Maladaptive Behaviors Among Athletes: Part 1Maladaptive Behaviors Among Athletes: Part 1

Chapter 14: Violence in Selected Sport PopulationsChapter 14: Violence in Selected Sport Populations

Handout: Gambling ProblemsHandout: Gambling Problems

Psychology of Sport

Nov 6-11, 2009Classes #30-32

What is Aggression?What is Aggression?

Berkowitz (1993)– Behavior intended to injure another

– It is behavior (not angry feelings)

– It is intended (not accidental harm)

– It is aimed at hurting (not assertiveness or playfulness)

Type of Type of AggressionAggression

Hostile Aggression

Instrumental Aggrssion

DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample

Type of Type of AggressionAggression

Hostile Aggression

DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample

Primary goal is to

injure another person

Clemens “beaning”

Piazza

In another game, Clemens threw a bat Piazza…

Type of Type of AggressionAggression

Instrumental Aggression

DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample

Hurting another to accomplish

another (non-

aggressive) goal

Pedro pitches inside so

batters don’t get too

comfortable

Violence Among Female Violence Among Female AthletesAthletes

Violence basically ruined these Violence basically ruined these two US figure skaterstwo US figure skaters

Violence against females by Violence against females by male athletes...male athletes...

Many think OJ, Duke Lacrosse players, and Many think OJ, Duke Lacrosse players, and other males accused of violence against other males accused of violence against women are not innocentwomen are not innocent

Rae CurruthRae Curruth

This athlete found guilty of conspiring This athlete found guilty of conspiring to murder his girlfriend and is to murder his girlfriend and is currently serving a prison sentencecurrently serving a prison sentence

Typology of Violent MenTypology of Violent Men(Toch, 1984)(Toch, 1984)

Self-Image PromotersSelf-Image Promoters Self-Image DefendersSelf-Image Defenders Rep DefendersRep Defenders Self-IndulgersSelf-Indulgers Bully-sadistsBully-sadists

Smith’s Violence Smith’s Violence TopologyTopology

Body ContactBody Contact Borderline ViolenceBorderline Violence Quasi-Criminal ViolenceQuasi-Criminal Violence Criminal ViolenceCriminal Violence

BoxingBoxing

Jerry QuarryJerry Quarry

““The Great White Hope” was close to The Great White Hope” was close to brain dead in his early 50s and died brain dead in his early 50s and died soon afterwardssoon afterwards

Sports-Related Variables Sports-Related Variables Related to ViolenceRelated to Violence

Point SpreadPoint Spread Home/Away FactorHome/Away Factor OutcomeOutcome League StandingLeague Standing Period of PlayPeriod of Play

Note: A summary of these factors can be Note: A summary of these factors can be found on pages 241-242 (Chapter 13).found on pages 241-242 (Chapter 13).

Gambling Behaviors of Former Gambling Behaviors of Former Athletes:Athletes:The "delayed competitive effect"The "delayed competitive effect"

14th14th International International ConferenceConference on on GamblingGambling & & RiskRisk Taking Taking

May 27, 2009May 27, 2009

Stephen Weiss Ph.D., Adams State CollegeStephen Weiss Ph.D., Adams State CollegeSherri Loubier, R.N., Manchester Memorial Sherri Loubier, R.N., Manchester Memorial HospitalHospital

Review of Literature

Few published studies have directly compared the gambling behaviors of athletes and non-athletes

Rockey, Beason, & Gilbert (2002) Engwall, Hunter, & Steinberg (2004) Sullivan-Kerber (2005) Nelson et al. (2007)

Student-Athletes > Non-Athletes

Limitations

All of these studies have used academic samples

Major Concern NCAA (2004)

More than one quarter of student-athletes admitted to gambling on college sports

Approximately 4% of these student-athletes bet on games in which they had played in

Warning to college athletic directors and coaches

“Don’t Bet on It” wristbands Educational videos

Major Concern: Long Term?

Winters, Stinchfield, Botzet, and Slutske (2005) Maybe its just their age?

Weinstock, Whelan, Meyers, & Watson (2007) Maybe the “college environment” is to blame? As with other maladaptive behaviors they will

subside after graduation

This needs to be tested...

Speculation

Could there be a delayed competitive effect?

Bergler (1958) Curry and Jiobu (1995)

Weiss & Loubier (2008):Study 1: Former Athletes

Rationale: An athletes vs. nonathletes comparison

should also be made after someone has "retired" from their sport

Hypotheses Former Athletes > Current Athletes & Non-

Athletes More likely to be involved in games of skill

Method

Participants: 300 participants randomly selected from

the general population in Colorado and Connecticut

Mean ages: Former athletes (32.80 years) Current athletes (34.17 years) Non-athletes (32.20 years)

Operational Definitions

Former Athlete Current Athlete Non-Athlete

Measuring Tool

South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; Lesieur & Blume, 1987) 1993: Shorter versions

0-2 No Problem 3-4 Disordered Gambling 5+ Probable Pathological

SOGS Scores (Means)

Former athletes = 1.83 Current athletes = 0.96 Nonathletes = 0.38

These scores were significantly different, F (2, 294) = 8.653, p < .001.

Higher Frequencies of Pathological Gambling For Former Athletes

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Pathological

FormerAthletes CurrentAthletesNon-Athletes

SOGS Scores (Means) Males = 1.43 Females = 0.68

The mean score for males (M = 1.4333) on the SOGS was significantly higher, F (1, 294) = 6.623, p = .011, than the mean score for females (M = 0.680).

No significant interaction between gender and

athletic status was found, F (2, 294) = 0.919, p > .05.

Higher Frequencies of Pathological Gambling For Males

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Pathological

MalesFemales

SOGS Scores For Different Types Of Gambling

Sports

Gambling

Poker Slots

Group n SOGS n SOGS n SOGS

Former Athletes

23 4.56 42 2.69 21 2.04

Current Athletes

14 2.64 27 1.51 24 1.66

Non-Athletes

9 0.11 19 0.78 30 0.76

ALL 46 88 75

Problems We clumped together all types of gamblers

(recreational, problem, and pathological) with non-gamblers

May have confounded the study

Study 2: Non-Gamblers Excluded

As our aim was to determine what type of gambling was the most prevalent in those having problems with their gambling

Hypotheses Former Athletes > Current Athletes & Non-

Athletes More likely to be involved in games of skill We expected that sports gambling would

be most prevalent for former athletes as compared to the other groups

We expected a majority of those engaged in sports gambling to wager specifically on the sport they had once played

Method Participants:

600 participants randomly selected from the general population in Colorado and Connecticut

75 participants Only team sports athletes Mean ages:

Former athletes (34.08 years) Current athletes (34.72 years) Non-athletes (36.04 years)

SOGS Raw Scores and Classification for

Athletic Status Groups

Group n Mean SD Disordered Pathological

Non-Athlete

25 4.52 1.38 15 10

Current

Athlete

25 4.88 2.58 17 8

Former

Athlete

25 4.96 2.55 17 8

All 75 4.78 2.22 49 26

Results: Skill Games

Sports: FA>CA>NA (p = .003) Poker: FA>CA>NA (p = .035) Horses: No significant differences (p

> .05)

Results: Chance Games

• Slots: NA>FA>CA (p = .037)• Lotteries: NA>CA>FA (p = .020)

Frequency of Different Forms of Gambling

Behavior Across Athletic Status Sports

GamblingPoker Horse

RacingSlots Lotteries

% % % % %

Non-Athlete 20.0 36.0 20.0 56.0 68.0

Current Athlete

40.0 48.0 32.0 24.0 36.0

Former Athlete

68.0 72.0 40.0 28.0 32.0

All Participants

42.7 52.0 30.7 36.0 45.3

Games of Skill

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Sports Poker Horses

FormerAthletesCurrentAthletesNon-Athletes

Games of Chance

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Slots Lotteries

FormerAthletesCurrentAthletesNon-Athletes

Shaffer, Hall, and Vanderbilt (1999)

Reported that a significant proportion of college athletes were gambling at sub-clinical levels

Conclusion

The results of the two studies presented here warn that these gambling activities may intensify after an athlete has left academia

ATHLETES VS. NONATHLETES

• General gambling:– Athletes 81%– Non-athletes 81%

• 28% of athletes gambled on athletic events

• Rate of problem gambling:– Athletes 6.2%– Non-athletes 3.3%

Source: Rockey, 2002; Southeastern Conference (SEC) study

MOST POPULAR GAMBLING ACTIVITIES AMONG ATHLETES

Sports betting• 25% gambled on sports• 4% gambled on events they were involved in

Playing cards for money

Lotteries

Casino games

Casino-style machines (e.g., slots & video poker)

Source: Miller et. al, 2001

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN STUDY

72% of student athletes have gambled at least once since entering collegeOne in 20 male student athletes admitted:• providing inside information for gambling

purposes• betting on a game in which they

participated, or• accepting money for performing poorly in a

gameStudent athletes who gambled on sports with bookies gambled an average of $225 per month

Source: Cross & Vollano, University of Michigan

NO SAFE BET: DANGERS OF ATHLETE PROBLEM GAMBLING

Athletic & academic failure

Crime

Relationship problems

Alcohol & substance abuse

Debt

Depression & suicide

NCAA repercussions

NCAA RULESFOR STUDENT ATHLETES

• “You may not place any bet of any sort on any college or professional sports event.”

• “You may not give information to anyone who does place bets on college or professional sports.”

ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM ON CAMPUS

• Policies:– Introduce gambling language in student conduct code

• Campus-based program recommendations:– Campus counseling services– Curriculum infusion – gambling with addictions

courses, etc.– Prevention programs: Provide awareness education,

including available help resources for gambling and other disorders

– Resident hall advisor training

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COLLEGE ATHLETICS

• Athletic screening:– Part of a routine annual physical

– Two questions to rule out problem gambling behaviors• Have you ever felt the need to bet more and more

money?• Have you ever had to lie to people important to you

about how much you gambled?

• Athletic policy

Spectator Violence

What’s Involved in Fan Violence…

• False Consensus Effect– Those with a disposition for violence feel other fans

share their infatuation for fighting and would quickly join them

• Troublemakers– Young, small in stature and have a history of violence

• Peacemakers– Similar to the average fan (average age, size) but

nevertheless are more likely to risk harm by intervening

• Fan Identification– Those that identify highly with their team feel less

control over their behavior

Violence against sports officials

• In 1996, Roberto Alomar was suspended five games for spitting on Umpire John Hirschbeck

Violence against sports officials

• Orlando Brown pushes ref Jeff Triplette to the ground in 1999

And this was only a practice game...

• Reversed dependency trap– Child becomes an

extension of the parent – self worth

Thomas Junta demonstrates with his hands what he described as rough play at his son’s July 4th 2000 hockey game as he testifies in his own defence during his manslaughter trial