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Malaysia’s Experience In Regional Planning

Efforts at regional planning in Malaysia had begun with the setting up of regional development authorities such as KEJORA, KESEDAR, KETENGAH, KEDA, DARA, JENGKA, and PERDA. These were all established by Acts of Parliament and accepted for application in the state through state enactments. The model of Regional development authorities that existed in Kedah, Pahang and Johor above, may not be suitable for implementation in the Klang Valley for several reasons, namely their administrative boundaries are within one state only. (Klang Valley crosses boundaries of Selangor and Federal Territories) and their purposes were for resource-frontier development and agricultural development whilst the Klang Valley is a metropolitan area.

A new development with regard to regional planning in Malaysia is the development of ‘growth corridors’ in Peninsular Malaysia, primarily to attract foreign investment. The fi rst to be introduced and which is presently in the process of being

Planning Committee to advise the State Authority on matters relating to regulating and coordinating all development activities in the state. Under the State Planning Committee are the various local planning authorities for each local authority area1 in the State. The power to create a regional level authority was only introduced when the planning act was amended in 2001. Interestingly, the provision seemed to have been drafted with the Klang Valley region in mind as this ‘regional planning committee’ caters for ‘a region which consists of an area situated in two or more states’ (section 6A, Town and Country Planning Act, 1976). This ‘regional planning committee’ is to be created by the National Physical Planning Council. This seems appropriate as the council is at the federal level and can therefore move to create a regional authority, through consultation with the state governments involved. Following the local government system in Malaysia, all the members in this committee are appointed and not elected. They are: a chairman appointed by the Prime Minister, six persons representing the Federal Government, not more than four persons representing the state governments within the region and the President of all municipalities within the region. This committee is to advise the State Planning Committees within the region, to establish policies and to devise a comprehensive regional plan to guide and coordinate development of the region, to plan and coordinate the provision of infrastructure and facilities for the region and to establish uniform process and procedures to be used by the federal government, states and local authorities within the region. The important keywords in the functioning of the proposed regional authority are ‘plan’, ‘guide’ and ‘coordinate’. It does not seem to be a regulator or implementer but merely a supervisory and advisory authority. There is no doubt that such an authority can be established in the Klang Valley but the question is whether it would have enough clout to actually oversee the implementation of any regional plan for the region considering the political reality of the Sultan of Selangor being very vocal on issues touching lands in the state. No regional authority has yet to be set up under the said legal provision in Malaysia.

implemented is the South Johor Economic Region (SJER) now termed as Iskandar Development Region (IDR) The legal and institutional set-up for IDR is governed by a special statute, namely, the Iskandar Regional Development Authority Act 2007 (Act 664). This region is a special economic zone located in the state of Johor encompassing an area of 2,217 square kilometers. IDR model may not be suitable for the Klang Valley as the area does not cross the administrative boundaries of two different states. Nevertheless, its development would be interesting to observe, especially from the aspect of coordinating the various local planning authorities.

Other growth corridors developing in Malaysia are the Northern Corridor Economic Region and the Eastern Corridor developments. It is expected that the development of these regions will hold some lessons for the Klang Valley as they will be planned according to section 6A of Act 172, with regard to the setting up of a Regional Planning Committee, as the areas cross the boundaries of several states.

South Johor Economic Region (SJER)


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Case Study: The Klang Valley in Malaysia

The Klang Valley is a geographical area in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia that has been singled out since the 1970’s by the Malaysian government as a large urban region along the Klang river basin. It covers 424 square kilometers and has a population of 6.5 million. It is a rapidly growing region that contributes about one third of Malaysia’s Gross Domestic Product (Kamalruddin, 2006)

The administrative areas in the Klang Valley have increased from eight local municipality areas to ten since the first Klang Valley Perspective Plan in the 1970’s. It now covers two local municipality areas in the Federal Territories and eight in the state of Selangor. Both, Kuala Lumpur, the former capital city, and Putrajaya, the new administrative capital, are located in the Klang Valley.

The Klang Valley has never had a strong institutional set up. Several studies have been commissioned by the Malaysian government on the Klang Valley. The First Klang Valley Study in 1972 recommended that a planning and coordinating organization be set up for the Klang Valley. This organization, according to the study, should not be an executive and implementing authority and should not usurp the powers and functions

capital, Putrajaya. Thus, the question to be asked today in light of the new physical plan is whether the Klang Valley region is still relevant today for the purposes of setting up a regional planning authority? Should the regional planning authority now concentrate on the Kuala Lumpur conurbation instead? If so, it would also include another state, Negeri Sembilan as Seremban town is also included in the Kuala Lumpur conurbation.

That which must be overcome in setting up a regional planning authority in the Klang Valley is the question of what type of authority to be set up-whether to stick to the advisory type or to have one that is set up by statute and has actual legal powers to implement the regional plan? If the latter is chosen, how can it not usurp the powers of the state authorities, local authorities and the existing agencies?

What is the experience of other municipal regions in the world? Would it be useful to look at the institutional framework in other jurisdictions? A review of institutional models from other jurisdictions seems to point to the hypotheses that institutional models must suit the type of government. This paper looks at Sydney in Australia and Toronto in Canada as these regions are in countries that have the same type of government system as Malaysia.

of the state government and existing agencies. A Klang Valley Planning Regional Planning Council was set up in the 1970’s chaired by the Chief Minister of Selangor. After 1984, the Klang Valley Planning Council was set up and this was chaired by the Prime Minister. Members of this council included the Chief Minister of Selangor, the Chief Secretary to the Federal Government, the Mayor of Kuala Lumpur and the Selangor State Secretary. A Klang Valley Planning Secretariat was also formed to deal with planning and coordinating large infrastructural projects. It merged with the now defunct Federal Territory Ministry and then became a division in the Prime Minister’s Department (Kamalruddin, 2006). The present set up is the Klang Valley Development Committee chaired by the Prime Minister and represented by all local authorities in the Klang Valley. Its main role is coordinative. This committee is merely advisory in nature, it is not established by statute, and therefore has no legal powers.

Another development that may have a bearing on any future regional set up is the National Physical Plan. This plan was launched in July 2005 and the name ‘Klang Valley’ is not mentioned as a conurbation area. Instead administrative areas in the Klang Valley falls under the ‘Kuala Lumpur conurbation’, a level 1 conurbation as it includes the federal administrative


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SYDNEY

Sydney covers an area of about 12,144.6 square kilometers and has a population of 4.2 million. It is the state capital of New South Wales in Australia. There is no regional level governing body for planning its metropolitan region. All 38 local government areas in Sydney are administered by the state government through the New South Wales Department of Planning. Here, like under the Malaysian planning system, there is strong state involvement in planning decisions. The State Department of Planning prepares the Regional Environmental Plans and the local councils prepare the Local Environmental Plans. The New South Wales government has recently developed a new metropolitan strategy for Sydney and the Sydney Greater Metropolitan Region. This regional strategy however does not change the current institutional set up although we can see that it acts to inform private sector investment which is part of what is termed as ‘immaterial infrastructure’ in regional governance (Olsson, 2002).

TORONTO

As opposed to the large area covered by Sydney, Toronto may seem to be a better model to learn from for the Klang Valley in that it covers an area of 629.91, slightly larger than the Klang Valley in Malaysia. It has a population of 5.7 million and is the provincial capital of Ontario in Canada. Toronto used to have a regional authority established by statute in the name of Municipality of Metro Toronto between 1954 and 1997. It however, became irrelevant as it served barely 50% of the Greater Toronto Area and residents were more concerned about local matters. Presently, the City of Toronto is the governing authority. It was established through the amalgamation of the former Metro Toronto with six member municipalities. The Toronto City Plan is underway and will be good to observe in the future.

The planning system in Canada is also very much state controlled. The Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing has set out the planning policy and the Ontario Municipal Board is in charge of City Plan approval. The City of Toronto merely drafts the plan.

From the above, cursory discussion on Sydney and Toronto, it is safe to deduce that metropolitan regional planning depends heavily on the influence of the state government in the institutional framework. A trans-boundary regional authority as is proposed for the Klang Valley may face a host of challenges, unseen in the cases of Sydney and Toronto.

Table 1: “[Metropolitan Regions and Type of Government]”

METROPOLITAN REGION COUNTRY TYPE OF GOVERNMENT

Sydney Australia Federal Parliamentary Democracy

Toronto Canada Federal Parliamentary Democracy

Sydney

Toronto


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References: Glasson (1992). “An Introduction to Regional Planning: Concepts, Theory and Practice.” Hutchinson of London.Glasson (1998). “Some Interim Conclusions: Regional Planning Guidance and Regional Governance for the 21st Century.” In Noble (et.al) Regional development and planning for the 21st century: new priorities, new philosophies.p.p.247-263. Ashgate.Kader (2001). “Legal Control of Commercial Land Development in Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya.” unpublished SJD dissertation submitted to Bond University, Australia.p.p.115-116. Kamalruddin (2006). “Sustainable Land Use Development in the Klang Valley: An Elusive Dream.” In Abia Kadouf, Aljunid (Eds.) Land use planning and environmental sustainability in Malaysia: policies and trends.p.p.297-314. Research Centre, International Islamic University Malaysia.

Olsson (2002). “Governance and Planning for a New Age.” In Snickars, Olerup & Persson (Eds.) Reshaping Regional Planning: A Northern Perspective.p.p.95-117. Ashgate.UNESCAP (2007). “Local government in Asia and The Pacifi c: A Comparative Study, Country Paper: Malaysia.” at http://www.unescap.org/huset/lgstudy/country/malaysia/malaysia.html#evolve visited on February 5, 2007.

CONCLUSIONS

From the above discussion, this paper raises several questions, namely:What should be the institutional options for a Regional Planning Authority? Can such an authority be established by the Federal Government to govern local authorities in the state? How can we create a regional planning authority that is not seen as usurping the powers of the State authority and the Federal Government over physical planning in the Klang Valley? Having a regional planning committee with no legal powers and sanctions can be a handicap for effective regional planning and implementation. Ideally, the regional planning authority for the Klang Valley should be established by statute and have legal powers. The main question is: Can this work in the context of the Klang Valley?


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1 This article is dedicated to the 3 men who have shaped my life and made me what I am today; my father, Hj Zainuddin bin Jantan, my uncle, Dato’ Hj Mohd. Rosli bin Buyong and my husband, Dato’ Hj. Ismail bin Ngah. To Abah, Mamak Uli and Ali, thank you for all the love and encouragement that you have given me and the joy that you have brought to our lives. May Allah bless you forever.


TO’ PUAN HJH ROZAIMI HJ. [email protected]

Research and Development DivisionFederal Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia

PLANNING LAW IDEOLOGIES1


ABSTRACT

The law ideology relating to land use planning lacks objectivity and neutrality as the law, its administration and offi cial interpretation is itself a major contributory factor to the continuing disarray of planning. The words themselves embody ideologies and beliefs about power and society, which when accepted unthinkingly could at worst, do great harm to a society which is based on different beliefs, and at best, will fi t uneasily into a legal system founded on the beliefs of the society of which it is part. This is due to the existence of three confl icting and competing ideologies, which dominate, or confl ict at different points of the system. They are the traditional common law approach, the public interest approach and the radical or populist approach.

The rapid rate of urban development towards the second half of the 20th Century necessitated government intervention to guide and control the structural changes that were taking place in this country, which resulted in the promulgamation of town planning laws based mainly on the public interest ideology and much later, sustainable development. This article also discusses on the planning law ideologies that are still prevalent amongst the Malaysian society today. It also discusses on the possible dilemma facing the land administration system in Malaysia today including some possible answer for the country’s planning law ideology.

was involved in taking away some powers from the property owners to control and regulate the use of property. This was regarded as an intrusion by the owners who went to seek the aid of the courts and lawyers to protect them from such intrusion from the government. Judgments were passed solely in terms of the need to protect the land owners against hasty government actions with no regard paid to the objectives of the legislation or the living conditions of the working class and the property-less for whose benefi t the legislations was passed. This phenomenon formed the basis of the common law stand or the private property ideology. The private property theory of planning law holds that planning control was an interference with the established property rights and that the potential developers are entitled to Planning Permission in the absence of valid reasons. According to the courts of England, development control under the Planning Acts were not part of the normal bundle of rights of the land owners and as such should be subject to control in the interests of the land owner. The attitude of the courts is because the protection of private property was a defense of the constitutional order, and the fact that lawyers and the common law that they had fashioned over the centuries, were very much concerned with the protection and preservation of rights of property. At the same time, the private-interest economic theory were that those involved in government had the same motivations with those in the private sector; that is they were motivated in the narrow concept of self-interest: wealth, fame and power. If what is in the public interest is also in the private interest of government decision-makers, the public interest will be served. If there is a confl ict between the public’s interest and the private interest of governmental decision-makers, the private interest will prevail.

The second competing ideology according to McAuslan, is the Public Interest Ideology or the ideology of law as seen by a public administrator. The introduction of this law was based on the view that public interest should prevail over private interest, which gives the State rights to protect the environment. The reason was attributed to the fact that land ownership is endowed with a right to

IDEOLOGIES OF PLANNING LAW

An ideology is in contradistinction to a philosophy2. While a philosophy denotes a carefully prepared and thought out set of values and ideas, an ideology denotes values, attitudes, assumptions that may not be well thought out and are usually disguised rather than spoken out loud. It goes without saying that human thoughts and actions are impossible without some kind of preconceptions be it philosophical, religious or moral as it is these that establish the purpose of all thoughts and actions.

According to McAuslan, the law ideology relating to land use planning lacks objectivity and neutrality as the law, its administration and offi cial interpretation is itself a major contributory factor to the continuing disarray of planning. The words themselves, the way they are put together and have been interpreted, embody ideologies and beliefs about power and society, which when accepted unthinkingly could at worst, do great harm to a society which are based on different beliefs, and at best, will fi t uneasily into a legal system founded on and incorporating the beliefs of the society of which it is part. The main reason for this lack of objectivity and neutrality is due to the existence of three confl icting and competing ideologies, which dominate, or confl ict at different points of the system.

The three competing ideologies are3:a. The Traditional Common Law

approach

The traditional common law approach is used to protect private property and its institutions.

b. The Public Interest approach The public interest approach is

used to advance the public interest against the interest of the private property. It is also sometimes referred as the orthodox public administration and planning system.

c. The Radical or Populist approach The law that is used to advance

the cause of public participation against both the orthodox and the common law approach.

Before the existence of any public control over the use and development of land, landowners were free to use their land in any way they wished, subject only to any limitations in the Grant under which they held it and to obligations placed upon them at common law. Provided an owner acted on his estate or interest and committed no nuisance or trespass against his neighbor’s property, he was free to use his land for the purpose for which it was economically best suited. Today, most societies require not only that freedom be restricted for the public good, but also that the use to which land is put should be determined by the long term interests of the community as a whole rather than as a consequence of incidence and spread of individual land ownership.

Town planning’s historical origins was laid in the need to do something about the horrendous living conditions of the new urban working class in the 19th century. At that time, the government


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develop to reap the maximum value from the land without restraint. The public interest ideology provided the backing and legitimacy for a program of action to advance the public interest against the selfi sh interest of private landowners. This view was derived from the Principles of Morals and Legislations, which inspired Chadwick (a public health and housing reformer) to propound the laws relating to landuse planning as we see it today. The ideology of public interest was translated into laws, which conferred wide powers on the administrators to do as they see fi t. The public interest view of government sees government as composed of individuals who are motivated by a desire to serve the public by doing what is right.4 The government emerged as an instrument that can improve society. Unintended and unexpected consequences of government actions do not seem to arise in this view of government. The courts accepted that public interest was a legitimate concern for administrators who must be presumed to act in good faith and in the fi nal analysis were accountable to Parliament for their actions and policies.

Walter Lippman5 has defi ned public interest presuming to be what men would choose if they saw clearly, thought rationally, and acted disinterestedly and benevolently. Some say that there is no such thing as public interest; as there are only private interest – of individuals, groups, classes which maneuver to obtain the greatest amount of public infl uence and public power, and each of which discerns the public interest in its own image. Obviously, there never has been a society in which the public interest ruled supreme, but it is also true that there has never been a society, which was not. A democratic society with its particular encouragement to private appetite and personal concerns has a greater need than any other to keep the idea of the public interest before it. For democracy is after all a government by public opinion. For public opinion to genuinely exist there must fi rst be an opinion and second the public which is directed towards the common good rather than private benefi ts.

The third competing planning law ideology sees it as a provider of rights of participation in the land

use planning process by virtue of the principles of democracy and justice. This is because all who are likely to be affected by an interest or concern in a proposed development of land should have the right of participation in the decision on that proposal because they might be affected by the development. This ideology denies the property owner any special place in participation. It differs however from the public interest by denying that the public interest can be identifi ed and acted upon by public servants on the basis of their own views and assumptions as to what is right and wrong. The spirit of this ideology not only lay in a call for openness, fairness and impartiality for the landowner but also for the rest of the society. This ideology is considered to be a balance between the ideology of public interest and the private interest ideology.

PLANNING LAW IDEOLOGY IN MALAYSIA

The nature of planning legislation and the land administration system of a certain community depends very much on the ideology of the policy makers at that point in time. In the early 20th century, the private property theory of land law suited well with the needs of the early infl uential landowners in Malaysia. For them, land ownership endowed the owner with a right to develop the land to its maximum benefi cial utilization without restraint. As such, the development process was meaningful not only by merely protecting and regulating private property rights but also guaranteeing the rights of individual property owners against public intrusions. The prevailing land law was used to primarily protect and regulate private property rights, whereby the rights of the individual property owners were guaranteed against public interest.

The rapid rate of urban development towards the second half of the 20th Century necessitated government intervention to guide and control the structural changes that were taking place in the country. Planning laws were made to provide for environmental protection since it coincided closely with the overall physical land use development and the early awareness for environmental regulations. The planning laws were based on the command and control

approach where the government is given police powers to regulate land use, which is crucial for optimum utilization of land6. This approach is also similar with the communitarian model which propounds the view that the general welfare of the community can best be realized when decision makers are entrusted with broad powers to regulate land use largely unfettered by the selfi sh interests of individual land owners. The land use planning system of today is principally a system of anticipatory control of various land use patterns whereupon the controlling authority would not grant any approval (permission) for a development activity if adverse impact on the surrounding environment is envisaged. Ideally speaking, land development must guarantee protection of long-term interests of the entire community, including the environment rather than limiting itself by protecting personal property rights of individual landowners.

The town and country planning system is concerned with how much of what is put where. The planning system, besides being concerned with location and siting issues has assumed a wider role

2 Patrick McAuslan, The Ideologies of Planning Law, Pergamon Press, London 1980. 3 Ibid 4 Daniel Bell and Irving Kristol, What is PI. http://www.thepublicinterest.com/notable/article.html. 5 Ibid. 6 Sharifah Zubaidah Syed Abdul Kader, Controlling Changes of Land Use in Malaysia: Dual authorities and the Certainty v Flexibility Dilemma. National Seminar on the Legal Regime of Sustainable Land Use and Environmental Development. Organized by LATEC and AIKOL, International Islamic University, Malaysia (IIUM), August 2003.


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in organizing economic development in balancing economic, political, social and environmental factors to do with development in a democratic context.7 The planning system regulates development and land use by imposing certain limitations on the individual landowners, thus restricting his capacity to develop his land in any way he chooses. Therefore, land development is determined by long-term interests of the community as a whole rather than as a personal right of individual land ownership.8 This is important in order for the land planning system to produce a just decision. This places a heavy burden on the decision-makers to make the right decision, in lieu of the fact that economic development is given a favourable position in this country compared to environmental protection.

Today, even though positive physical planning actions have the objectives of guaranteeing public interest and the community at large, it is felt that the private property ideology especially in the land development process is still very much prevalent in the present Malaysian society. The move towards implementing the public interest ideology in the minds of the public sector and the general public is very slow and sluggish. The author is in the opinion that the reason for this slow transformation is that the prevailing land laws, particularly the National Land Code 1965, which was promulgated in the early sixties is very much focused on the private interest ideology and this is still prevalent in the existing land development processes. Their very existence are affecting and

having a big impact on the general day-to-day lives of the public in terms of the land development process. The problem is further aggravated by the fact that the idea of the public interest ideology driven by public participation is still something quite new to the Malaysian public. This may be due to the non- transparency of the land administration process and the different levels of understanding and educational exposure of the different professions in the land development process especially the land administrators, the town planners and the legal administrators. While we say that our planning laws are public interest driven, we are still and are actually implementing development using the land laws that are private interest motivated. The private interest ideology are economically and personally driven whereas the public interest ideology are more skewed towards social equity which may not be in line with the spirit of free market enterprise and democracy. However, due to the ever increasing demand for proper housing and other public amenities coupled with social justice and environmental concerns, there may be a tendency that the private interest ideology may not be relevant in the present system. A compromise between the two should be the answers where public interest with public participation can become the main tool to reengineer a new approach in the future land development process. A planning ideology that is more sustainable, environmental-led and God fearing may be the next best thing for Malaysia.9

7 Ball, S., Ball and Bell, Environmental Law, (UK), Blackstone Press Limited, 1997. 8 Moore, V., A Practical Approach to Planning Law (UK), Blackstone Press Limited, 1995. 9 The author welcomes comments on this article. She can be reached at [email protected].


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PENGENALAN

Proses pembentukan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan dalam penyediaan Rancangan Tempatan (RT) memerlukan satu teknik analisis dan penilaian yang lebih saintifi k dan kuantitatif. Ini disebabkan kaedah yang kebiasaan digunakan masa kini tidak banyak menggunakan kaedah berasaskan rasionaliti (Mohd Anuar, 2004). Perkembangan teknologi maklumat memberikan ruang kepada penggunaan sistem sokongan perancangan dalam membuat keputusan. Gabungan Sistem Maklumat Geografi (GIS) dan Sistem Sokongan Keputusan (Decision Support System - DSS) mempunyai potensi membantu dalam penyediaan rancangan pemajuan.

Sehubungan dengan itu, pasukan kajian Rancangan Tempatan Kuala Langat mengeksploitasi kaedah multi kriteria melalui aplikasi GIS dalam pembentukan pelan konsep dan strategi pembangunan. Kaedah ini bertujuan untuk menghasilkan pelan konsep dan strategi pembangunan yang berupaya menterjemahkan isu, masalah dan potensi pembangunan di kawasan kajian dan seterusnya mengenal pasti kesesuaian tanah untuk tujuan pembangunan guna tanah utama secara kuantitatif dan lebih meyakinkan.

1. HAZIZAH [email protected]

Pejabat Projek Zon TengahJabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa, Semenanjung Malaysia

2. MOHD ALI ABU [email protected]

Bahagian Rancangan Fizikal NegaraJabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa, Semenanjung Malaysia

3. MD NAZRI [email protected]

Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa, Negeri Johor

PENGGUNAAN PENILAIAN MULTI KRITERIA DALAM PENYEDIAAN PELAN KONSEP DAN STRATEGIRANCANGAN TEMPATANDAERAH KUALA LANGAT


2 31

PEMBENTUKAN PELAN KONSEP DAN STRATEGI PEMBANGUNAN – BERDASARKAN MANUAL RANCANGAN TEMPATAN

Manual Penyediaan RT (Pindaan 2002) menggariskan pelan konsep dan strategi merumuskan penemuan-penemuan sektoral kajian dan mencadangkan tindakan-tindakan awal bagi membentuk cadangan di peringkat Draf RT. Pelan ini membentangkan secara kasar unit-unit pembangunan guna tanah utama berasaskan lokasi yang optimun dan arah tuju pembangunan yang disokong secara diagramatik keperluan-keperluan elemen kemudahan dan sirkulasi yang mempunyai hubungan secara langsung dengan kawasan tumpuan pembangunan.

Penyelarasan dan menyerasikan cadangan-cadangan sektoral dalam bentuk spatial dilakukan melalui alternatif konsep pembangunan. Penjanaan penggabungan ini dilakukan menggunakan analisis spatial melalui perisian GIS bagi menghasilkan analisis kesesuaian tanah untuk pembangunan dan kaedah Penilaian Multi Kriteria (MCE) bagi membentuk alternatif dan seterusnya membantu pemilihan senario pembangunan. Alternatif pembangunan ini penting dalam RT kerana ianya memberikan gambaran bentuk pembangunan masa hadapan untuk membentuk peta cadangan. Pendekatan Pembentukan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan adalah seperti Rajah 1.

Berdasarkan rajah tersebut, input kesesuaian tanah diselaraskan dengan keperluan unjuran dan permintaan tanah masa hadapan untuk digunakan sebagai asas dalam MCE. Salah satu keperluan yang penting dalam menjalankan analisis kesesuaian tanah untuk pembangunan dan menjalankan analisis MCE adalah kriteria-kriteria dan sub-sub kriteria pembangunan yang dipersetujui oleh “stake holder”. “Stake holder” dalam kajian ini melibatkan pasukan teras yang terdiri daripada Pejabat Projek Kuala Lumpur, JPBDSM, JPBD Negeri Selangor dan Majlis Daerah Kuala Langat. Selain itu, input dari perunding-perunding yang dilantik juga penting diambilkira disebabkan penglibatannya dalam penemuan kajian.

Rajah 2: Pendekatan Umum Aplikasi GIS dan DSS

Pakej Perspektif Ekonomi

(faktor-faktor mempengaruhi

permintaan guna tanah)

Pakej Kejuruteraan yang menyokong

atau bertindak sebagai penggalak

pembangunan guna tanah

Rumusan analisis sektoral dalam analisis potensi

halangan dan kesediaan tanah

Penggunaan analisis kesesuaian tanah

menggunakan GIS

Permintaan / unjuran keperluan tanah

(land budget)

Isu dan strategi pembangunan RT

Polisi-polisi RSN, RFN, Kerajaan

Negeri dan PBPT

Rumusan cadangan awal sektoral dalam alternatif konsep

dan strategi pembangunan

Penggunaan analisis – Penilaian multi kriteria (MCE) dalam pakej GIS

dalam menjana alternatif-alternatif senario

Konsep-konsep alternatifPenilaian Kesan

Sosial (SIA)

Konsep pembangunan terpilih

Berdasar penilaian pelbagai “stake holder”

dan PBPT menggunakan GIS

Rajah 1: Pendekatan Pembentukan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan.

Sumber: Manual Penyediaan RT (Pindaan 2002)

Pakej Fizikal terutama guna tanah.

Faktor-faktor fi zikal mempengaruhi keperluan

aset semulajadi seperti topografi , hutan, pesisir

pantai dan lain-lain

Mendefi nisikan Masalah Persembahan Ranking

Sumber: ITC, ILWIS, 2001

Standardization

Pemberat

Analisis

Sensitiviti


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Jadual 1: Penglibatan Pasukan Kajian dan Output Utama

PENGLIBATAN OUTPUT SASARAN / MATLAMAT

PERINGKAT I: MENCETUSKAN PERBINCANGAN KUMPULAN

Pasukan Teras Perunding Utama

Alternatif / objektif pembangunan, kriteria-kriteria pembangunan umum dan sub kriteria dibentuk.(sebagai asas perbincangan)

Memperincikan isu, masalah dan potensi berdasarkan LP1 serta mendefi nisikan ciri-ciri alternatif / objektif pembangunan

Perbincangan merujuk kepada kedapatan data, isu-isu dan potensi pembangunan di LP1. Alternatif / objektif dibentuk dan disenaraikan ciri-cirinya.

PERINGKAT II: PERBINCANGAN BAGI MENGHASILKAN INPUT KEPADA APLIKASI GIS - MCE

Pasukan Teras Semua Perunding MDKLJPBD Selangor

• Alternatif/objektif pembangunan yang dipertimbangkan dalam pembangunan.

• Kriteria pembangunan terperinci mengikut sektor utama iaitu industri, perumahan dan perdagangan.

• Perbincangan juga mengenal pasti halangan pembangunan yang dikeluarkan dalam pertimbangan kesesuaian pembangunan.

• Sub kriteria juga dibincangkan.• Keutamaan sektor pembangunan.

• Perbincangan yang terperinci dan dibantu oleh Fasilitator MCE dan GIS. Perbincangan dalam kumpulan mengikut alternatif / objektif pembangunan.

• Taklimat perlu diberikan berkaitan ciri-ciri alternatif/ objektif dan kriteria secara jelas.

• Perbincangan kumpulan dalam bentuk bengkel dan kumpulan percambahan fi kiran.

• Justifi kasi Alternatif / Objektif pembangunan, kriteria dan Sub kriteria dibentuk.

PERINGKAT III: PENGOPERASIAN APLIKASI DENGAN MENGEMAS KINI INPUT DARI PERBINCANGAN DI PERINGKAT II.

Pasukan TerasPerunding Utama Perunding GIS

Peta Kesesuaian Pembangunan Terpilih Pengubahsuaian dan penambahbaikan dilakukan terhadap kriteria semasa perbincangan di Peringkat II. Penemuan LP1 berkaitan isu, potensi dan sasaran RSN Selangor dimasukkan sebagai input penilaian alternatif pembangunan.

Pembentukan kriteria-kriteria pembangunan penting sebagai asas menghasilkan RT yang menyediakan satu rancangan pemajuan yang terperinci dan lebih fokus termasuklah mengenal pasti tapak yang bersesuaian dan kedapatan tanah dalam jangka masa yang munasabah.

PENDEKATAN PENGGUNAAN APLIKASI GIS DAN DSS DALAM PEMBENTUKAN PELAN KONSEP DAN STRATEGI PEMBANGUNAN

Secara teorinya, penggunaan aplikasi GIS dan DSS melibatkan lima peringkat utama iaitu:i. Mendefi nisikan Masalahii. Persembahan iii. Standardization dan Pemberativ. Rankingv. Analisis Sensitiviti

Berdasarkan teori di atas, pendekatan tersebut diperkembangkan perlaksanaannya dalam kajian RTD Kuala Langat seperti Rajah 3. Dalam pendekatan tersebut, tiga peringkat penting yang diberi tumpuan melibatkan stake holder dan output utama seperti Jadual 1.

Rajah 3: Penggunaan Aplikasi GIS dan DSS yang Dirancang dalam Pembentukan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan RTD Kuala Langat.

Pasukan Teras / S

emua

Perunding / M

DK

L / JPB

D

Selang

or

Defi nasiTema / Objektif Kajian

PenambahbaikanAlternatif/Objektif

Pembangunan dan Kriteria Pembangunan

berdasarkan Sektor Utama iaitu Industri,

Perumahan dan Perdagangan.

Strategi SpatialPembangunan Daerah

(RSN Selangor) – Elemen Spatial

Pemberian Pemberat Kriteria Pembangunan dan Keutamaan Sektor

Penjanaan Kriteria Pembangunan Dalam

Bentuk Spatial

Peta KompositKesesuaian

Pembangunan

Penilaian Ketepatan(Accuracy Assessment)

Peta KesesuaianAlternatif Terpilih

Analisis Lokasi AllokasiGuna tanah Utama

Pasukan Teras /

Parund

ing U

tama

Pasukan Teras / P

arunding U

tama / Perund

ing GIS

Peta KesesuaianAltenatif 1



Pembentukan Alternatif Pembangunan

Pembentukan Kriteria Pembangunan


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PEMBENTUKAN KRITERIA-KRITERIA PEMBANGUNAN UMUM

Pembentukan kriteria pembangunan ini dirumuskan dari perbincangan di antara pasukan teras, perunding utama dan perunding GIS. Pembentukan ini umumnya, berdasarkan kepada ketersediaan data dan penemuan-penemuan utama Laporan Penemuan I (LP1). Kriteria-kriteria dan sub kriteria yang dirumuskan dan dibentuk untuk analisis kesesuaian pembangunan umum seperti berikut:

Pembentukan Alternatif/ Objektif Pembangunan

Alternatif / Objektif Kesesuaian Pembangunan berasaskan kepada Tema Pembangunan seperti berikut:a. Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Rancakb. Persekitaran Fizikal Mampanc. Masyarakat Sejahtera dan

Pembangunan Insan

Walaupun, tema pembangunan RTD Kuala Langat dibentuk berasaskan pakej yang mengandungi ketiga-tiga aspek di atas tetapi dalam konteks analisis kesesuaian ini, keutamaan diberikan kepada salah satu dari aspek utama yang terkandung dalam tema ini. Ciri-ciri alternatif/ objektif pembangunan seperti di Jadual 2.

Dalam konteks ini, ketiga-tiga tema di atas tetap diambilikira dalam pembentukan objektif kesesuaian pembangunan tetapi penumpuan atau teras kepada aspek utama diberikan dengan mengambil kira aspek-aspek sokongan yang lain.

Kriteria Mempengaruhi Pembangunan

Kriteria umum yang dibentuk berdasarkan LP1 dan juga garispanduan perancangan seperti Jadual 3.

Kriteria kesesuaian pembangunan ini dirumus berdasarkan LP1 dan disesuaikan dengan garis panduan / piawaian perancangan yang disediakan oleh JPBDSM. Penentuan sub-kriteria berasaskan jarak berdasarkan garispanduan perancangan dan juga kesesuaian jarak di kawasan kajian. Kaedah analisis buffer (zon penampan) yang digunakan adalah menggunakan kaedah euclidean distance yang menganggap jarak dalam jejari yang sama dan tiada halangan fizikal dan kedekatan.

kepada kaedah multi-objektif di mana pemberat bagi setiap alternatif/objektif kesesuaian pembangunan merupakan gabungan dari pemberat sektor perindustrian, perdagangan dan perumahan. Kriteria pembangunan umum yang mulanya dicadangkan hanya membincangkan pemberat kriteria tanpa merujuk sektor-sektor tertentu. Kaedah penambahbaikan ini lebih realistik kerana faktor-faktor pembangunan sektor-sektor utama tersebut adalah berbeza-beza.

Berdasarkan Jadual 3, penambahbaikan kritieria-kriteria pembangunan yang telah dirumuskan bersesuaian dengan kawasan kajian seperti dalam Jadual 4:

Kesemua kritieria-kriteria yang digunakan dan ditambah baik bagi kajian ini menepati kesediaan data yang disediakan Manual Penyediaan RT (Pindaan 2002). Pengelasan data-data guna tanah adalah penting untuk menyesuaikannya dengan keperluan kriteria.

Jadual 2: Ciri-ciri Alternatif / Objektif Pembangunan

ASAS TEMA PEMBANGUNAN

CIRI-CIRI

Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Rancak

• Persekitaran yang kondusif pelaburan• Rantaian ekonomi aktiviti industri yang kukuh• Penjanaan ekonomi tempatan • Pembangunan ekonomi menghasilkan peluang-peluang pekerjaan untuk

semua golongan masyarakat• Destinasi pelancongan yang berkualiti berdaya maju dan berdaya saing• Tenaga kerja yang berkualiti dan berkemahiran tinggi• Suasana perniagaan yang inovatif• Penawaran perkhidmatan bertahap tinggi• Produktiviti pertanian yang tinggi

Persekitaran Fizikal Mampan

• Struktur guna tanah yang teratur dan optimum.• Reka bentuk bangunan dan penyediaan infrastruktur serta utiliti yang

mesra alam.• Reka bentuk dan imej bandar yang menarik dan tersusun.• Persekitaran bandar dan desa yang selamat, sihat, selesa dan indah.• Pemeliharaan alam sekitar dan pemuliharaan KSAS, sumber serta warisan.• Jaringan perhubungan yang cekap, selamat dan selesa.

Masyarakat Sejahtera dan Pembangunan Insan

• Penyediaan perumahan yang mencukupi, berkualiti dan mampu milik.• Pengurangan kadar kemiskinan• Penyediaan kemudahan masyarakat, rekreasi, dan utiliti yang mencukupi,

cekap dan berkualiti.• Infrastruktur komunikasi yang cekap.• Persekitaran yang selamat dan sihat kepada individu, keluarga dan

komuniti.• Tahap kemudahsampaian dan kemudahgerakan yang tinggi, selamat dan

selesa.• Penyediaan peluang pendidikan, pembelajaran dan latihan yang luas dan

berkualiti.

PENAMBAHBAIKAN ALTENATIF PEMBANGUNAN DAN KRITERIA PEMBANGUNAN MENGIKUT SEKTOR UTAMA

Penambahbaikan dijalankan melalui perbincangan kumpulan mengikut alternatif / objektif pembangunan. Berdasarkan perbincangan di kalangan pasukan teras, stake holder dan semua perunding, kriteria pembangunan umum yang dibentuk dibincangkan secara terperinci untuk mendapatkan kesepakatan bagi kriteria tersebut digunakan dalam menjana kesesuaian pembangunan. Perbincangan ini penting untuk melihat pandangan dan maklum balas dari setiap perunding terlibat, wakil JPBD Negeri Selangor dan Majlis Daerah Kuala Langat (MDKL) terhadap kesesuaian dan penambahbaikan kriteria yang akan digunakan.

Perbincangan telah memutuskan untuk memperincikan kriteria pembangunan bagi menghasilkan kesesuaian pembangunan dijalankan mengikut tiga sektor utama iaitu perindustrian, perdagangan dan perumahan. Ini bermakna peta kesesuaian pembangunan adalah berasaskan


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Jadual 3: Kriteria Mempengaruhi Pembangunan

BIL. FAKTOR

Faktor Aksessibiliti

1.Jarak dari persimpangan lebuh raya (termasuk lebuhraya komited)

2.Jarak dari jalan utama (termasuk jalan utama komited)

3. Jarak dari utiliti

Faktor Kedekatan (Proximity)

4. Pembangunan Komited

5. Kedekatan dari kemudahan pendidikan

6. Kedekatan dari kemudahan kesihatan.

7.Kedekatan dari guna tanah tepu bina atau guna tanah tertentu

Faktor Fizikal

8. Kawasan Pengekalan Ekologi (KSAS)

9. Kawasan Banjir

10. Jarak dari Sungai

11. Jenis Tanah

12. Hakmilik Tanah

13. Kawasan Penempatan Orang Asli

14. Zon Fataliti KLIA

15. Zon Persisiran Pantai

16. Geologi

Jadual 4: Hasil Penambahbaikan Perbincangan Kriteria Pembangunan

NO. KRITIERIA JUSTIFIKASI FUNGSI KESESUAIAN

1. Tepu bina Halangan pembangunan sepenuhnya. Ini bermakna ianya dikeluarkan dari pertimbangan kesesuaian pembangunan

Halangan pembangunan.

2. KSAS Berdasarkan RSN Selangor tidak boleh dijalankan sebarang pembangunan kecuali berbentuk rekreasi dan eko pelancongan

Halangan pembangunan kecuali aktiviti pelancongan / rekreasi.

3. Kawasan Lembangan Sungai (Flood Plain)

Kawasan ini merupakan kawasan yang terletak dalam risiko banjir. Walau bagaimanapun, tiada kejadian banjir yang khusus dan jelas di kawasan kajian. Pembangunan dapat dijalankan dengan melaksanakan tindakan-tindakan penebatan yang normal.

4. Sungai Disebabkan kawasan kajian yang landai (rata), fungsi sungai penting untuk menentukan jarak untuk final dischange. Fungsi fizikal sungai dilihat dari kedekatan yang memberi ancaman limpahan air tetapi jika jauh meningkatkan kos pembangunan.

Masalah ini sukar dikesan di kawasan kajian disebabkan hanya sungai utama diambilkira dan kawasan kajian mempunyai sistem saliran buatan yang agak menyeluruh.

5. Guna tanah Yang Khusus

Setiap sektor iaitu perindustrian, perdagangan dan perumahan mestilah mempunyai hubungan yang rapat dengan guna tanah tanah yang sama dengannya.

Guna tanah perindustrian dipengaruhi oleh guna tanah perindustrian yang bersebelahan.

Guna tanah perumahan dipengaruhi oleh guna tanah perumahan yang bersebelahan.

Guna tanah perdagangan dipengaruhi oleh guna tanah perdagangan yang bersebelahan.

6. Tempat Kerja Kedekatan dengan tempat bekerja penting dalam mempengaruhi peletakan guna tanah perumahan, perindustrian dan perdagangan.

Guna tanah tempat kerja yang diambilkira adalah perdagangan dan institusi kerajaan.

7. Pusat Bandar

Kedekatan dengan pusat bandar penting dalam mempengaruhi peletakan guna tanah perumahan, perindustrian dan perdagangan

Lokasi dalam bentuk titik (point) pusat-pusat bandar / pekan utama.

8. Kecerunan dan Topografi

Kawasan kajian adalah landai dan tidak mempunyai kawasan berkecerunan melebihi 12 % dan ketinggian melebihi 150 meter dari aras laut.

Tidak diambil kira dalam kesesuaian pembangunan di kawasan kajian.

9. Zon Fataliti Halangan pembangunan sepenuhnya.

Halangan pembangunan.

10. Hak milik Tanah

Maklumat sukar diperoleh.

11 Geologi Tidak signifikan kerana keadaan geologi agak sama.


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NILAI PEMBERAT KEPENTINGAN

1 Rendah

2 Sederhana Rendah

3 Sederhana

4 Sederhana Tinggi

5 Tinggi

Jadual 5: Skala Nilai Pemberat

Pemberian Nilai Pemberat

Berdasarkan kepada pemahaman isu dan potensi kawasan kajian serta pengetahuan berkaitan MCDM, pemberian nilai pemberat diberikan bagi setiap kriteria dan sub kriteria mengikut skala 1 – 5 mengikut kepentingan kriteria dalam mempengaruhi kesesuaian pembangunan. Skala pemberat adalah seperti dalam Jadual 5:

Hasil perbincangan kumpulan (mengikut alternatif/objektif pembangunan), pemberian nilai pemberat mengikut kriteria adalah seperti di Jadual 61. Data-data kriteria pembangunan dijadikan asas dalam pembentukan peta komposit kesesuaian pembangunan yang diguna pakai.

1 Skala nilai pemberat adalah berbeza-beza bergantung kepada perisian dan teknik yang digunakan.


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Jadual 6: Nilai Pemberat Kriteria2 Pembangunan Mengikut Alternatif / Objektif Pembangunan

ALTERNATIF EKONOMI RANCAK FIZIKAL MAMPAN MASYARAKAT SEJAHTERA

KRITERIA IND. RUMAH DAGANG IND. RUMAH DAGANG IND. RUMAH DAGANG

Simpang 5 5 5 2 5 5 3 3 5

500 3 3 3 1 5 5 2 2 1

1000 5 5 5 3 4 4 3 3 4

1500 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 3

Luar kawasan 2 2 2 5 1 1 2 2 2

Jalan utama 5 5 5 2 5 4 4 3 4

500 4 5 5 1 5 5 3 2 1

1000 5 4 4 2 4 4 3 3 3

1500 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 4 4

Luar kawasan 2 2 2 5 1 1 2 2 2

Utiliti 5 5 5 2 4 5 1 1 5

200 1 5 5 5 4 5 1 1 4

400 2 4 4 4 5 4 2 2 3

800 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2

Luar kawasan 4 2 2 2 1 1 4 4 1

Komited 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 1 5

Industri 1 3 5 1 2 5 2 4 5

Perniagaan 4 5 3 4 5 4 2 5 1

kediaman 5 4 1 5 4 3 5 5 1

Luar kawasan 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Pendidikan 5 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 1

400 5 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 1

800 4 2 2 4 1 1 4 1 1

1200 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 1

1600 2 4 4 2 1 1 2 2 1

Luar kawasan 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 3 2

Kesihatan 5 1 1 5 1 1 3 1 1

400 4 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 1

800 3 2 2 4 1 1 4 1 1

1200 2 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 1

1600 1 4 4 2 1 1 2 3 1

Luar kawasan 1 4 5 1 1 1 1 4 2

Bandar 5 5 4 3 5 5 5 5 3

500 3 5 5 2 5 5 2 5 1

1000 5 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 1

1500 4 3 3 5 3 3 5 3 2

Luar kawasan 2 2 2 5 1 1 3 2 3

Tepubina 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 2

500 5 4 5 2 5 5 4 4 1

1000 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 2

1500 3 2 3 4 3 3 2 2 2

Luar kawasan 2 1 2 5 1 1 1 1 3

Tempat kerja 3 3 NA 4 5 NA 5 5 NA

1000m 3 3 NA 5 3 NA 2 4 NA

1500m 4 4 NA 4 4 NA 4 3 NA

500m 5 5 NA 2 5 NA 5 2 NA

Luar kawasan 1 2 NA 5 1 NA 3 1 NA

KSAS 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Badan Air 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hutan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Luar kawasan 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 2

2 Nilai Kriteria dan Sub Kriteria diberikan dalam skala 1 – 5. Standardization akan dilakukan dalam perisian What If.


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MENJANA PETA KESESUAIAN PEMBANGUNAN

Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam menjana peta kesesuaian pembangunan adalah seperti Rajah 4.

Rajah 4: Proses Penyediaan Peta Komposit dan Pembuatan Keputusan

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Rajah 6: Peta komposit Kesesuaian Pembangunan

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Rajah 5: Operasi Penyediaan Peta KompositPenggunaan Tool dan Analisis GIS dalam Penghasilan Peta Komposit

Penggunaan GIS dalam penyediaan peta komposit melibatkan analisis buffering, combine, union dan clip. Cartalir Analisis bagi penyediaan peta komposit adalah seperti Rajah 5: Operasi Penyediaan Peta Komposit. Peta komposit ini merupakan gabung lapisan (layer) terjemahan dari kriteria dan sub kriteria yang mengandungi atau akan dimasukan nilai-nilai pemberat bagi setiap kriteria. Peta komposit merupakan agregat kesemua kriteria-kriteria pembangunan mengikut alternatif pembangunan. Peta Komposit yang dihasilkan seperti di Rajah 6.


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Penggunaan Tool dan Analisis What If dalam Menyokong Pembuatan Keputusan

Dalam kajian ini, perisian What If digunakan sebagai alat untuk membantu mengemas kini nilai pemberat mengikut alternatif pembangunan, menjumlahkan nilai pemberat dan mengklasifikasikan kesesuaian pembangunan berdasarkan jumlah pemberat menggunakan direct method. Hasil peta kesesuaian pembangunan yang telah menggabungkan semua nilai pemberat mengikut sektor perindustrian, perumahan dan perdagangan mengikut alternatif/objektif pembangunan seperti Rajah 7a, 7b dan 7c.

Rajah 7a: Kesesuaian Kawasan Pembangunan bagi Alternatif/ Objektif Ekonomi Mampan melalui kaedah pengkelasan ‘direct method ’.

Ekonomi Rancak

Rajah 7b: Kesesuaian Kawasan Pembangunan bagi Alternatif/ Objektif Masyarakat Sejahtera melalui kaedah pengkelasan ‘direct method ’.

Masyarakat Sejahtera

Rajah 7c: Kesesuaian Kawasan Pembangunan bagi Alternatif/ Objektif Fizikal Mampan melalui kaedah pengkelasan ‘direct method ’.

Fizikal Mampan


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PENILAIAN ALTERNATIF PEMBANGUNAN

Kaedah 1: Penilaian Ketepatan (Accuracy Assessment)

Penilaian ketepatan digunakan untuk menilai dan memilih alternatif pembangunan di kawasan kajian yang menepati konsep dan strategi pembangunan yang digariskan oleh RSN Selangor. Kaedah ini menggunakan pendekatan keluasan atau peratus kawasan yang sesuai untuk pembangunan yang tertinggi bertepatan dengan konsep pembangunan yang dicadangkan RSN Selangor bagi Daerah Kuala Langat. Alternatif/objektif yang mempunyai ketepatan keluasan atau peratus tertinggi atau menepati konsep pembangunan RSN Selangor adalah merupakan alternatif terpilih. Hasil penilaian ketepatan seperti di Rajah 8.

Ketepatan atau keluasan tindihan konsep pembangunan RSN Selangor berbanding alternatif/objektif kesesuaian pembangunan diukur secara kuantitatif berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria bersifat spatial. Rumusan analisis ketepatan ini seperti di Jadual 7.

Alternatif/objektif terpilih adalah Ekonomi Rancak kerana memenuhi kriteria pengukuran ketepatan konsep dan strategi RSN Selangor bagi daerah Kuala Langat. Selain menggunakan kaedah penilaian ketepatan, penilaian visualisasi juga boleh digunakan dalam pemilihan alternatif. Kaedah ini menggunakan pengamatan visual pematuhan strategi pembangunan dengan alternatif/objektif pembangunan.

Kaedah-kaedah kuantitatif lain boleh digunakan dalam proses ini termasuk Analisis Kesensitifan dan lain-lain.

Rajah 8 a: Tindanan Peta Kesesuaian Alternatif Ekonomi Rancak dan Konsep Pembangunan RSN Selangor

Rajah 8 b: Tindanan Peta Kesesuaian Alternatif Masyarakat Sejahtera dan Konsep Pembangunan RSN Selangor

Rajah 8 c: Tindanan Peta Kesesuaian Alternatif Fizikal Mampan dan Konsep Pembangunan RSN Selangor

AlternatifEkonomi Rancak

AlternatifMasyarakat Sejahtera

AlternatifFizikal Mampan


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Jadual 7: Analisis Penilaian Ketepatan Kesesuaian Alternatif Pembangunan dan Ciri-ciri Spatial Konsep Pembangunan RSN Selangor

KRITERIAUNITUKURAN

ALTERNATIF KONSEP PEMBANGUNAN

EKONOMIRANCAK

MASYARAKAT SEJAHTERA FIZIKAL MAMPAN

Pembangunan perbandaran di dalam koridor Bandar Baru Salak Tinggi – Banting – Morib

Keluasan hektar 9,327.457 7,003.269 5,281.531

Pembangunan perbandaran di dalam koridor Cyberjaya – Telok Panglima Garang – Pulau Carey – Pulau Indah

Keluasan hektar 5,673.231 4,311.022 1,780.342

Pembangunan perbandaran di dalam koridor Klang – Telok Panglima Garang – Banting.

Keluasan hektar 6,232.563 3,735.651 3,735.651

Pembangunan zon pelancongan pesisiran pantai Pulau Carey-Morib-Batu Laut-Tanjung Sepat

Keluasan hektar 6,539.551 3,650.955 3,685.565

Pertambahan kawasan industri di dalam zon perindustrian yang telah ditetapkan

Peratus (%) 100% 95% 70%

Pembangunan perbandaran di kawasan TRM (16,187.8 hektar)

Hektar 10,262.62 6,485.157 3,183.255

Pembangunan perbandaran di sekitar petempatan Orang Asli – telah diwartakan(1,820.717 hektar)

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Pembangunan di dalam kawasan pembangunan sedia ada

Peratus (%) 90% 70% 60%

Kedapatan sempadan bandar yang jelasTiada

MaklumatTiada

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Pembangunan kawasan pembangunan dalam kawasan Kelas Tanah 2

Luas Hektar 27,548.16 18,955.48 13,502.02

Pemuliharaan KSAS Peratus (%) Tiada pembangunan dalam KSAS


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Kaedah 2: Matriks Penilaian Pencapaian (Matlamat/Objektif) atau Penyelesaian Masalah

Kaedah ini menggunakan kreativiti perunding untuk mendefinisikan alternatif / objektif peta kesesuaian pembangunan yang dihasilkan ke dalam bentuk konsep dan strategi pembangunan. Ciri-ciri pembentukan konsep dan strategi pembangunan ini berasaskan kepada penemuan LP1 dengan tumpuan kepada matriks konsep tersebut mencapai matlamat dan penyelesaian masalah yang dibentuk. Konsep dan strategi pembangunan yang dibentuk berasaskan kesesuaian pembangunan adalah seperti di Rajah 9.

Konsep-konsep pembangunan yang dibentuk seterusnya dinilai dari segi pencapaian matlamat dan penyelesaian masalah yang diukur melalui kriteria-kriteria yang dibentuk berasaskan LP1. Dalam konteks RTD Kuala Langat, satu konsep baru iaitu Konsep Berpadu dikenal pasti dari gabungan kesesuaian tanah Ekonomi Rancak dan Masyarakat Sejahtera. Pembentukan konsep dan strategi pembangunan ini menggunakan peta kesesuaian pembangunan sebagai asas dalam kreativiti pembentukannya. Penilaian Matriks Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan seperti Jadual 8 dan Jadual 9.

Dalam penilaian matriks penyelesaian masalah, alternatif skor teras ekonomi rancak mempunyai skor tertinggi dalam menyelesaikan masalah tetapi alternatif teras masyarakat sejahtera mempunyai skor tertinggi dalam matriks pencapaian matlamat. Kaedah penilaian ini masih kualitatif tetapi ianya masih relevan kerana menggunakan asas–asas kesesuaian tanah pembangunan dalam membentuk konsep dan strategi pembangunan. Dalam konteks ini, kajian ini menggunakan kesesuaian pembangunan untuk membentuk konsep dan strategi pembangunan. GIS dan DSS membantu perunding dalam membentuk konsep dan strategi. Adalah lebih baik jika kaedah penilaian dapat dibuat secara kuantitatitf supaya ianya dalam memberi justifikasi yang kukuh kepada pembentukan konsep dan strategi pembangunan. Selain itu, perbincangan secara kumpulan dalam penilaian matriks yang dibentuk melibatkan pasukan teras, perunding dan stake holder penting dalam menghasilkan kesepakatan penilaian tersebut.

Rajah 9a: Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan Ekonomi Rancak berasaskan kesesuaian pembangunan Alternatif / Objekitf Ekonomi Rancak.

Rajah 9b: Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan Fizikal Mampam berasaskan kesesuaian pembangunan Alternatif / Objekitf Fizikal Mampan.

Rajah 9c: Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan Masyarakat Sejahtera berasaskan kesesuaian pembangunan Alternatif / Objekitf Masyarakat Sejahtera.


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Jadual 8: Penilaian Matriks Pencapaian Matlamat Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan.

MATLAMAT


TERAS EKONOMI RANCAK

TERAS FIZIKAL

MAMPAN

TERAS MASYARAKAT SEJAHTERA

1. Mewujudkan persekitaran yang kondusif pelaburan. / /

2. Mengukuhkan rantaian ekonomi aktiviti industri. /

3. Menjana ekonomi dan peluang-peluang pekerjaan untuk penduduk setempat. / /

4. Mewujudkan destinasi pelancongan yang berkualiti, berdaya maju dan berdaya saing. / / /

5. Mewujudkan suasana perniagaan yang inovatif. / /

6. Meningkatkan produktiviti pertanian yang tinggi. / /

7. Menggalakkan pembangunan secara infill dan dalam kawasan “brownfield”. /

8. Mewujudkan sempadan bandar yang jelas /

9. Mewujudkan imej bandar yang menarik dan tersusun. /

10. Mewujudkan persekitaran bandar dan desa yang selamat, sihat, selesa dan indah. / / /

11. Memelihara alam sekitar dan memulihara KSAS, sumber serta warisan. / / /

12. Menyediakan perumahan yang mencukupi, berkualiti dan mampu milik. / /

13. Mengurangkan kadar kemiskinan. / /

14. Menyediakan kemudahan masyarakat, rekreasi dan utiliti yang mencukupi, cekap dan berkualiti. /

15. Mewujudkan persekitaran yang selamat dan sihat kepada individu, keluarga dan komuniti. / /

16. Meningkatkan tahap kemudahsampaian dan kemudahgerakan yang tinggi, selamat dan selesa. /

17. Menyediakan peluang pendidikan, pembelajaran dan latihan yang luas dan berkualiti. /

Jumlah Skor 9 10 11

Jadual 9: Penilaian Matriks Penyelesaian Masalah Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan.

MATLAMAT


TERAS EKONOMI RANCAK

TERAS FIZIKAL

MAMPAN

TERAS MASYARAKAT SEJAHTERA

1. Jumlah penduduk pada tahun 2020 di bawah sasaran RSN Selangor. /

2. Kekurangan tenaga kerja di dalam pengurusan, profesional dan teknikal. / /

3. Produk dan aktiviti pelancongan sedia ada masih belum mampu menjadikan Daerah Kuala Langat sebagai destinasi pelancongan yang berdaya saing.

/ /

4. Pertumbuhan industri yang perlahan berbanding dengan daerah bersempadanan. /

5. Kewujudan aktiviti perindustrian di luar zon perindustrian terancang. /

6. Bandar Banting masih belum mampu mencapai hierarki perbandaran sebagai pusat separa wilayah.

/

7. Ketiadaan identiti, imej dan reka bentuk pembangunan fizikal yang tertentu dan persekitaran bandar yang kurang memuaskan.

/

8. Pencemaran air sungai dan bau dari aktiviti penternakan khinzir. / /

9. Tekanan pembangunan ke atas kawasan KSAS (KSAS Tahap 2 terutamanya HS Kuala Langat Utara – KLU dan HS Langat Selatan – HLS serta kawasan paya bakau).

/ / /

10. Masalah hakisan pantai dan sungai. / /

11. Pembangunan di atas lot-lot kecil menyukarkan penyediaan kemudahan awam dan infrastruktur. /

12. Zon penampan di tanah-tanah persendirian. / / /

13. tahap kemudahan sampaian yang rendah. / /

14. Kemudahan masyarakat dan rekreasi tidak mencukupi. / / /

15. Kadar penembusan kemudahan telekomunikasi dan ICT masih rendah. / /

Jumlah Skor 11 7 9


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PEMBENTUKAN KONSEP DAN STRATEGI PEMBANGUNAN

Kaedah 1: Analisis Lokasi dan Allokasi (Location Allocation) Guna tanah dari Output Analisis Penilaian Ketepatan (Accuracy Assessment)

Alternatif konsep terpilih iaitu Alternatif Ekonomi Rancak dari analisis penilaian ketepatan dijadikan asas pembentukan konsep dan strategi pembangunan di kawasan kajian. Dalam pembentukan pelan konsep dan strategi pembangunan, kesesuaian pembangunan alternatif terpilih tersebut diagihkan dengan unit-unit kasar pembangunan. Keutamaan lokasi dan alokasi juga dipertimbangkan disebabkan berlaku konflik akibat dari pertindihan keutamaan pembangunan perindustrian, perdagangan dan perumahan.

Proses keutamaan guna tanah pembangunan telah dijalankan semasa proses pemberian pemberat kriteria pembangunan. Dalam konteks ini, keutamaan alternatif terpilih sahaja akan digunakan dalam analisis lokasi alokasi. Dalam proses pengagihan unit-unit kasar pembangunan, perisian What-if ini memerlukan input unjuran guna tanah mengikut unjuran penduduk, unjuran guna tenaga, isi rumah, bilangan unit kediaman, bilangan unit kediaman yang kosong dan lain-lain. Walau bagaimanapun, dalam kajian ini hanya dua pemboleh ubah digunakan iaitu penduduk dan guna tenaga seperti Jadual 10. Output Analisis Lokasi dan Alokasi adalah seperti di Rajah 10.

Perbezaan hasil analisis lokasi dan alokasi yang ditunjukkan adalah terlalu kecil mengikut kesesuaian tanah di kawasan pembangunan utama. Kelebihan penggunaan analisis ini, adalah pengagihan unit-unit kasar guna tanah dapat dilakukan dalam satu siri jangka masa seperti contoh tahun 2010, 2015 dan 2020. Walau bagaimanapun, output yang dihasilkan dari analisis lokasi dan alokasi adalah

Jadual 10: Unjuran-unjuran Yang Digunakan Dalam Analisis Lokasi dan Alokasi (Location Allocation)

PEMBOLEHUBAH 2007 2010 2015 2020

Penduduk 241,106 265,590 312,319 369,670

Gunatenaga 148,769 163,888 192,747 226,936

Rajah 10: Hasil Analisis Lokasi dan Alokasi Guna tanah tahun 2007, 2010, 2015 dan 2020)

lebih rigid dan sangat bergantung kepada permodelan yang digunakan oleh perisian. Ini menyebabkan tiada ruang kebolehlenturan dalam pembentukan konsep dan strategi pembangunan di mana pembangunan ditetapkan pada satu-satu kawasan tanpa ada kompromi (tertakluk kepada aturan permodelan perisian). Kelemahan ini, berkemungkinan disebabkan oleh permodelan yang

digunakan dalam perisian ini tidak bersesuaian dengan persekitaran penyediaan RT di negara ini. Output analisis ini perlu diperkembangkan ke dalam bentuk konsep dan strategi pembangunan melalui kreativiti berasaskan penemuan kajian melibatkan penyelesaian isu, masalah dan memperkembangkan potensi kawasan kajian.


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Kaedah 2: Pembentukan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan Berasaskan Matriks Penilaian Pencapaian (Matlamat/Objektif) atau Penyelesaian Masalah

Output matriks penilaian pencapaian dan penyelesaian masalah yang terpilih juga akan diperkembangkan ke dalam bentuk konsep dan strategi pembangunan melalui kreativiti berasaskan pertimbangan penemuan kajian melibatkan penyelesaian isu, masalah dan memperkembangkan potensi kawasan kajian. Kelemahan utama penggunaan teknik ini adalah agihan kasar pembangunan seperti mana saranan Manual Penyediaan RT (Pindaan 2002) tidak dapat dilakukan secara kuantitatif. Sebaliknya, ianya bergantung kepada rasional dan kreativiti perunding dan pasukan kajian.

RUMUSAN PENGALAMAN PENGGUNAAN MCDM DALAM KAJIAN RANCANGAN TEMPATAN KUALA LANGAT

Perlaksanaan penggunaan GIS dan DSS dalam pembentukan pelan konsep dan strategi pembangunan RT Kuala Langat dirumuskan seperti berikut:

a. Pembentukan kriteria pembentukan adalah kritikal disebabkan ianya sangat mempengaruhi kesesuaian pembangunan. Adalah disyorkan pembentukan kriteria tersebut dijalankan secara perbincangan kumpulan atau bengkel melibatkan pasukan teras, JPBD Negeri, PBPT dan perunding. Dalam memandu pembentukan tersebut, penemuan-penemuan Laporan Penemuan 1 perlu diperkukuhkan.

b. Pembentukan kriteria pembangunan disyorkan dilaksanakan mengikut sektor utama seperti perindustrian, perumahan dan perdagangan supaya kesesuaian pembangunan tersebut lebih terperinci mengikut sektor / bidang kajian utama. Kriteria pembangunan umum boleh digunakan tetapi ianya kurang melambangkan corak kesesuaian pembangunan sebenar dan sukar diperkembangkan hasil analisisnya jika diperlukan.

c. Analisis buffering dalam GIS yang digunakan dalam menggambarkan fungsi jarak / kedekatan terlalu bergantung kepada kaedah jejari sekata. Kaedah ini terlalu rigid tetapi penggunaannya adalah meluas. Kaedah-kaedah lain yang lebih baik yang boleh dipertimbangkan kegunaannya adalah:

KAEDAH ANALISIS KELEBIHAN

Kaedah Kawasan Tadahan Perkhidmatan (service area) melalui Analisis Jaringan (network analysis)

Kaedah ini menganggarkan jarak tadahan berasaskan sistem jaringan seperti jalan raya dan lain-lain. Kaedah ini adalah lebih baik dan lebih realistik.

Analisis Buffer menggunakan kaedah fuzzy logic.

Digunakan adalah perisian GIS berasaskan raster. Jarak tidak mempunyai ukuran yang spesifik seperti 200 meter, atau 300 meter. Sebaliknya ianya diukur berdasarkan ciri-ciri sel bersebelahan.

d. Alternatif konsep pembangunan boleh dijanakan di peringkat awal iaitu semasa pembentukan kriteria. Jika ini tidak dapat dilaksanakan, ianya boleh dibentuk setelah kesesuaian pembangunan dimuktamadkan.

e. Penilaian alternatif / konsep pembangunan boleh dijalankan menggunakan teknik-teknik kuantitatif seperti penilaian ketepatan dan analisis kesensitifan. Selain itu, penilaian matriks pencapaian masalah / penyelesaian masalah boleh dijalankan melalui perbincangan / bengkel untuk mendapatkan keputusan yang disepakati dan lebih realistik.

f. Adalah disyorkan, pembentukan konsep dan strategi pembangunan dijalankan menggunakan kreativiti pasukan kajian kerana ianya lebih relevan berbanding dengan analisis lokasi dan alokasi. Walau bagaimanapun, hasil analisis lokasi alokasi juga boleh dimanfaatkan dalam pembentukan konsep dan strategi dengan menggunakan kreativiti pasukan kajian. Pembentukan konsep dan strategi berdasarkan kreativiti pasukan kajian sukar untuk menghasilkan sasaran pembahagian unit-unit kawasan pembangunan secara kuantitatif.

Secara keseluruhannya, cadangan pendekatan penggunaan MCDM berdasarkan pengalaman kajian RTD Kuala Langat seperti di Rajah 12.

Rajah 11: Hasil Pembentukan Pelan Konsep dan Strategi Pembangunan Terpilih Berasaskan Matriks Penilaian

Labohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan DagangLabohan Dagang

Kanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong LautKanchong Laut

Kg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg LangKg. Sg Lang

Telok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima GarangTelok Panglima Garang

Kg. EndahKg. EndahKg. EndahKg. EndahKg. EndahKg. EndahKg. EndahKg. EndahKg. Endah

Kg. KundangKg. KundangKg. KundangKg. KundangKg. KundangKg. KundangKg. KundangKg. KundangKg. Kundang

Bandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri EhsanBandar Seri Ehsan

Tg. SepatTg. SepatTg. SepatTg. SepatTg. SepatTg. SepatTg. SepatTg. SepatTg. Sepat

Banting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. SeduBanting - Sg. Sedu

Batu LautBatu LautBatu LautBatu LautBatu LautBatu LautBatu LautBatu LautBatu Laut

Kanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong BengkokKanchong Bengkok

Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang Kelanang

Permatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang PasirPermatang Pasir

ChodoiChodoiChodoiChodoiChodoiChodoiChodoiChodoiChodoi

SijangkangSijangkangSijangkangSijangkangSijangkangSijangkangSijangkangSijangkangSijangkang

Bukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit CheedingBukit Cheeding

Kg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit ChanggangKg. Bukit Changgang

Bandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana PutraBandar Saujana Putra

Canal CityCanal CityCanal CityCanal CityCanal CityCanal CityCanal CityCanal CityCanal City

JenjaromJenjaromJenjaromJenjaromJenjaromJenjaromJenjaromJenjaromJenjaromPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau CareyPulau Carey

MoribMoribMoribMoribMoribMoribMoribMoribMorib

Ke Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan LalangKe Bagan Lalang

Ke Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk GongKe Teluk Gong

Ke KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIAKe KLIA

Ke DengkilKe DengkilKe DengkilKe DengkilKe DengkilKe DengkilKe DengkilKe DengkilKe Dengkil

Ke Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe Shah AlamKe KlangKe KlangKe KlangKe KlangKe KlangKe KlangKe KlangKe KlangKe Klang

0 5 10kilometers

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Rajah 12a: Cadangan Pendekatan Penggunaan MCDM Berdasarkan Kajian RTD Kuala Langat.Kaedah Multi Objektif

Rajah 12b: Cadangan Pendekatan Penggunaan MCDM Berdasarkan Kajian RTD Kuala LangatKaedah Objektif Tunggal (Single Objective)


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Kaedah 1 iaitu Rajah 12a, pembentukan kesesuaian pembangunan dilaksanakan mengikut sektor utama yang seterusnya digabungkan dalam peta komposit. Kesesuaian pembangunan tersebut dibentuk mengikut alternatif pembangunan yang mempunyai pelbagai pilihan (lebih daripada satu). Pemilihan alternatif pembangunan perlu dijalankan secara sistematik untuk mendapat pilihan terbaik.

Kaedah 2 iaitu Rajah 12b, pembentukan kesesuaian pembangunan dilaksanakan secara umum iaitu ianya mampu mewakili semua sektor utama. Tiada alternatif pembangunan dilaksanakan sebaliknya peta kesesuaian pembangunan tersebut secara langsung dibentuk pelan konsep dan strategi. Kaedah ini memerlukan justifi kasi yang kukuh terhadap kesesuaian pembangunan dan konsep dan strategi pembangunan yang dibentuk kerana ianya tidak mempunyai pilihan.

Kaedah 3 iaitu Rajah 12c, pembentukan kesesuaian pembangunan dilaksanakan secara umum iaitu ianya mampu mewakili semua sektor utama. Berdasarkan kesesuaian pembangunan tersebut, pembentukan beberapa alternatif pembangunan (lebih dari satu alternatif) dilaksanakan. Peringkat seterusnya adalah pemilihan alternatif pembangunan untuk mendapat pilihan terbaik. Kaedah yang sistematik dan kuantitatif perlu dijalankan untuk menghasilkan keputusan yang terbaik.

Kaedah atau teknik yang digunakan dalam kajian ini merupakan hanya sebahagian dari pendekatan MCDM. Dalam menghasilkan keputusan yang baik, GIS dan DSS ini menjadi penyokong atau membantu pasukan kajian dalam pembentukan pelan konsep dan strategi pembangunan.

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Rajah 12c: Cadangan Pendekatan Penggunaan MCDM Berdasarkan Kajian RTD Kuala Langat.Kaedah Multi Objektif

Senarai Rujukan

ITC, (2001) How to use the ILWIS 3.0 User’s Guide with ILWIS 3.1, Manual ILWIS.Jabatan Perancangan Bandar dan Desa, Semenanjung Malaysia (2002), Manual Penyediaan Rancangan Tempatan (Pindaan 2002), Kuala Lumpur, Tidak diterbitkan.Mohd Anuar bin Maidin (2004), Perlaksanaan Kaedah GIS dan Penilaian Multi-Kriteria Bagi Penyediaan Pelan Penyediaan Guna Tanah, Kertas Kerja dibentangkan di Mesyuarat Pengurus-pengurus Projek Bil 2/2004, Alor Star, 4 Ogos.

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VOL. 05 / ISSUE 01 / SEPTEMBER 2008

ABSTRACT

Place defi nition includes the point where the physical element, activity and meaning are intertwined in the people experience of a setting. In urban design research, much has been discussed on the signifi cance of the physical elements and activity in shaping place identity, however the contribution of meanings associated with place attachment dimensions has not been adequately explored. Based on fi ndings gathered from a doctoral research, this article will discuss place attachment, place meanings and its infl uence on place identity. To understand how place attachment dimensions are translated in an actual place experience, fi eld observation, surveys and face to face interviews were conducted with users of areas comprising Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Masjid India (JMI-JTAR) and Jalan Petaling (JP). The fi nding of the study demonstrates that place attachment is signifi cant in the users’ experience and perception of the streets. It is found that the streets are considered very important in sustaining the economic and social activities and regarded as meaningful in accentuating cultural diversity and self and group identities. The historical signifi cance of the areas as the earliest shopping locations in the city evoked personal and shared meanings to the long-term users who developed stronger place attachment. The paper concludes by establishing that place attachment has a signifi cant contribution to place identity thus should be considered in the design of urban places especially when redevelopment is one of the options.

Keywords: Place, Attachment, Identity, Kuala Lumpur City Centre

NORSIDAH [email protected]

Department of Landscape ArchitectureFaculty of Design and ArchitectureUniversiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)Serdang, Selangor

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PLACE ATTACHMENT DIMENSIONS IN ENHANCING LOCAL PLACE IDENTITY

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INTRODUCTION

Cities are collections of distinct places, each with its own ecology, history and culture. The physical forms, activity and meaning mix together to form the sense place and its character (Montgomery, 1998). In the context of environmental design, place is predominantly defined by a physical setting. Relating to the psychological aspects of man-environment relationship, places are composed by three broad interrelated components that give places meaning: the physical setting, the individual’s internal psychological and social processes and attributes and activities done at the place (Relph, 1976; Canter, 1977; Stokol and Shumaker, 1981; Steadman, 2002; Smaldone, 2005; Relph, 1976). Therefore the concept of place is physical as well as psychological (Steele, 1981). A place is also strongly associated with the cultural aspect of people’s experience. It is the point where the setting’s physical and cultural characteristics meld with the individual’s affective perceptions and functional needs (Bott et.al., 2005). The affective perception is generated from the psychological process rooted in the setting forms the meanings and attachment to place. Though much has been discussed on the effects of the physical and the activity on place identity, the effects of place meanings and attachment on place identity have not been brought to adequate attention.

This article highlights the significance of place attachment dimensions in sustaining place identity. The sense of place generated from the users’ perception as well as the form and degree of attachment to a place can inform us of the qualities associated with the identity of the place. Place attachment dimensions highlight the significance of the psychological aspect of place that can contributes to the construction of place identity.

THE ISSUES

In many developed cities, due to rapid urbanization rate, traditional urban environment is constantly replaced by the modern structures and images. It is argued that the weakening of the sense of place is facilitated by economic globalisation, standardized products

and generic urban environment with little authentic connection to local landscapes, ecosystem, history, culture and community (Wheeler, 2004). As a result, current urban developments tend to diminish attachment to place and weaken the depth of place meaning. The loss of identity can be resulted from placelessness, a term defined as a place with no significant meanings (Relph, 1976, Arefi, 2003) or places with disintegrated meanings and attachment. Inability to secure the physical character unique to a place will not only affect its physical image and spatial harmony but also the sense of identity embedded in the people’s attachment.

In the local scene, the weakening of identity is frequently cited as one of the urban design issues concerning the city of Kuala Lumpur (JBPD, 2006; KLSP, 2004; Shuhana et.al., 2004; Hassanuddin, 2003; Dolbani, 2000). It is claimed that most urban centres in Malaysia are still weak at portraying a distinct identity and lack of identifiable places. The influx of external influence had created more cities with a global character (JBPD, 2006) which is inappropriate to the local cultural expression, tradition and way of life. Commodification of urban places and the increasing power of global economy in most situations dictated the local economic environment, setting and image. As the city developed, large cooperate offices and shopping complexes have been built in the centre of the city replacing the locations originally occupied by two and three storey traditional shophouses. As a result, many smaller and independent shophouses has disappeared (Dolbani, 2000). For example, the emergence of mega shopping malls in the 1980’s has resulted in the lack of popularity of the traditional shopping streets including Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman. This gives a negative impact on users’ attachment – it is no longer an attraction for shoppers (NST: May 2005). This has given an impact on the inherent local place identity and the sense of place embedded in the locality. In the city centre of Kuala Lumpur, the diversity of street activities has been diminishing due to the attraction towards one stop commercial centre for shopping and leisure activities (Shuhana et. al., 2004). Since the sense of place

is an integral part of human-place experience, the weakening of the sense of place influences the degree of place attachment.

The issues of local urban identity are associated with a gradual deterioration in the definition of identity areas, development that is incompatible with the existing place character as well as deterioration of the character of the conservation areas (DBKL, 2004). The issues are reflected in the homogeneity of buildings’ scales and appearances and the losing of buildings and spaces of traditional and cultural values. One such situation is the vanishing of the traditional street as major public spaces and the diminishing of significance of public open spaces as a locus of social and cultural interactions (Shuhana and Ahmad Bashri, 2000). Therefore it is important to rediscover the soul of the city and to redefine place identity based on the people’s experience and attachment to the places. It was evident that there is an increasing effort is dedicated to in enhancing the physical identity of the traditional streets within the city centre. Therefore, issues with regards to place meanings and attachment embedded in the existing environment needs to be further understood in the process. It is because a proper identification of place identity and understanding of how the local people associate with significant places is important in sustaining place identity. These transformations have influenced the way users experienced, perceived and felt about places within the city centre.

The loss of significant buildings with cultural and historical values will be resulted in the loss of meanings and memories of the place together with the emotion attached to it (Executive Director of Badan Warisan Malaysia: Travel Times, 2002). As a result, the attachment to places will slowly diminish. Changes in the existing physical and activity patterns may erase what is precious and meaningful to the individuals in the existing community. Therefore place attachment dimensions can reveal the degree of bonding, dependence and association between the people and the settings. This is the point where place identity is formed. It was Arefi (1999) argued that the weakening of place identity could result in the loss of meaning and disrupts emotional


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attachment to place. Therefore the important principle is to view a setting (e.g. the street) as a place formed as a combination of the physical, social and psychological components rather than collection of buildings of merely functional purposes. Therefore the meanings associated with the attributes and characteristics of the place should be identified and valued. It can be concluded that place meanings and attachment are aspects that should be considered in urban design and planning of urban places.

PLACE ATTACHMENT DIMENSIONS

Research on sense of place has focused on three constructs: place attachment, place dependence, and place identity (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2001). Steadman (2003) has categorized place attachment as one of the measurable dimensions of sense of place based on his argument that the sense of place dimension is very difficult to measure due to the ambiguity of its definition. Sense of belonging and rooted is also regarded as one of the dimensions defining place attachment. Gieryn (2000) argued that place attachment results from many factors: accumulated biographical experiences (e.g. feelings such as fulfilling, terrifying, secured etc.); the socially and culturally shared activities (e.g. community activity, meeting with friends etc.) and the geography and the architecture of the place (e.g. house of special location, features and characteristics, landmark, recognisable community or public buildings etc.). Place attachment can be diminished or destroyed resulted in the loss of place. Gieryn (2000) from Fullilove (1996) argued that the loss of place and its meaning(s) have negative implications for individuals and collective identity, memory and history together with the psychological well-being.

Place attachment is defined as the development of affective bond or link between people or individuals and specific places (Hidalgo and Hernandez, 2001, Hummon, 1992; Moore and Graefe, 1994) expressed through interplay of affects and emotions, knowledge and beliefs, and behaviours and actions (Altman and Low, 1992). It is reflected in the functional bonding between people

and places described as place dependence (Stokols; Shumaker 1981, Shumaker and Taylor, 1993). It is developed when a place is well-identified and felt significant by the users and able to provide condition to fulfil their functional needs and supports their behavioural goals better than a known alternative (Williams, Patterson, Roggenbuck and Watson, 1992). In this regards, Hidalgo and Hernandez (2001), based on Ainsworth and Bell, 1970) described, in the most basic form, the main characteristic of place attachment is the desire to maintain closeness to the object of attachment which also referred to as the special feeling towards a particular place.

Places play a vital role in developing and maintaining self-identity and group identity of the people (Davenport and Anderson, 2005). Place identity is defined as the way in which a place informs the identity of a person or people (Proshansky et al., 1995) and the composites of its characteristic features (Relph, 1996). Thus, a place is an experiential process that forms an identity and distinctive place character. To understand the process, it is important to examine the meanings that people attach to a locality in trying to create a sense of place (Punter, 1991). In defining place identity, urban design research mainly focused on appearance and imageability of the physical elements but falls short in understanding place meanings and attachment as indicators for place distinction.

One of the main attributes associated with place attachment is place identity. Place identity refers to the symbolic importance of a place as a repository for emotions and relationships that give meaning and purpose to life, reflects the sense of belonging and important to a person’s well-being (Proshansky et al., 1995; Williams and Roggenbuck, 1989; Shamai, 1991; Relph, 1996). It contributes to individual, groups and cultural self-definition and integrity (Altman, 1992) and individual variations in the people perception and conception of place (Canter, 1977). Research on the realm of environmental psychology mostly links place attachment to self and community identity and distinction (Prohansky et.al, 1983; Twigger-Ross and Uzzell, 1996). In urban design

In defining place identity, urban design research mainly focused on appearance and imageability of the physical elements but falls short in understanding place meanings and attachment as indicators for place distinction.


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context, place identity is reflected in the attributes of physical forms and activity associated with a place as well as the users’ perception on the corresponding place characteristics.

Relph (1976) provides more elaborate explanation on place identity. It distinguishes the types of place-identity based on notions of insiders and outsiders. The ‘insideness’ reflects stronger or deeper place attachment whereby meanings, cultural values, experience and associated place qualities identified by the public are reflected in the setting. According to Relph (1976), to be inside a place is to belong to it and to identify with it and the more profoundly inside a person is the stronger is the identity with the place. It is often argued that people need a sense of identity, of belonging to a specific territory and /or group (Relph, 1976). Individuals need to express a sense of belonging to a collective entity or place, and of individual identity, which may be achieved by physical separation or distinctiveness, and sense of entering into a particular area (Carmona et.al, 2003). It is argued that to be ‘inside’ is the primary intention behind the place concept (Carmona et.al. from Norberg-Schulz, 1971). On similar notes, the ‘essence’ of place resides in the occasionally unconscious experience of an ‘inside’ as distinct from the ‘outside’ (Relph, 1976).

In the context of urban design, the types of identity have been focusing mainly on the physical image and people perception of place and lacks emphasis on the degree of association between people and places and the depth of meanings described by Relph (1976). The research concerns on the influence of attributes and characteristics of the place on the degree of place attachment. In this regards, the attributes form the distinct place character that make a particular place different. Place identity is associated with the characteristics of a place as being distinctive, different, unique, outstanding, dominant, easily recognisable, memorable and identifiable by the people (Lynch,1960; Shuhana, 1997). In perception research, identity is

defined as the identification of an object implies its distinction from other things, its recognition as a separate entity (Lynch, 1981). Relating this to place attachment, personal or group engagement with space gives it meaning as ‘place’ to the extent of differentiating it from other places (Relph, 1976). This suggests that the attribution of meaning involves place distinction - the definition of similarities and differences and therefore comparisons with other places that is associated with a positive or negative valuation of places (Gustafson, 2001). This is where the psychological and the physical and socio-cultural characteristics of the place intertwined.

Place identity is a dynamic component of environment. Al-Hathloul (1999) argued that the preservation of values rather than the preservation of forms are a reinforcement of identity.

The identity is transformed from the present condition with the changing living patterns and technological advancement, and the experience of place now, taking into consideration the cultural values relates to emotion. Therefore, by integrating place attachment dimensions in identifying place identity, a place can be viewed in its totality rather than focusing only on the perception of the external image composed by the outsiders who are emotionally detached from the places.

Shamai (1991) developed different level scales (refer to Table 1) to measure sense of places or feelings towards different scales of places. Based on the scale, degree of place attachment can span from level 0 to level 5. It is found that ‘belonging’, ‘attachment’ and ‘commitment’ are applicable to the place attachment dimensions discussed in this article.

Table 1: Sense of Place Measurement - Developed by Shamai (1991)

LEVEL SENSE OF PLACE MEASUREMENT KEYWORDS

0 Not having any sense of place No attachment

1

Knowledge of being located in a place- when people know that they live in a distinguishable place and can at least recognize symbols of the place, but do not have any kind of feeling that binds them to this place.

Knowledge, recognize symbol

2

Belonging to a place-in this stage, there is a feeling of belonging to a place. There is not only knowledge of the name of the place and its symbols (as in level l), but also a feeling of ‘togetherness’ and common destiny. What is happening in the place is important. The symbols of the place are respected.

Belonging, togetherness, common destiny, respected symbols

3

Attachment to a place-this stage involves an emotional attachment to a place at a higher level. A place has a meaning; it is a centre of a personal and collective experience and that identity combines with the meaning of the place and its symbols to create a ‘personality’ of the place. The place is emphasized through its uniqueness and through its difference from other places.

Emotional, meaning, experiences, symbols, identity, personality, uniqueness, different

4

Identifying with the place goals-when the majority of the people of the place recognize the goals of the place and are in conformity with them. This level implies a fusion and blending with the place’s interests and needs. It means that there is a devotion, allegiance, and loyalty to a place.

Shared goals, devotion, allegiance, loyalty

5

Involvement in place-this level implies that the resident takes an active role in the community be-cause of a commitment to a place [CANTER (1977) describes this as taking an “environmental role”. In contrast to all the previous levels that were based mainly on attitudes, this level (and the next one) is probed mainly through the actual behaviour of the residents. It implies investment of human resources, like talent, time, or money, in place-oriented activities or organizations.

Commitment, involvement, behaviour, investment of human resources on group activities, active players

Source: Shamai (1996)


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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PLACE ATTACHMENT

Place attachment is a bonding between people and places. In a wider concept, place attachment is a vital component of place experience because it supports urban livability and sustainability. It is because a livable environment provides a fulfilment of being able to identified oneself with a particular place that promote a sense of well-being and happiness to its inhabitants (Mohamad Nazri, 2003).

Place attachment is embedded in the sense of place and helps preserving the uniqueness of urban places and the loss of character is associated with the loss of emotional attachment to place. In the local scene, changes in the physical setting can be linked to place identity. For example, in an article called “Chinatown traders want cultural identity retained” (Star Metro, January 2002), the traders’ concern was to preserve the historical structures and unique identity of the traditional shopping street. With regards to this issue, the Executive Director of Badan Warisan Malaysia has commented in an article (Travel Times, March-April 2002) that the physical legacy and social values go hand-in hand in preserving identity. It is argued that much of the built fabrics of Chinatown are gone and together with it, the diminishing of many traditional trades. The impact of the loss of

character due to inappropriate physical changes to self and community identity and the psychological stability is strongly reflected in her statement: “Imagine this – a building of significant heritage value has been demolished and you have no picture of it. After a while, you lose its memories – you lose the emotion and you forget. The community will forget and values will change.” The importance of emotional and functional attachment is strongly reflected in the way it influences the identity of the people and the physical settings.

THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

The context of the study is the main the commercial districts of Kuala Lumpur city centre consisting of the main shopping streets. The areas contain the most significant historic buildings, sites and streets in the city (DBKL, 2004) and continue to experience changes in its character. The historical value is regarded as attractive to the visitors. It is also the location for modern as well as traditional commercial buildings receiving the highest concentration of shoppers, visitors and tourists (DBKL-JICA, 1996). The shopping districts are the most intensely used urban spaces while street is regarded as a type of public open space defined by various types of activities. The main shopping streets reflect the image and

identity of the city and represent the people’s perception of its character and identity (Shuhana et.al, 2004). The places are selected based on the physical, social-cultural and functional characteristics. The first place comprises Jalan Masjid India (JMI) and Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman (JTAR) which have been purposely defined as one of the study areas due to close proximity and similarity of the socio-cultural characteristics. The streets are located adjacent to each other and have been synonymous to an area occupied by Indian Muslim, Indian and Malay population. The second place known as “Chinatown” comprises Jalan Petaling (JP) is one of the early urban streets inhabiting the Chinese trading community and well known as one of the most popular shopping attraction.

THE DEGREE OF FUNCTIONAL ATTACHMENT AND INFLUENCING FACTORS

Based on the field surveys and in depth interviews with users of JMI, JTAR and JP, the functional attachment is the strongest form of attachment in the context of the shopping street. The attachment was expressed in a form of length of engagement, level of familiarity, degree of dependency, degree of satisfaction and sense of comfort. This indicates the significant of the shopping streets in supporting the economic and

JMI JTAR JPFigure 1: General views of JMI, JTAR and JP.


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social activities. It indicated the degree of dependency for regular income, business opportunities and involvement during festive events and occasions. Satisfaction is associated with the degree of availability and diversity of goods, public facilities, streetscape improvement and intensity of shoppers and visitors. The physical and environmental comfort is reflected in degree of convenience in accessibility, facilities and protection from weathering condition.

The respondents were generally satisfied with choice and diversity of products, distinctive products, and the attraction of the place to shoppers and the physical improvement of the streets. The following respondents valued the distinctive products offered only in the street of JP:

“I shop here because I have been shopping here since 25-30 years ago. I come here especially when I crave certain food like bakery, noodles, fruits from China. Its special because it had been here for so long”, (Shopper, 30 years of engagement) JP

Other respondents mentioned the importance of place location and intensity of pedestrian that in supporting their attachment to JMI:

“ I do not want to move anywhere else, if possible. Other places are not suitable because this area has good access and location – always there are people passing through, this place is a pedestrian route.” (Street vendor – 10 years of engagement)

“I am positive about the upgrading of the street, it is very much occupied during the month of Ramadhan, completely full of people and vendors selling all kinds of foods – the road is completely blocked and packed.” (Shopper) JMI

The functional attachment to the streets was therefore shown in the form of association with the place. This type of attachment is embodied in the physical characteristics of the place. For example, one of the pocket spaces in JMI known as Medan Bunus becomes a gathering spot for the pensioners who thought that the presence of shaded open space and seating (even though the number of seating were very few) together with the street entertainment by the blind musicians influence their preference to gather there. He then explained the reasons why he chose to be in that particular location:

“I choose to be here because this is the place in the centre of KL suitable and comfortable enough to sit and talk with friends – available seating and shaded. However, when it rains we have to go home. We are not allowed to sit at the shopfront areas. We love to listen to the music and songs (old songs) played by the street musicians or the blind. So we can sit and talk and be entertained while looking at people passing…” (Visitor, 8 years of engagement) JMI

In terms of improvement, the users strongly agreed that the streets are the best place for their activities and happy with the improvement to the areas, however, they fairly agreed that the place is very important to them. It is evident that the strength of importance of the places is reflected t based on the economic dependency factor.

In summary, majority of the users functionally attached to the streets perceived that the place was the best choice in supporting their activities compared to other streets and very important in their life due to their dependence on them for personal needs and economic sustenance. It can be concluded that the attributes associated with the dominant function of the street strongly influenced the form of attachment.

Figure 2: Variety of goods and choices of traditional products and medicine sold by the vendors in JMI


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THE DEGREE OF EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT AND INFLUENCING FACTORS

The emotional attachment was strongly expressed by the users who economically dependent on the streets in a form of sentiment and the feeling of dissatisfaction towards arising issues. Users of the streets expressed sentiments towards the contestation of street vendor area by the illegal intruders, conflicting of interests and dissatisfaction on the physical changes. It can be inferred that the motive of the negative reaction was mainly to protect the traders’ spatial ‘territory’ from being threatened by other illegal parties in the area.

Responses from the interviews suggest that the positive emotion is strongly associated with the general atmosphere of the streets,

the liveliness, the character and the enhancement of image and the physical structures of the places. The following statement exemplified the attachment to the shopping streets:

“I live outside of this area, but I love this place very much and wish to continue my business here as long as possible”. (Shopowner) JMI

The feeling of enjoyment was felt for the shoppers reflect the respondent’s familiarity with the street and the ability of the streets to provide choices of goods and range of prices offered:

“I enjoy shopping here because I am used to this place, a lot of choices of things and good prices”. (Shopper) JTAR

With regards to the upgrading project, one of the traders in JMI responded that as a result of the pedestrianisation of the southern section of JMI and the rerouting of the vehicular circulation, the rest of the street is highly inaccessible to motorists. Due to the problem, the trader started to lose his customers thus affected his business. Despite the sentiment, majority of the respondents interviewed generally welcomed the street upgrading due to the ability of the areas to attract more shoppers and visitors as well as providing a shelter to the street vendors from all weathering conditions thus encouraging longer trading duration.

To further analyse place attachment dimensions, reference is made to Shamai (1991) who developed seven levels of sense of place measurement which can be applied and translated in understanding the degree of attachment to place. It is classified that attachment to place is located at level three of the sense of place measurement indicating emotional bonding with attached meaning. The place is regarded as centre for personal and collective experience and that identity combines with the meaning of the place and its symbols to create a ‘personality’ of the place. The place is emphasized through its uniqueness and being different from other places. Table 3 describes the indicators of emotional attachment gathered from the in depth interviews with twenty four selected key users of the streets.

The users shared not only their knowledge of the place but also sentiments, pride, loyalty and topophilia (love) of the places. Their commitment is strongly associated with the roles of the place in developing the sense of ‘ownership’ and ‘territoriality’ that reflected the self and group identity. In connection with place theory, the strength of place identity is based on two factors: the emotional investments made by individuals into a particular place or setting and their length of association with the location. In parallel with the emotional attachment, other form of attachment - the functional and social attachment also developed due to frequency and length of engagement. Shoppers expressed the feeling of the enjoyment with the distinct atmosphere of the streets which has attributes and

Figure 3: Shoppers in the middle of shopping activities in JMI

Figure 4: The atmosphere of the Saturday night market in Lorong TAR

Figure 5: Variety of items sold by the street vendors in JP


FEATURES

characteristics strongly manifested in the activity and well supported by the spatial and physical setting.

The findings suggest that attachment to the shopping streets is strongly formed by the functional and emotional attributes. The functional significance of the shopping streets can be linked to the importance of the places in satisfying individual’s goals and needs as well as providing conditions that support the desired activities. Majority of the users perceived that the place was the best choice in supporting their activities and very important to their lives due to the dependency for economic sustenance and personal needs. Even though the attachment to the streets goes beyond fulfilling needs, the significance of the functional attachment is seen as the basic platform that binds the people and places in shared activities.

A stronger form of functional attachment is developed as a result of diverse activities generated by the multiple uses. The importance function of the shopping streets as platform for trading and shopping activities is supported by other related functions such as educational, recreational and religious. It means that the greater the number and range of needs met by a place, the more positive a person’s feelings will be toward that place. The functional attachment is the strongest form of attachment in the context of the shopping street. Positive responses gathered suggest that the attachment is expressed in a form of length of engagement, level of familiarity, degree of dependency, degree of satisfaction and sense of psychological and physical comfort. It indicates the users’ dependency for regular income, business opportunities and involvement during festive events and occasions. Satisfaction is fulfilled through availability and diversity of goods, public facilities, streetscape improvement and intensity of shoppers and visitors. The physical and environmental comfort is reflected in degree of convenience in accessibility, facilities and protection from weathering condition.

It is evident that the degree of economic dependency on the shopping streets is very high. This is described by the pattern of engagement based on daily

Table 2: Summary of place attachment indicators

COMPONENTS INDICATORS FOR ATTACHMENT

EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT

(Positive impression, sentiment-care, loyalty, pride, love)

• Sense of pride due to popularity and distinctiveness• Positive about the ambiance of the place• Resistance on relocating of street vendors • Unwilling to move to other place due to being accustomed with the

place • Feel happy working/business in the area• Feel threaten with the decrease in visitors-reduced income• Sentiment over changes in the physical aspects• Long for ambiance of the place• Love of the street• Contested space

FUNCTIONAL ATTACHMENT

(Engagement, familiarity, dependence, satisfaction, comfort)

• Engagement from am to pm• Defensive about own territory• Feel upset if they are relocated to other less familiar location • Able to describe the area very well, highly imageable, legible • Able to describe changes of the physical settings in details• Positive about creating better image• Constant attachment to the mosque as symbols of community and belief• Positive about the suitability of the place to sustain life and daily needs• Economic dependency - source of income• Satisfy with variety of things offered at low price• Satisfy with the economic potential and suitability to personal and social

background

Figure 6: Masjid India (Indian Mosque) as a symbol of religious and ethnic identity for the Indian Muslims


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association with the area and the sentiment expressed as a result of changes on the traders’ regular income and attraction to the shoppers. It is also evident in the level of familiarity due to longer period of engagement with the streets. Place dependence is associated with strength of association between a person and specific place and the degree to which occupants perceive themselves to be strongly associated with and dependent on a particular place.

Emotional attachment is developed as a result of the meaning(s) and significance of the places to the life of the users. The places are meaningful to the attached users that they personally identified with and emotionally attached to due to the high degree of familiarity and long period of engagement. Parallel with place attachment theories, place attachment contributes to individual, groups and cultural self-definition and integrity (Altman, 1992) and individual variations in the people perception and conception of place (Canter, 1977) help describes differences in place meaning and significance. The sense of belonging evokes emotional bonding between the users within the areas. At this point, the identity of the place is established through users’ identification with the places and sense of ownership. The sense of place is strengthened as the users’ degree of attachment to the streets is increased. The emotional attachment is reflected in the ability of the places to fulfil the psychological needs of the users that evokes their emotion. This is described through the emotional response, sentiments, sense of pride and belonging expressed by the users. Those who expressed strong emotional reaction are those who actively involved in the streets’ trading activities and the established trading community (the shopowners and the street vendors). Table 3 indicates the statements indicating users’ degree of emotional and functional attachment to the streets used in the survey.

Active engagement contributed to emotional attachment to the street. It is evident from the interview that those who expressed strong emotional reaction are those who actively involved with the activity and the community and indicate care and concern on the areas. In the case of

the shopping streets, the traditional setting reflects stronger self and community identity based on the ethnic background and established social bonding. In accordance with place identity theory, the scenario is associated with emotional attachment describing the importance of a place as a repository for emotions and relationships that give meaning and purpose to life. This has brought to attention that the feelings (affective aspects of perception) and the behaviour reflect the meaning and significance of places to the attached users.

It can be concluded that the degree of attachment to the shopping streets was strong. Based on the sense of place measurement scales developed by Shamai (1996), it is found that the degree of attachment ranges from level two to level four whereby the bonding with the setting is formed based on knowledge, belonging, identity, personality, uniqueness and shared goals. Relating this to the theory, there is a strong sense of self identification associated with the settings and the feeling of being in a recognisable place and identifiable elements Lynch, 1960; Shuhana, 1996). Here, the sense of place is translated in the particular experience of a person in a particular setting and the general way someone feels about a place and their perception on the attributes of the place and the level of place significance.

Social form of attachment strongly prevailed in the users’ attachment to others who engaged in similar activities. This is evident in the manner in which the traders identified

themselves in association with others who frequently interacted with them and shared similar experience in such a way that they recognized them by names and by sight. The words ‘we’ and ‘ours’ used during the conversation indicated a strong sense of belonging related to their roles of being in the streets (e.g. street vendor, shop owners). It can be inferred that people and their socio-cultural bonding is the key components of a living place that generates attachment, sense of belonging and spirit of the people and the community. At this point, emotional attachment is translated into place identity which is associated with the symbolic importance of a place as a repository for emotions. The distinctive symbolic or intangible characteristics of the places have sustained the spirit of place reflected in the positive feeling and emotion expressed by the users. Through time, place identity is developed parallel with the length of engagement, deeper socio-cultural interaction and sense of pride and belonging through symbols and meanings.

The form of attachment is also translated in the degree of sense of belonging. It is formed as a bonding between users and their setting is expressed through strong emotional reactions towards changes that affect their business activities and ownership of trading or vending spaces, sense of pride with the distinct characteristics of the streets and commitment to the economic and cultural identities. Simultaneously place identity is developed after the meanings and association with the place are established, and the sense of belonging developed.

Table 3: Attachment items indicating the strength of place attachment

COMPONENTS ATTACHMENT ITEMS

EMOTIONALATTACHMENT

12345678

I am very attached to this place This place is meaningful to me I have positive impression about this place Coming here is the most satisfying things to do I enjoy being here more than any other place I feel secure being in this place Staying here makes me forget my problems I would prefer to spend more time here if I could

FUNCTIONALATTACHMENT

12345

This area is the best place for what I like to do I feel comfortable being here than any other place No other place can compare to this place I am happy with the improvement done to this place This place is very important to me


FEATURES

PLACE MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE

The findings suggest that the places were more meaningful and significant to the users who had constant and long term engagement with the places. The meaning(s) developed with the streets determine the reasons for attachment and related to the functional roles of the streets as a setting for experience. This is reflected in the personal, social and cultural associations with the places. Table 4 indicates meanings associated with the streets.

It is found that the streets share qualities as a place for income generation, reflection and continuity of particular (distinct) culture and its diversity, a place of diversity in products sold and the meeting point for social and cultural interaction. The respondents’ dependency on the streets is reflected in the following responses:

“This place is important to sustain my income” (Street vendor, 12 years of engagement) JMI

I am attached to this place because it’s easy to gain money and better life (Street vendor, 5 years of engagement) JBB

“This place is special because it attracts a lot of different people from everywhere...” (Visitor, 5 years of engagement) JP

The users functionally and emotionally attached to the shopping streets due to varied meanings and levels of significance. It is discovered that meanings associated with the places are related to personal as well as group experiences. In this case, the attachment is driven by the economic transaction, sequences of events, the people and local culture, memory of past experience, history of place, streetscape elements, place markers, nodes and distinct atmosphere. However, it is inferred that the meaning associated with the shopping streets were more strongly reflected in the activities and the distinct atmosphere compared to the physical appearance of building

forms and architectural images. The functional, emotional and the socio-cultural meanings evoked by the elements are found to be the profound reasons that a place continued to be loved and felt significant. The findings suggested that despite the influence of physical elements in the construction of meanings, human experience and intention, social relationships, emotions and thoughts were important aspects influence the how meaning is developed. It was evident that the physical form and activities are significant in the user’s familiarity and imageability (e.g. recognisable buildings and public open spaces) while the social and cultural relationship, memory and personal meanings contribute to emotional attachment and belonging to the places that play an important role in shaping place identity.

One of the components of meaning is associated with attachment process which refers to the profound experience of being part of a place. This can be linked to the significance of the streets’ activities that the users attached to and through time developed their own meanings and attachment. Users’ connection with the streets is further developed as result of constant involvement and commitment with the places. They attached to the functions and committed to it due to the opportunities for businesses and employment. Cultural and social interactions are reflected within ethnic and religious association. It was evident that place attachment is manifested in the degree of association, engagement, familiarity, belonging, memory, rootedness and knowledge in relation to the place. In the case of the shopping streets, the functional aspects of attachment such as the level of engagement, economic attraction, functional familiarity and transaction (sociability) more strongly reflect the meaning of the places.

The physical environment has important role in providing images so that topophilia (the love of a place) has a concrete object of attachment. However, it is discovered in the research that meanings associated with people and places contribute to emotional attachment and the sense of belonging. The identity of the traditional streets has been imbued in the identity of the dominant cultural

“This place is important to sustain my income” (Street vendor, 12 years of engagement) JMI


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(ethnic) community in their ways of life and belief. The spirit of place rooted from the past makes up the essence of the place despite the continuous changes its physical appearance and pattern of activities. The users stressed the importance of the physical elements in supporting activities as well as the significance of historic buildings (e.g. The Indian Mosque and traditional shophouses) as symbolic cultural symbols that are regarded as the pride of the community. It is evident that the spirit of place involves particular significance deriving from past events and present situations. However, in modern urban development, the distinctiveness of place generated by the sense and spirit often reduced into appearance and image as well as economic function that it is disassociated with the past historical, social and cultural significance. The character, identity and meaning of place associated with the history and culture are in many instances unidentifiable and diminishing.

The continuity of meaning and conception of the places is threatened as the city absorbed into changes in the physical image and function. However, the significance and meanings of the places will sustain as long as the streets function as a place that can fulfil the needs and aspiration of the users. In addition to meeting the basic needs of users, there are other factors that have the potential to affect the development of place attachment. The finding suggests that repeated direct experience of a place is necessary for persons or groups to build attachment and meanings. Continued use promotes a sense of ownership and an extension of personal identity. As a result, meanings and place identity are formed.

It is evident that meanings of the places are associated with self and group socio-cultural identity. The Malay, Chinese and Indian Muslims and their ways of life and interaction form the distinct character of the places rooted from the early days. In the case of pluralistic society the cultural principles play an important role in defining group identity hence influence the identity of the place they inhibited. Attachments to place develop as a result of personal

experiences, which in turn form a part of personal identity, thus developed the association between identity and place. Applicable to the context, strong sense of place is often associated with racial and ethnic identity. The level of attachment to the traditional street (JMI-TAR and JP) is stronger based on the fact that majority of the users are able to identify and recognize the goals of the place and are in conformity with them together with the emotional attachment and significant meanings attached to it. This level implies a fusion and blending with the place’s interests and needs. It means that there is devotion, allegiance, and loyalty to a place due the long-term engagement, established group identity and continuous dependency associated with economic activities.

It can be understood that meanings and associations provided the non-visual factor that influenced distinctiveness of the streets. They played an important role in making an element distinctive when there was a lack of other physical elements such as distinctive buildings and landmarks. The significance of place identity due to meanings developed through time sustains the essence of the traditional shopping streets (JMI-TAR, JP). Time is seen as the influencing factor in determining the strength of association and attachment with the places. Changes in the physical appearance and activity of the streets dynamically reshaped place meanings and significance due to the changing in pattern of uses and activities. However, memories of the past remain and sense of belonging to the streets persists.

The following described the meanings associated with JMI-TAR and JP:(a) A place of economic dependency(b) A place as a symbol of self and

group identity(c) A place as a symbol of cultural

identity (d) A place of cultural diversity (e) A place of diversity and choice of

goods (f) A place of continuity of family

rootedness (g) A place of distinct (unique)

atmosphere (h) A place of childhood memory (i) A place of social bonding and

interaction

CONCLUSION

According to Kuala Lumpur Structure Plan 2020 report, areas with an attractive character and strong sense of identity must be maintained and enhanced and upgraded to provide and improved sense of identity and sense of place. The findings suggest that in order to fully understand the content of character and identity, place attachment dimensions should be integrated in urban planning and urban design intervention. Therefore, in order to develop a place as specialised shopping precincts, the qualities that shape the distinct character of the places can be identified from qualities that the users attached to and felt significant with.

The form and degree of attachment provide a guideline of how significant is a place to the immediate users. In the context of the shopping streets, the functional form of attachment play a significant role in creating an atmosphere distinct to the places. Therefore improvement programmes should take into consideration the dominant function of the place perceived by the users and proven by the way they attached in the activities. The importance of the physical elements in supporting the streets’ activities is important to encourage continued attachment. In the case of the traditional streets, despite lacking in its physical qualities, the importance of the streets as locus for trading and buying activities specializing in the products suitable and demanded by the specific types of users (e.g. particular ethnic groups) strongly influenced the attachment. The finding suggests that further improvement on the legibility and comfort of the traditional shopping streets is required to be able to secure the sense of place and identity. This can be regarded as the key strength of the place as it is differed from other similar places in the city centre and it should be considered in formulating the concept of urban redevelopment.

The emotional form of attachment can provide vital information on the actual value of the streets based on the perception of the attached users. The degree of emotional reactions towards qualities associated with the places can be used as the indicators


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for the attributes that contribute to place distinct identity. The meanings associated with the places can be translated in any upgrading programme concerning the image appropriate to increase place attraction to the shoppers, tourists and visitors. The fi ndings suggest that the long termed users expressed a stronger sense of attachment and sense of belonging to the places. In this case, the street vendors with longer period of engagement with the areas can be regarded as a living component of the place that signifi cantly contributes to unique streets’ atmosphere thus enhancing the identity of the places.

References: Altman, I., and Low, S. (1992). Place attachment. New York: Plenum PressArefi , M. (1999). Non-place and placelessness as narratives of loss: Rethinking the notion of place. Journal of Urban Design, Vol.4. No.2, pg.179-193Canter, D. (1977). The psychology of place. London: The Architectural Press Ltd.DBKL (2003). Kuala Lumpur Structure Plan 2020 : Kuala Lumpur City Hall.Hidalgo M. C., and Hernandez, B. (2001). Place attachment: Conceptual and empirical questions. Journal Of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 21 pg. 273-281.JBPD (2006). National Urbanisation Policy: Federal Department of Town and Country Planning (JBPD), Peninsular Malaysia.Mohammed Abdullah E.S. (1998). The integration of tradition and modernity: A search for an urban and architectural identity in Ar-riyadh, the Capital of Saudi Arabia. Habitat International, Vol. 22, No.4, pg. 571-589.Norsidah, U.; Elias S; Kamariah, D. (2006). Urban place attachment: A study on the traditional shopping streets of Kuala Lumpur city centre. Proceeding of the iNTA2006: 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design in Tropical Region. Jogjakarta.Montgomery, J. (1998). Making a city: urbanity, vitality and urban design. Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 3, Issue No.1.

Relph, E. (1976). Place and placelessness, London: Pion. Stedman, C.R. (2003). Is it really just a social construction?: The contribution of the physical environment to sense of place. Society and Natural Resources, Vol.16, pg. 671-685. Taylor and Francis Inc.Steele, F. (1981). The sense of place. CBI Publishing Company, Inc.Stokols, D. , and Shumaker, S. A. (1981). “People in places: A transactional view of settings. In Harvey, J. H. (Ed.). Cognition social behaviour and the environment. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.Shuhana, S. et. al. (2004). Kriteria kejayaan jalan membeli-belah tradisi di Malaysia: Kajian kes Kuala Lumpur. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.Wheeler, S. (2004). Planning for sustainability: Creating livable, equitable and ecological communities. Routledge.Williams, D. R., Anderson, B.S., Mc Donald C.D., and Patterson, M.E. (1995). Measuring place attachment: More preliminary results. Paper presented at the 1995 Leisure Research Symposium, NRPA Congress, San Antoniohttp://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~janzb/place.htm - The philosophy of place

Acknowledgement:The author acknowledges the contribution of the following individuals during the course of the study: Dr. Kamariah Dola, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shuhana Shamsuddin, Prof. Dr. Dato’ Elias Salleh, and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Azizah Salim Syed Salim.


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PALAVER

If the only thing that is constant is change, then that means all our life we are permanently in various stages of transition. And that is supposed to be good for us, as long as the transition is to a better place, and we are not lost in transition – whatever that means !. In this context, I therefore see the rising of fuel price (at least within this country), as an impetus to a ‘good’ transition – from car dependency to a slightly greater reliance on transits. At least now more people are talking about the provision of good public transport - and if talking is not good enough, at least now even the numero uno is compelled to walk the talk by having a go on the commuter train. “Chooo chooo”.

Now, my subject is transit. Transit, which always operates at the urban level, came into prominence during the nineteenth century. Among the earliest notable urban railways was the Metropolitan Line of the London Underground system that was opened in 1863; while others include Paris Metro, and transit systems in Osaka, Moscow and Barcelona, followed after World War 2 by Munich, Stockholm, Rome, Cleveland, Ohio, San Francisco and Rotterdam (White, 1976). Now transit system exists almost in all major cities – it is part of a city’s identity, a source of civic pride, a social contact point, a witness to many people’s lives. For those who have never tried using a transit – put on your social observer suit, take a transit, and enjoy the reality shows.

KL Central


SANISAH [email protected]

Federal Department of Town and Country Planning,Peninsular Malaysia

LOST IN TRANSITION

GLOBAL TRANSIT SYSTEM

A transit system is public or private system that provides local or regional multi- occupancy-vehicle-passenger service, or simply put, a system of urban transport services open to everybody, usually upon payment of a fi xed charge, following a defi ned route, having specifi ed stations or stops, and running according to a set schedule (Grava, 2003; APTA1, 2007). A transit system can be rail based, bus based or a system of paratransit. Rail transit is best for a large urban area (more than 200,000 population), bus transit is adequate and cost effective for a small urban area (less than 200,000 population) while a paratransit system can work well if it is well organised, and regulated.

Often a transit system is also associated with a mass rapid transit (MRT), whereby rapid transit is characterized by fast running and few delays (some buses on busways can be included in this group, but not trolley buses and streetcar). Basically MRT comprises a spectrum of modes of urban public transport that use specifi c fi xed-track or exclusive and separated use of a potentially common-user road track (for example metros, suburban railways, light rail transit and busways). In this context, MRT usually has superior operating capacity and performance compared with unsegregated road based public transport (for example, normal buses, taxis and paratransit) (World Bank, 2002; Grava, 2003). As such, mass transits are often seen as playing a key role in helping a city move away from automobile oriented trends (Allport, 1995; Newman and Kenworthy, 1999).

RAIL TRANSIT

Rail transit includes all modes that employ rail technology and run on steel tracks, including all railroad operations at the city or metropolitan/regional level (but not intercity and other long distances service) (Grava, 2003). The component of rail transit goes by many names. To simplify matters, they can be categorised into three categories, namely heavy rail, light rail and automated or fi xed guideway transit.

i. Heavy RailCommuter rail or suburban rail, metro (European), underground/tubes (British), subway (USA), U-Bahn (German) and some monorails fall under heavy rail (others fall under automated guideway system). Heavy rail transit (HRT) basically uses multicar trains, with self-propelled high acceleration/deceleration vehicles

1 American Public Transport Association - a national, non-profi t trade association representing the public transit industry. APTA members include more than 400 public transit systems, as well as state and local departments of transportation and planning agencies, manufacturers and suppliers of transit equipment, consultants, contractors and universities.


PALAVER

powered by electricity, operated on exclusive rights-of-way (ROW) with high platforms in stations. Most HRT systems are either predominantly underground or a combination of surface and underground network, by virtue that most urban cities’ surface are highly developed. Examples of HRT include Paris Metro, London underground, U-Bahn of Munich, and New York subway (Grava, 2003).

ii. Light RailOn the other hand, trolley/trolley car and streetcar (USA), tram (Europe/USA), sneltram (Dutch) and light rail transit (LRT) falls under light rail. Light rail generally uses rail cars singly or in short trains, powered by electricity usually supplied by overhead wires (in the case of streetcar, trolley and tram), and operated on a variety of ROW conditions (exclusive ROW and non-exclusive ROW, fully grade separated, predominantly reserved, designated by pavement markings, or in mixed street traffi c such as in the case of tram, with stations close together. Other characteristics are rapid acceleration of vehicles, automatic or manual control systems, and high or low platform at stations. Examples of light rail are the legendary Toonerville Trolley, Philadelphia streetcar, the conventional on-street tramways of Zurich, the sophisticated, elevated and completely segregated Singapore MRT, and Cleveland LRT (Grava, 2003).

LRT in particular is expanding rapidly in industrialised country as well as in high and middle income developing countries, in cities with low corridor volumes, as a secure and high quality alternative to the private car and serving as feeder to the heavy rail systems. However in poor developing countries where the need is for adequate capacity and speed for captive low income public transport passengers, its role is less obvious. Where LRT operates at grade, without priority or protection from obstruction by other traffi c, it has little or no performance advantage over busways, but otherwise due to its capability for carrying large volume and for its superiority over bus in generating traffi c, LRT is crucial for the purpose of reducing road congestion.

iii. Automated Guideway TransitAutomated guideway transit (AGT) or better known previously as ‘people movers’, refers to any transit mode with operations confi ned to a permanent channel or trackway on an exclusive ROW, which operates automatically under central control (no drivers), either as individual vehicles or in trains, running either on a fi xed schedule or activated upon demand. It is convenient to subdivide AGT into three categories namely Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) which is a small vehicle requested by a call button and directed to a particular station, Shuttle-Loop Transit which

operates back and forth on a single line between two stations, and Group Rapid Transit which consists of larger vehicles or trains operating on network with station stops. Most AGT can be in the form of airport shuttles – as can be found in American airports as well as in Germany, France, Hong Kong and Japan, and downtown people mover (DPM) that often takes the form of monorail and normally operates within the CBD of some of today’s big modern global cities. More often that not, AGT utilises an elevated track, and a more advanced technology than the heavy rail or the light rail system, such as by using magnetic levitation or other more advanced automated system. Examples of large scale citywide AGT are Vancouver Skytrain, and VAL network in Lille, France, while other examples are Atlanta Airport shuttles, Detroit DPM, Pittsburg Skybus, Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART), and Osaka New Transit (Grava, 2003). In principle, rail transit can contribute to city effi ciency – by reducing travel cost and maintain a higher level of city-centre acvitity and the associated economies of agglomeration, as well as improve the quality of life in general - by providing a more environmentally benign modes of transport, and in the longer run by supporting a more environmentally favourable land use structure. Rail based transit system in developing country carry about 11 billion journeys a year - surface rail about 5 billion and light rail about 2.5 billion. While the proportion of public transport trips by rail is more than 50% in some countries for example Seoul and Moscow, rail systems generally still only dominate in a few cities (World Bank, 2002).

BUS TRANSIT

Bus transit system has the characteristics of a transit system in general, but as mentioned earlier, may not meet the criteria of a rapid transit (unless it involves exclusive busways, in which case it can be generally termed bus rapid transit (BRT). For instance, the buses in Colombia before Transmileno (which is a BRT) are part of the transit system, but are not part of the mass rapid transit (MRT) system. However, buses in general are, without question, the workhorses of the transit world – even where they do not constitute the only public transport


PALAVER

system or the main transit system, they are still part of the transit system by providing feeder services to the main (rail) transit system. In fact, there is probably no city that has transit operates without a bus component (Grava, 2003).

There are indeed many types of buses – including articulated bus, minibus, charter, circulator, double decker, express, feeder, suburban, intercity, and trolley buses. However, a simple defi nition of a bus transit as provided by Grava (2003) is ‘a systematically coordinated (urban bus) service, fully integrated with other modes in a community, that provide faster speeds, improved reliability, and increased convenience compared to conventional bus operations’; meanwhile a transit bus is ‘a bus with front and centre doors, normally with a rear mounted engine, low-back seating, and without luggage compartments or restroom facilities for use in frequent-stop service’. While acknowledging the dominance of buses among all public transit modes around the world (in terms of passengers carried, vehicle kilometres accumulated, etc.), the ensuing sections will focus on the BRT, mainly to allow comparisons with the rail transit system.

i. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)BRT normally involves these components. Firstly, rolling stock of improved designed; secondly, expanded physical facilities including

possibly preferential or exclusive lanes; thirdly, upgraded operational procedures, ranging from fare collection to traffi c signals; and lastly, advanced information and control methods (Grava, 2003). BRT are the least expensive form of MRT, and they provide substantial capacity as trunk carriers in major corridors, such as in Sao Paulo. They can be operated as a high-quality network, as in Curitiba; with electric traction if required, as in Sao Paulo; or even retrofi tted into existing road system as in Quito. Yet outside Latin America, they are rare in the developing world (with the exception of Jakarta). This is partly due to their association with a backward technology and low social status, making it a low priority investment choice particularly when a rail transit can be afforded. Often a BRT capacity is seen as limited, due to the small size of vehicles and interactions with other traffi c at intersections. However in today’s technologically upgraded form of bus guidance system, they are now again being advocated as possible means of effi ciently using space, reducing congestion and pollution, while being relatively inexpensive to retrofi t (World Bank, 2002).

There are enough good examples around the world, particularly in Latin America, to overcome many of the perceived problems relating to a BRT. From vehicle and system design aspects, large, state-of-the-art, clean and effi cient buses (such as the 23

metre, double–articulated buses with fi ve doors used in Curitiba), off-vehicle ticketing, passing lanes at bus stops, and huge operation can bring effective BRT capacity up to 20,000 passengers per hour in the peak direction (pphpd); in fact the four-lane busway in Bogota managed 36,000 pphpd. In addition to that, electric trolley vehicles as used in Quito can reduce both air and noise pollution. In cities where roads are wide (as in most former Soviet Union cities) and the bus industry fairly concentrated, electric trolley vehicles can indeed provide an affordable and fl exible MRT alternative (World Bank, 2002).

Other than the Latin American cities (Curitiba, Sao Paulo and Porto Alegre in Brazil, Quito in Ecuador, and Bogota in Columbia) that has just successfully implemented the BRT recently, elsewhere BRT has been developed even earlier, though with various degree of success, including in the USA (Shirley busway in Washington), UK (new town of Runcorn), and Germany (O-Bahn of the city of Essen). The Shirley facility than was opened for service in 1969, runs for 20 km, consists of two reversible lanes located in the median of the highway, and now has been changed to allow carpools and vanpools. Runcorn busway that was authorised around 1964 on the other hand, runs a total length of 19 km, connecting the centres of various neighbourhood with the town centre, and allows only buses and emergency vehicles. Meanwhile O-Bahn that was opened in 1980 with the intention to bring buses into the underused tramway tunnels, operated on two route segments including one segment that joins with a streetcar line (Grava, 2003). Following these examples, more BRT has been developed including in Philadelphia, Minneapolis and Portland in USA, Ottawa in Canada, Gothenburg in Sweden, and Adelaide in Australia (Grava, 2003).

PARATRANSIT According to the U.S Department of Transportation defi nition (1970s), paratransit are ‘those forms of urban passenger transportation which are available to the public, are distinct from conventional transit (scheduled bus and rail) and can operate over the highway and street systems’; while according to Grava (2003),


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it is a service that is not quite full public transit and that has some of the convenience features of private automobile operations, where entry is on payment of a fare or available freely only to a preselected group. It is most often smaller in scale than real transit, utilising smaller vehicles, and it can be legal or illegal as defined by local rules and regulations. Other names associated with paratransit include, shuttle service, minibus, jitney, downtown circulator, demand responsive service, and dial-a-ride operations (Grava, 2003). Paratransit is most notable in the developing and transitional economies in recent years.

The disadvantages of paratransit include that it is often unsystematic (unscheduled, noncorporate operations, and outside the tax system), lacks control from the authority, utilises old vehicles and is often associated with negative behaviours such as hassling for passengers, racing and blocking to beat rivals, and turning back to pick passengers in the opposite direction. On the other hand, its advantages include that it fills the gap in formal transit provision (it operates on demand responsive routes and is unscheduled, provides feeder services, and access relatively inaccessible areas), operates on a small space within the existing road infrastructure, and requires small capital investment. On the whole, paratransit does perform many roles. In Africa it is the dominant mode of public transport of the poor. In the former Soviet Union, it supplements a declining formal sector. In East and South Asia, it complements the formal sector, providing differentiated services in identified market niches. In most parts of Latin America, it competes with the traditional suppliers (World Bank, 2002). Examples of paratransit around the world include, large buses in Buenos Aires, minibuses in Johannesburg, jeepneys in Manila, pick-up trucks in Caracas, shared taxis in Casablance and Lima, three-wheelers in Phnom Penh and Delhi, motorcycles/tuktuks in Bangkok, and pedicab in Dhaka (World Bank, 2002).

KUALA LUMPUR TRANSIT SYSTEM

Rail transit has become an important urban public transport service in Kuala Lumpur since the operation of the KTMB Komuter in August 1995. This commuter rail added about 137 km of rail services between Rawang and Seremban and between Sentul and Port Klang, passing through 39 stations and halts.

Currently, the most important integrated public transport system in the Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Region (KLMR) is being provided by RapidKL, which incorporates rail and bus services. Incorporated in July 2004 and operational since November 2004, RapidKL today transports approximately four million customers per week – 2.1 million on the Ampang-Sri Petaling (formerly STAR which was established since 1996) and Kelana Jaya (which formerly PUTRA established since 1998) line and another 1.9 million on the bus system, previously Intrakota and Cityliner. Ampang-Sri Petaling line and Kelana Jaya line altogether consist of 48 stations including seven interchange stations - Ampang-Sri Petaling line has 25 stations, while Kelana Jaya line has 23 stations. On top of these, RapidKL system also include RapidKL bus which operates 165 bus routes within the Klang Valley consisting of 10 city routes, 87 local bus routes, 65 trunk routes and 3 express bus routes – some of these buses also function as the feeder bus to and from the LRT stations (RapidKL Online, 2008).

Other transit services operating in the KLMR are the ERL and the KL Monorail. ERL which is a dedicated high-speed rail system that runs between KL Sentral and Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) began operation in April 2002. Its Express services is expected to carry 5,000 to 10,000 passengers per day, while its Transit services with three stops in between the end stations, is expected to carry 2,000 to 5,000 commuters per day. KL Monorail which is the latest addition, began operations in September 2003. It covers 8.6 km, running at an average speed of 30 km/h, and stops at 11 fully elevated stations from Titiwangsa to KL Sentral stations.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TRANSIT SYSTEMS

In the overall scheme of the transport system, the transit system is as illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Of the three types of transit system, globally buses dominate in terms of usage, mainly by being efficient, flexible and affordable enough for most cities – most Latin American countries particularly, are more dependent on bus than rail (World Bank, 2002). On the other hand, rail transit most likely makes up the least

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Figure 1. The transit and the MRT system in the overall transport system


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Table 1: Responses by mode to transportation needs/demands/expectations

Automobile Jitney * Buses Light Rail

For Users

i) Time needed to complete trip Usually short, except for congestion Reasonable Somewhat slow Reasonably fast

ii) Privacy/ comfort High Limited Limited Acceptable

iii) Reliability/ safety High Limited Reasonable Good

iv) Costs High Low Low. subsidised Low. subsidised

v) Interconnectivity/ transfer conditions

High, if parking available Acceptable Usually constrained Can be superior

vi) Social status High Low Inferior High

For Communities

i) Needs for capital funds Irrelevant, but for construction of roadways - Limited Consider-able

ii) Reasonable operating and maintenance costs

Maintenance of streets and traffic controls Some Yes Good

iii) Environmental impacts Very high High Consider-able Very low

iv) Efficiency of networks and land use

Inferior Good Reasonable Good

v) Boost to economy Neutral Neutral Limited Significant

vi) Civic image/political support Neutral Limited Inferior Major

For the Nation

i) Conservation of fuel resources Very poor Good Inferior Superior

ii) Equity of service Poor Very good Good Acceptable

iii) Good use of national wealth No Yes Yes Yes

Source: Adapted from Grava (2003)Note (*): Jitney is a privately owned, small or medium sized vehicle, that usually operates on a fixed route, but not on a fixed schedule

Table 2: Bus transit versus rail transit

Type Reasons to support Reasons to dismiss Other remarks

Bus (BRT)

- Lower cost (vehicle and infrastructure) than rail transit while being almost as fast, as reliable, as safe and as comfortable

- No intensive R&D, or special skills required

- Run on readily available spaces/infrastructure (usually part of the existing roads and highways)

- Usually better flexibility and maneuverability

- Energy consumption depends on fuel type but is usually more polluting than the rail transit

- Can cause street congestion/conflict (for tram, etc.)

- Lower capacity, and usually slightly slower, lower comfort and lower social status

- Lower ability to influence and shape land use patterns

- As metropolis continue to grow and rail becoming more expensive, BRT type service is becoming more popular

- Usually more labour intensive (good for safety; bad in terms of productivity and technology)

Rail (LRT and transit type rail)

- Higher capacity, reliability, safety, and quality of ride

- Higher labour productivity, mechanical efficiency and power conservation

- Less environmental effects (quiet, smooth and clean), and better image and community acceptance

- Better integration with other modes and into community

- Higher capital, operating and maintenance cost

- The infrastructure is more fixed in character

- Can create visual intrusion (overhead wires and bridges, etc.)

- Difficult and expensive acquisition of rights of way

- Cost of underground and elevated rail transit is very high, hence such transit is only cost-effective in a relatively wealthy and dense cities

- Seen as initiator of development and urban regeneration ; developers will be drawn to build on a site where a rail transit runs through it

Source: Adapted from Grava (2003)


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percentage, by virtue that only some wealthy cities can afford it; while paratransit falls somewhere in between in terms of usage. However for high income and high density cities like Tokyo, Osaka and Seoul for example, rail could be a more important transit mode - rail ridership in Osaka account for 91% of the total transit trips in the city respectively (ASCE, 2000).

These transit modes can also be compared vis-a-vis each other as well as with automobiles, from the perspective of individual users, as appropriate to communities at large, and responding to several broad objectives that are effective at the national scale, as shown in Table 1, based on the fi ndings reported by Grava (2003).

In addition, by simply focusing on the MRT modes i.e. bust transit and the rail transit, several comparisons can be made, as summarised in Table 2.

All in all, while the normal rail is generally superior than the normal bus (apart from cost factor), the rail transit and the bus transit have almost equal strengths and weaknesses, when developed for the right city profi le. BRT mainly has an advantage over rail transit because it is not capital intensive; whereas rail transit is mainly superior in terms of capacity, environmental characteristics and public image. At-grade busway systems formed by conversion of existing roadway (including vehicles) cost between $1 million and $8 million per route kilometre, with the cost increasing to as much as $15 million where either the vehicles or the infrastructures become more sophisticated. On the other hand, LRT costs are typically between $10 million and $30 million, though where the most sophisticated technology is used, the cost can approach $100 million (similar to full heavy rail metros cost) – the most expensive being fully segregated, fully automated and fully underground systems. In terms of capacity and speed, busways can carry up to 20,000 passengers per hour in the peak direction (pphpd) at an average speed of 17 to 20 km per hour (km/h), while metros can carry up to 80,000 pphpd at an average speed of 40 to 50 km/h (World Bank, 2002).

In addition to that, from the land use perspective, there are evidence that rail transit has the ability to infl uence, attract and shape land use patterns, in such a way that integrates the community and the system, and initiates new development (Grava, 2003). However, as cost is often the ultimate consideration, rail transit though fi lls a sizeable niche, is not a universal solution; and as urban areas continue to disperse, bus transit is becoming a more sustainable option. Nevertheless, the good news is that, as there are a wide variety of city types and city objectives, there are also a variety of transit types and technology as well as various fi nancing mechanism, hence giving cities many alternatives to choose from (World Bank, 2002). Basically alternatives should be evaluated both in operational and fi scal terms, and for short and longer term impacts. Expensive rail systems should only be adopted within an integrated planning and fi nancing structure that can ensure system’s sustainability, effective coordination of modes, and affordable fare, and the choice should be consistent with the city characteristics, objectives and economic capability (World Bank, 2002).

TRANSIT USE

In some cities transit ridership is relatively high, and in some instances increasing. For example rail ridership in Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal has risen by 44% over the last fi ve years (since 2000); in Mexico City nearly 74% of the population still relies upon transit (Donaghy, Poppelreuter and Rudinger, 2005); in Curitiba in 1994, there were 350 unlinked transit tips per capita per year and more than 70% of the residents get to work on public transport; in Helsinki during rush hour, over 70% of the traffi c is handled by trains, trams or buses; and in Osaka, rail ridership account for 80% and 91% of the total transit trips in the metro area and the city respectively (ASCE, 2000). In addition to these, other cities that are strongly dependent on their transit system include London, Copenhagen, Paris, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Tokyo, Beijing, Shanghai, Seoul, Hong Kong, and Singapore (ASCE, 2000).

On the whole, the future of transit is very bright, at least in a city context. According to ASCE (2000), any city which has a population over a million people should start planning for a good arterial high capacity transit system, preferably rail, and when the population reaches the two


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million mark, it ought to have a basic established system which would not only eased congestion on road, but also accelerate and guide the development of the city in desired direction - it is known fact that a good rapid transit facility accelerates development of the city.

What has transit got to do with land use planning ? A lot. To begin with, a lot of land use factors, such as density, mix, centredness, connectivity and site design, do have impacts on travel behaviour. Furthermore, three land use factors particularly, have direct impact on transit ridership, namely density, land use mix and compactness. Here’s how.

i. DensityIn the fi rst place, increased density tends to increase the number of transportation options available in an area (including transit) due to economies of scale. Higher density areas also tend to have better transit service because increased demand makes them more cost effective (Litman, 2006; as cited in Victoria

Transport Policy Institute (Online TDM Encyclopedia), 2007). Further to that, with increased density around the transit stations – either residential or employment density, obviously the market (or potential riders) is also increased, while the travel distance reduced, making it more attractive to use the transit service. The relationship between density and transport as well as travel behaviour have been discussed in great length in several previous sections.

ii. Land Use MixTo begin with, increased land use mix tends to increase use of alternative modes (other than car) including transit (Litman, 2006; as cited in Victoria Transport Policy Institute (Online TDM Encyclopedia), 2007). In addition, complementary mix of uses around the stations and along the routes, obviously gives potential riders a lot of reasons to use the transit service, and to use it all round the clock. High land use mix can also reduce transit overcrowding at a particular time, as riders can choose to participate in multiple activities so as not to add to the crowd, making it more attractive to use it. Furthermore, having for example, schools and offi ces located along the same route and around the station will eliminate the need to operate separate peak hour service (more frequent service), and by combining different types of trips, a better standard of service could be justifi ed and hence a higher probability of a journey at the desired time being available (early morning and late night) (White, 1976).

iii. CompactnessLastly, increased compactness can also increased ridership. Compactness is a slightly more complicated concept. According to Coorey and Lau (2005), referring to compact city concept, the quantitative attributes of compactness include density, mixed land uses, urban scale (density and plot ratio) and urban grain (size and subdivision of blocks), as well as permeability (multiplicity of routes), while the qualitative attributes include diversity, vitality and viability. With such attributes, the positive implications of increased compactness around the transit stations will improve accessibility to the transit, makes its usage safe, and simply will draw more people into the transit neighbourhood as it is vibrant, sustainable, effi cient and most likely has better social equity – all of these factors will again increase the market for the transit, thus ridership.

Other than that, why transit works better in some cities is dependent on various factors. Hong Kong and Singapore succeed perhaps due to their lack of land area that forces them to travel on transit, and their effective control of car ownership as well as other fi scal measures. Curitiba succeeds perhaps due to strong political leadership, and the effective integration of transit and land use development. Generally, transit ridership is also dependent on fare, reliability, service quality, safety, corridors of the lines, locations of stations, complementary interchange from other modes, as well as other economic and social factors. Personally, I just like the drama and the unfamiliar faces that I get to see while sitting stress-free on my way to my chill-out places.

References: Allport, R. J. (1995, September). The role of transport policy in Asia: creating sustainable cities. Paper presented at the City Trans Asia ‘95 Conference, World Trade Centre, Singapore.Kenworthy, J., Laube, F., Newman, P. W. G., Barter, P. A., Raad, T., Poboon, C. and Guia Jr., B. (1999). An international sourcebook of automobile dependence in cities, 1960-1990. Boulder: Colorado University Press.Peter R. White (1976). Planning for Public Transport. Hutchinson of LondonASCE (2000). Urban Public Transportation Systems – Implementing Effi cient Urban Transit Systems and Enhancing Transit Usage. ASCE Publications.

American Public Transportation Association (APTA) (2007). Glossary of Transit Terminology. Washington: APTA Sigurd Grava (2003). Urban Transportation Systems: Choices for Communities. Culinary & Hospitality Industry Publications Services. World Bank (2002). Cities on the Move: A World Bank Urban Transport Strategy Review. World Bank.Donaghy, Poppelreuter and Rudinger, 2005 (Ed). Dimensions of Sustainable Transport – Transatlantic Perspectives. England: Ashgate.RapidKL Online, 2008Victoria Transport Policy Institute (Online TDM Encyclopedia), 2007


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Richard Rogers and Anne Power (2000),CITIES FOR A SMALL COUNTRYFaber and Faber Limited, EnglandISBN: 0-571-20652-2

In 1998, the British Government set up the Urban Task Force to work out how to tackle the challenge of providing around four million additional homes over the next twenty-fi ve years in England. Central to this was the using of brown-fi eld sites – land that already been built upon in some way. After two years of work for the Urban Task Force, authors Richard Rogers and Professor Anne Powers have followed up the Task force’s report with this book, setting out the problems of cities and proposing radical solutions. Using English cities such as Manchester, London and Newcastle as a test bed they have also drawn from much wider examples abroad such as Barcelona, Copenhagen, Curitiba and Christchurch They have concentrated on the most familiar problems and most do-able solutions and believe that suburban sprawl, overuse of energy, environmental damage, depleted inner cities and marginalized communities will force us to waste less and live more compactly.

This book is written on the belief that if we want to live better and richer lives in every sense, then a crucial and indispensable precondition is well functioning and well designed cities that encourage the full panoply of human association rather than deter it. Whether it is the contemporary Renaissance of Barcelona or the pride Victorian and Georgian Britain took in quality cities, the message is the same. The good life and quality urban design are intertwined.

Throughout history, beautiful cities have inspired human creativity. Designing afresh where we live and inventing new ways to run our communities could make city living the optimal pattern of the future. The book also brings to attention the fi ve key issues identifi ed through the work of the Urban Task Force. Land is fi nite. Treating it more responsibly and recycling it more often will become a necessity. Economic and social integration makes cities more attractive to people wanting to live in them and employers wanting to locate in them. A new mixed use, mixed function type of neighbourhood would introduce the vitality and integration on which our social survival depends. Transport already infl uences many of our decisions. Traffi c and congestion are major inhibitors of city recovery and economic expansion. Denser public transport helps both social and economic regeneration. Urban governance and leadership shape the renaissance of cities. We need visionary leaders with a commitment to city renewal. Environmental pressures are growing. Modern urban living causes far worse environmental damage than more traditional because it consumes more, wastes more and reuses less. We cannot carry on as we are. Accessible land will run out. Pollution of the air, water and land will overwhelm us. We must stop before it is too late. A chapter of this book applies fi ve of these themes in turn to city revitalization.

The book concludes that by the end of the next generation most people will be living in cities. Making cities sustainable means making them more compact and more alluring, and helping people feel that they have a voice in making their cities work.

BOOKS:Editor’s Choice

LILIAN HO YIN CHAN [email protected]

MOHD. FAZLI [email protected]

REVIEW


Harry Cocossis and Alexandra Mexa (eds.) (2004)THE CHALLENGE OF TOURISM CARRYING CAPACITY ASSESSMENTAshgate Publishing Limited, EnglandISBN: 0-7546-3569-4

Tourism is incontestably a key economic activity for many countries and regions. Tourism provides opportunities for local and regional development but as it grows it exerts pressures on environmental and cultural resources and social and economic structures. In addition, these negative impacts may affect the very basis for tourist attraction and the tourist activity itself. It is evident that tourism needs to be developed in accordance with certain principles, which focus on managing and controlling tourism growth respecting the capacity of local systems to sustain such growth. Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment (TCCA), with the aim to identify and impose limits, can be valuable in planning for sustainable tourism.

The purpose of this book is to review the concept of tourism carrying capacity assessment, highlight the methodological aspects in relation to defining, measuring and evaluating tourism carrying capacity for various types of tourist destinations and activities. Drawing on case studies from implementing TCCA mainly in European tourist destinations the book aims at drawing some conclusions regarding measurement and implementation of TCCA.

Many of the contributions are developed in the context of a special project on “Defining, Measuring and Evaluating Carrying Capacity in European Tourist Destinations’ financed by the European Commission. The project involved the analysis of various scientific approaches and methodologies developed to assess and implement carrying capacity, the analysis of key limiting factors for tourism development for different types of tourist destinations in European countries in respect to carrying capacity components based on review of case studies, the elaboration of a methodology for defining and implementing TCC, and the formulation of policy guidelines for implementation.

This book is addressed to academics, researchers, planning and tourism practitioners, policy-makers, scientists and public administrators dealing with the environment, tourism development and planning issues who wish to learn more about the TCCA approach, from both a theoretical and practical point of view.


REVIEW

Matthew Carmona, Tim Heath, Taner Oc and Steven Tiesdell (2006)PUBLIC PLACES – URBAN SPACES Architectural Press, United Kingdom ISBN: 0-7506-3632-7

Public Places – Urban Spaces is a holistic guide to the many complex and interacting dimensions of urban design. The book provides an exposition of the different but intimately related dimensions of urban design, moving systematically through ideas, theories, research and the practice of urban design from an unrivalled range of sources. It aids the reader by gradually building the concepts one upon the other towards a total view of the subject.

The book adopts a broad understanding of urban design which is focused on the making of places for people. The importance of four themes is asserted throughout the book. First, it stresses that urban design is for and about people. Second, it emphasizes the value and signifi cance of ‘place’. Third, it emphasizes that urban design operates in the ‘real’ world with constraints bounded by economic and political forces. Fourth, it asserts the importance of design as a process primarily concerned with the quality of the public realm – both physical and socio-cultural – and the making of places for people to enjoy and use.

The book consists of three parts. Part I explores the global and local contexts and processes within which urban design operates. Part II reviews the six overlapping dimensions of urban design – ‘morphological’, ‘perceptual’, ‘social’, ‘visual’, ‘functional’ and ‘temporal’ – which should be considered simultaneously for urban design to be holistic. In Part III, implementation and delivery mechanism are explored – how urban design is procured, controlled and committed – stressing the nature of urban design as a process moving from theory to action.

This book does not seek to produce a new theory of urban design and hence no formulaic ‘solution‘ is offered. Synthesizing and integrating ideas, theories, etc., from a wide range of sources of existing literature and research, the book draws on the authors’ experience in teaching, researching and writing about urban design in schools of planning, architecture and surveying. Acknowledging that urban design is an important part of urban development, renewal, management, planning and conservation processes, the book presents a clear and accessible text that provides a comprehensive discussion of this complex subject.


REVIEW

Richard Marshall (2003)EMERGING URBANITY, Global Urban Projects in the Asia Pacifi c RimSpon Press, London ISBN: 0-415-256-232

Emerging Urbanity examines some of the largest and most ambitious urban projects in the world today.

These projects exist in response to the desires of their respective governments to engage more fully in the global economy. An essential aspect of a city’s global infrastructure, they are, in this sense, the most important urban projects. While other regions of the world have also shown evidence of the desire to capture larger shares of the global economy through the construction of urban projects, the Pacifi c Rim is unique in the scale and number of such projects.

In the booming economies of the Asia Pacifi c Rim prior to the Asia Economic crisis,, these urban developments were seen as key components of national economic policies. In their making they required a conscious effort to arrange material infrastructure and reinforced the notion that there is a role for urban design.

Emerging Urbanity is an exploration of this role in nine global urban projects in the Asia Pacifi c Rim: Tokyo Rainbow Town, Japan; Minato Mirai 21, Yokohama, Japan; Muang Thong Thani, Bangkok Thailand; Lujiazui, Shanghai, China; Zhongguancun Science and Technology Park, Beijing, China; Hanoi North and Saigon South, Vietnam; Singapore’s New Central Business District, Singapore; Putrajaya and the Multimedia Super Corridor, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

The book deals with the implications of these urban projects for thinking about urban design and its role in the global world. It develops the notion that all urban projects contain specifi c urbanistic agendas or ‘ideas of the city’ that are imbued in the by designers. It then attempts to understand the urbanity presented most clearly in these kind of projects. By understanding the historical contexts from which urbanism is derived the chapter moves on to speculate on the future of urban design practice in a global world. It concludes with a series of principles that potentially might inform critical urban design thinking and practice and might help to resolve some of the issues that these projects raise.


REVIEW

JUNE 2007

1. NATIONAL CONFERENCE AND PUBLIC FORUM ON LIVING WELL WITHIN THE ECOLOGICAL LIMITS OF OUR PLANET

Date : 15-16 June 2007

Venue : University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser : Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia (EPSM)

Web Site : www.muced.um.edu.my

This conference was about the climatic effects of urbanisation and rapid development that give impact not only to natural resources and the degradation of environment but also to society. It dealt with the review of country policies, goals and actions pertaining to the integration of planning and development at all levels with the natural environment to provide new directions for the future generation.

2. NATIONAL SEMINAR ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF EXTREME WEATHER AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Date : 21 June 2007

Venue : Marriot Hotel, Putrajaya

Organiser : Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

Web Site : www.met.gov.my

The seminar was aimed to improve the understanding of the predictability of the changing climate and extreme weather phenomena and the assessment of its socio-economic impact to create awareness as well as identify appropriate researches, policy responses and institutional arrangements.

3. ‘TEACH-IN’ PROGRAMME/WORKSHOP ON ‘SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT (SA)’ IN DEVELOPMENT PLAN PROCESS

Date : 22 - 26 June 2007

Venue : Wisma Tun Sambanthan, Kuala Lumpur

Organisers : Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia in collaboration with Pertubuhan Penilaian Impak Sosial Malaysia

Web Site : www.townplan.gov.my

The workshop provided town planning consultants with the understanding of the concepts and benefi ts of Sustainability Assessment (SA) in development plan processes. This was also to realign the scope of the Department of Town and Country Planning to that of and consistent with international practice. The consultants discussed and exchanged ideas about issues on SA applications, methodologies, and techniques and also on ways SA could provide good planning and indicators on the implementation of development plans.

PLANNING UPDATES

PLANNING UPDATES

MOHD. FAZLI IDRIS [email protected]

Federal Department of Town and Country PlanningPeninsular Malaysia


JULY 2007

1. THE 2ND INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON KNOWLEDGE CITIES - FUTURE OF CITIES IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY

Date : 16 - 18 July 2007

Venue : Concorde Hotel, Shah Alam

Organisers : Arab Urban Development Institute, Malaysian Institute of Planners, Shah Alam City Council, Al-Madina Municipality of Saudi Arabia

Web Site : www.mbsa.gov.my

The symposium was intended to raise the awareness of city mayors, local planning authorities, senior government officials, decision makers, planners, urban designers, ICT specialists, architects, engineers, entrepreneurs, investors, NGOs and concerned agencies about key Knowledge Cities issues, and to derive the applicable steps needed for transition into a knowledge-based economy.

AUGUST 2007

1. INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON QUALITY MANAGEMENT 2007: ‘BEDROCK FOR WINNING STRATEGY’

Date : 7 – 8 August 2007

Venue : Hilton Hotel, Kuala Lumpur

Organisers : Jointly organised by Malaysian Nuclear Agency, Malaysian Department of Standards, Malaysian Radiation Protection Association and National Productivity Corporation

Web Site : www.standardsmalaysia.gov.my

The symposium focused on global strategies and practices in quality management adopted by organisations from across the world. Topics on continuous improvement, market competitiveness, accreditation, multiple certifications, and multiple audits were discussed by members from regulatory authorities, certification and standards, best practice organisations and other related bodies in a forum at the end of the symposium.

SEPTEMBER 2007

1. 12th PUBLIC SERVICE CONFERENCE: ‘ENHANCING NATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS THROUGH EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION’

Date : 3-4 September 2007

Venue : INTAN, Bukit Kiara, Kuala Lumpur

Organisers : Malaysian Administrative and Diplomatic Service Association and the National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN)

Web Site : www.intanbk.intan.my

The conference focused on the future role of the Malaysian public service in enhancing the nation as a competitive nation particularly on its ability to strategically forecast the future needs of the public and the private sectors. This would require a rethinking of its roles and functions to adapt to the forces that demand a reshape to the public service delivery system.


PLANNING UPDATES

2. MESYUARAT PEGAWAI PERANCANG BANDAR DAN DESA KE 21

Date : 6 – 8 September 2007

Venue : Primula Beach Resort, Kuala Terengganu

Organiser : Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia

Web Site : www.townplan.gov.my

The theme for this meeting was ‘[Y]OUR PLAN IS [Y]OUR PLAN’ The main objective was to emphasise on the ‘mutual ownership of development plans’ in the mindsets of the public so as to ensure land use development would become the responsibility of everyone in the continuing quest towards enhancing the quality of life and the environment.

NOVEMBER 2007

1. INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON CITIES AND CONSERVATION - PARTNERSHIPS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Date : 6 November 2007

Venue : Marriott Hotel, Putrajaya

Organiser : Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), UKM

Web Site : www.lestari.ukm.my

The symposium concentrated on urban conservation programmes and focused on issues such as:

• Conservation of geological and biological resources• Conservation of archaeological and cultural resources• Threats to security and sustainability of cities• Implementation of integrated conservation policies and management plans• Partnerships towards sustainable cities

2. WORLD TOWN PLANNING DAY CONVENTION 2007

Date : 21 – 22 November 2007

Venue : Putra World Trade Centre, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser : Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia

Web Site : http://www.townplan.gov.my

The theme of the convention - ‘50 Years of Town and Country Planning’ - provided the basis for the papers presented which for the first time in the majority did not include those from the town and country planning field. Instead the paper presenters were from all walks of life ranging from personalities of the corporate world and the legal fraternity to the performing arts who had their say on the direction of planning in the country.


PLANNING UPDATES

MARCH 2008

1. ‘YOUR RIGHTS IN TOWN PLANNING’ SEMINAR

Date : 10 March 2008

Venue : Crown Princess Hotel, Kuala Lumpur

Organisers : Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia and PERSADA


This seminar was held to present an understanding of the rights which the public have in planning and development. It covered the major topics of participatory planning, public rights under Act 172 and the avenue of appeals. The role of regional development authorities in facilitating development was also discussed. The papers were presented by distinguished personalities from the academia, the legal profession and the public sector.

2. EXPERT TALK: ‘LAND USE DEVELOPMENT & ENVIRONMENT’

Date : 31 March 2008

Venue : Jabatan Muzium Negara, Kuala Lumpur

Organisers : Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia and PERSADA


This expert talk was presented by Mr. Karam Singh Walia, Assignment Editor of Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad and an environmentalist. The talk was about urbanisation processes and their impact on the environment. It focused on how the implementation of plans, policies, strategies and controls undertaken by planners to guide development had failed to address issues such as environmental degradation and pollution, and to a certain extent even worsened hazards such as floods and landslides. All these effects constrained economic growth, deterred investments and affected the social well-being of the public.

APRIL 2008

1. SEMINAR ON ‘ECONOMIC CORRIDORS OF PENINSULAR MALAYSIA’

Date : 4 April 2008

Venue : Sunway Pyramid Convention Centre, Sunway

Organiser : Malaysian Institute of Planners (MIP)

Web Site : www.mip.org.my

The seminar was about the economic corridor development master plans that have been prepared to unleash the development potential of the economic corridors of the Iskandar Development Region (IRDA), Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER) and Eastern Corridor Economic Region (ECER). Each of these corridors was set with different aims relative to the different potentials of the regions.


PLANNING UPDATES

2. DISPUTES & ISSUES IN LAND LAWS IN MALAYSIA - CONFERENCE

Date : 14 April 2008

Venue : JW Marriott Hotel, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser : Asia Pacific Diligence Sdn. Bhd.

Web Site : http://www.apmp.com.my

This conference focused on the disputes and issues pertaining to land laws in Malaysia and discussed by distinguished speakers from the local legal fraternity including those from the private sector and the academia. The topics covered included legal issues relating to land acquisitions, development and construction, land access, encroachments, development orders and transfer of land titles.

3. 8TH MELAKA INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION OF TWIN CITIES – ‘ENHANCING SUSTAINABLE AND SAFE CITY’

Date : 15 - 16 April 2008

Venue : Equatorial Hotel, Melaka

Organiser : Historic Melaka City Council

Web Site : www.melaka.gov.my

This convention was held in conjunction with Melaka Historic City Celebration 2008. The two-day event brought together representatives of the different sister cities from around the region with Malacca It discussed issues pertaining to the need to enhance sustainability in land use so as to achieve sustainable and safe cities, and the need to seek the right balance between development and preservation in order to ensure heritage, culture and the environment were not eroded by rapid development.

4. ‘MYGDI’ SEMINAR AND WORKSHOP ON FUNDAMENTAL DATASETS FOR THE FEDERAL TERRITORIES OF KUALA LUMPUR, PUTRAJAYA AND LABUAN

Date : 21-23 April 2008

Venue : Waterfront Hotel, Labuan

Organiser : Pusat Infrastruktur Data Geospatial Negara (MaCGDI)

Web Site : www.mygeoportal.gov.my

This seminar was to provide a clear picture on the state of MyGDI development and geo-spatial information uses. It also discussed on the latest issues relating to the development of MyGDI geospatial data and its applications and sharing within and between government agencies in the process of decision-making and planning.


PLANNING UPDATES

JULY 2008

1. MESYUARAT PEGAWAI KANAN PERANCANG BANDAR DAN DESA MALAYSIA KE 22, BERTEMAKAN ‘CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY: THE ROLE OF PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES’

Date : 14 - 15 July 2008

Venue : Bangunan Perak Darul Ridzuan, Ipoh

Organiser : Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular Malaysia and Dept. of Town and Country Planning, Perak


This meeting was attended by senior planning officers of the public sector from all over the country. It exposed them to a variety of issues such as the roles of the earth sciences, the impacts of weather variations on the global scale and the local challenges faced in the process of seeking sustainable development.

2. THIRD NATIONAL GIS CONFERENCE AND EXHIBITION

Date : 21 – 22 July 2008

Venue : Putra World Trade Centre, Kuala Lumpur

Organiser : Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Web Site : http://www.nre.gov.my/

This conference and exhibition was one of the many activities organised regularly by Pusat Infrastruktur Data Geospatial Negara (MaCGDI) under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. This third conference concentrated on the continuous efforts by MaCGDI to encourage economic development and enhance government delivery systems through the use of geo-information technology.


PLANNING UPDATES

Map of Kuala Lumpur 1937 - red box indicating current JPBD offi ce.


BLAST FROM THE PAST

KL image from Google Earth (2008) - red box indicating current JPBD offi ce.


BLAST FROM THE PAST

Documents

Malaysian Townplan Journal 5