Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 341 (2017) 363–370

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

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Short communication

Maar-diatreme volcanism relating to the pyroclastic sequence of a newlydiscovered high-alumina basalt in the Maroa Volcanic Centre, TaupoVolcanic Zone, New Zealand

S. Kósik ⁎, K. Németh, J.N. Procter, G.F. ZellmerVolcanic Risk Solutions, Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Turitea Campus, Palmerston North, New Zealand

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: s.kosik@massey.ac.nz (S. Kósik).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.05.0310377-0273/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 6 March 2017Received in revised form 23 May 2017Accepted 30 May 2017Available online 31 May 2017

Diatreme sequences have previously been described from drill holes within the Taupo Volcanic Zone. The newlydiscovered TeHukui Basalt exhibits deep excavation of country rocks that do not appear elsewhere at the surface.The basalt is characterized by proximal deposition of pyroclastic deposits relating to phreatomagmatism. Thegeochemical composition classifies these rocks as high-alumina basalts. They erupted along the OrakeikorakoFault at the same location where rhyolitic activity of Puketerata occurred at a later point in time. The petrologicalcharacteristics of the basalts indicate the mixing of mafic melt with crystalline mush relating to more evolvedmagmas. The new basaltic occurrence supports frequent mafic recharge of shallow magma reservoirs, inducingbasaltic eruptions, in this case the mafic magma intruding into highly crystallized mush zones. This may explainwhy basaltic eruptions mostly occur on the edge of the central extensional part of the Taupo Volcanic Zone.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Te Hukui BasaltMaar-diatremePhreatomagmatismCountry rock brecciaMagma mixingPuketerata

1. Introduction

Most of the basalts of the central part of the Taupo Volcanic Zone(TVZ) are considered high-alumina basalts (HAB) (Kuno, 1960) origi-nating from partial melting of the depleted upper mantle (Cole, 1973;Graham et al., 1995). Basaltic volcanism is considered to be only asmall portion of the total volume of volcanic material erupted fromthe TVZ, but it is ubiquitous across the TVZ (Houghton et al., 1987;Wilson et al., 1995; Hiess et al., 2007). Basaltic volcanism plays an im-portant role in the generation of rhyolites and also in triggering siliciceruptions (Graham et al., 1995; Leonard et al., 2002). The rise of basalticdykes is most likely controlled by extensional tectonism (Gamble et al.,1990) whereas the eruptive vents are linked to major faults and oftenindicate fissural activity (Hiess et al., 2007). Eruptive styles range fromeffusive lava to basaltic Plinian activity (Houghton et al., 1987; Brownet al., 1994; Sable et al., 2009). Basaltic eruptions occurring at locationssuch as Kaiapo and K-Trig (Brown et al., 1994), Acacia Bay (Wilson andSmith, 1985), and Kinloch (Matheson, 2010) demonstrate the effects ofmagma/water interaction in or close to lake environments. The avail-able data on other known occurrences of mafic deposits in the TVZ(e.g. Ben Lomond, Marotiri, Kakuki) (Fig. 1) also point tophreatomagmatic phases during their evolution, but they are consid-ered to have been dominated by less energetic, predominantly

Strombolian-style eruptions (Wilson et al., 1986; Houghton et al.,1987). Detailed field work at the silicic Puketerata Volcanic Complex(Kósik et al., 2016a) has led to the discovery of a previously unknownbasaltic rock association characterized by ~50% of SiO2 (Fig. 1). The cha-otically dipping contacts of stratified tuff and lapilli tuff, massive lapillituff and polymict country rock breccia indicate that various styles ofproximal deposition took place on a steep slope. This kind of depositionis distinctive for diatremes, which typically evolve as a result of the ex-cavation of the country rocks by deep-seated phreatomagmatic erup-tions, leading to syn- and post-eruptive sedimentation within thecrater (White and Ross, 2011; Valentine andWhite, 2012). The basalticdeposits have been exposed by the excavation of the later rhyoliticeruption of Puketerata, which indicates a long erosional period betweenthe formation of basaltic maar(s) and the Puketerata eruption.Phreatomagmatism also seems to be the dominant process for small-volume eruptions around Puketerata and other parts of the Taupo-Whakamaru area (Fig. 1).

2. Geological background

Maroa Volcanic Centre (MVC) is located at the NE quadrant ofWhakamaru Volcanic Centre (WVC), which was the source of at least2200 km3 DRE ignimbrite at ~350 ka (Downs et al., 2014; Gravley etal., 2016). In the south, the WVC overlaps with the younger Taupo Vol-canic Centre, which sourced two climactic eruptions associated withcaldera formations at 25.4 and 1.8 ka (Wilson and Walker, 1985;

Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of the basaltic vents within the Whakamaru-Taupo area as displayed on a shaded slope map derived from a 8 m DEM (LINZ - Land Information New Zealand,2012). Shaded areas represent the edifices of silicic lava domes. Basaltic vents: 1 Te Hukui, 2 Tatua, 3 Kakuki, 4 Akatarewa Stream, 5Mangamingi Road, 6 Ongaroto, 7 Trig 8543/Matapan, 8Acacia Bay, 9 Pekanui, 10Kaiapo, 11K-Trig, 12 Punatekahi, 13 Kinloch, 14Otaketake Stream, 15Marotiri, 16 Poihipi/Ben Lomond. Calderamarginswith black dashed line afterHoughton etal. (1995). Inset maps: (a) shows the geographic position of TVZ; (b) red triangles indicate the location of Te Hukui Basalt exposures in relation with the architecture of the PuketerataVolcanic Complex (shaded structures are lava domes of Puketerata, yellow and white dashed lines show the rim of ejecta ring and maar craters, red dashed line represents theOrakeikorako Fault) (Kósik et al., 2016a).

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Vandergoes et al., 2013). Early activity of theMVC was characterized byvigorous explosive activity with the eruption of locally distributed, rela-tively small-volume ignimbrites (e.g. Putauaki, Orakonui) and isolatedlava domes from 305 to ~250 ka (Leonard, 2003). Maroa volcanism cul-minated between 251 and 222 kawith the emplacement of themajorityof the domes of the Maroa Western (MWC) and Eastern Complexes(MEC) (Fig. 1). Subsequent activity formed mostly smaller silicic domecomplexes and isolated lava domes andflows, characterized by decreas-ing recurrence time and erupted volumes of single eruptions (Leonard,2003). The 16.5 ka Puketerata Volcanic Complex is the youngest volcanoof the Maroa system and erupted along a 2.5 km long fissure parallel totheOrakeikorako Fault (Brooker et al., 1993; Kósik et al., 2016a). The ini-tial maar-forming phase was followed by emplacement of two lavadomes accompanied with phreatomagmatic activity (Kósik et al.,2016a).

Compared with rhyolitic eruptions basaltic volcanic activity of theTaupo-Whakamaru area is insignificant representing less than 0.1% vol-ume of the total erupted material (Wilson et al., 1995), however petro-logical features of rhyolitic rocks indicate that mafic magmas have avital role in the evolution of silicic magmas (Houghton et al., 1987;Leonard et al., 2002). The available stratigraphic evidence indicatesthat basaltic eruptions occurred between 200 and 10 ka within theTaupo-Whakamaru area (Wilson et al., 1986; Matheson, 2010).

3. Stratigraphy and sedimentology

The newly discovered basalt (Te Hukui Basalt – suggested strati-graphic name) is exposed on both sides of the Te Hukui Stream,where the stream cuts across the southeastern side of the crater wallof Puketerata (Kósik et al., 2016a) (Fig. 1b). At the left bank of thestream(38° 32′41.15″S; 176° 4′11.73″E) thebasaltic deposits are under-lain by the ignimbrite of the Orakonui Formation (Brooker et al., 1993).The lowest 10–40 cm of the Te Hukui sequence is a well-sorted stronglycemented and altered lapilli unit (A) exhibiting yellowish-brownishdiscoloration. This is followed by an at least 5m thickmatrix-supportedbreccia unit with a sharp basal erosional contact (unit B). The breccia ischaracterized by mostly angular variably-altered blocks up to 40 cmacross, set within aweathered light grey ash (Figs. 2a, d). The lithic frag-ments of the breccia comprise ignimbrite of the basement (Fig. 3b) andat least five different types of silica-rich extrusive rocks (Fig. 3a) whichare neither similar to the immediate basement nor to the vesiculatedbasalt lithics found within the upper part of the sequence. Four faultsdipping westward are visible within the 25 m long section of the brec-cia, with throws ranging between 30 and 150 cm. The subsequent unit(C) is approximately a 1 m thick, poorly-sorted and strongly-cementedlapilli tuff with lithic clasts up to 2–3 cm in size, including rare basalticfragments and pumices and lithic clasts of the basement (Fig. 4a),

Fig. 2. Lower (a) and upper (b) section of Te Hukui Basalt at the E side of the Te Hukui Stream; (c). indicates unit A and its contact with the basement Orakonui ignimbrite; (d).massive polymict breccia of unit B; (b) and (e) show the topmost part of the sequence with variously inclined units of moderately to well-sorted coarse ash and poorly-sortedfine ash layers (unit F).

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which most likely deposited from dense pyroclastic density currents(PDCs). The pyroclastic flow unit is overlain by a 90 cm thick stratifiedunit (D) with alternating light grey coloured, poorly-sorted PDC bedsand better sorted layers dominated by dark grey vesiculated coarseash and fine lapilli (Fig. 2b). The uppermost parts of the sequencehave undergone slumping characterized by variably inclined parts of

moderately-sorted beds comprising loose dark grey basaltic juvenilefragments and light grey rounded clasts of the basement alternatingwith finer-grained, more cohesive layers with cross-bedding structures(unit F), and lapilli tuff layers with similar textures to unit C withoutstrong cementation (unit E) (Figs. 2b, e). The average grain size of thewell-sorted beds is coarse ash with rare varyingly vesiculated basaltic

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic log of the eastern outcrop of Te Hukui sequence (a) with images of accidental lithic fragments of unit B (scales represent 1 cm), and characteristic sections from thewestern outcrop (b–d); (b) shows a ~50 cm ignimbrite block from unit B, (d) indicates the uppermost part of western outcrop comprising of reworked deposits accumulated near thebottom of the Te Hukui crater, intersected by a listric normal fault.

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lithic clast up to 5–6 cm in size. About 90% of the fragments of these bedsare basaltic ash and scoria. The larger (−1.5 to −3.5 phi size) scoria-ceous fragments have ragged, angular, rarely slightly fluidal shapeswith enclosed accidental fragments and crystals (Fig. 4b). About 30%of ash indicates spherical vesicles with varying width of vesicle walls(Figs. 4c–d). The rest of the particles comprise basaltic ash with low ve-sicularities, crystals, and rhyolitic ash with pipe vesicles (Figs. 4c–d).The Te Hukui sequence is overlain by a paleosol which clearly separatesit from the overlying rhyolitic pyroclastic deposits related to Puketerataactivity.

At the right side of the stream (W outcrop: 38° 32′42.43″S; 176°4′8.94″E) only the uppermost part of the Te Hukui breccia is visible(Fig. 3b), and the subsequent 3 m show similarities with the uppersequence of the eastern outcrop (Fig. 3c). The bottom 1 m of theupper sequence (of at least 6 m thickness) is poorly exposed, butthe upper part is characterized by cross-stratified lensoidal layersof coarse ash to lapilli and few mm to circa 1 cm thick layers of fine

ash dipping to the NW (Fig. 3d). At the SE end of the section (nearerto the breccia), the dip angles are higher than at the NW end of theoutcrop, with dip directions to the west. Listric normal faulting wasobserved at the western part of the outcrop, dipping towards thecurrent depression (Fig. 3d).

4. Petrography and geochemistry of the Te Hukui Basalt

A 6 cm sized juvenile lithic fragment was collected from unit F forpetrological investigation, which complemented by whole rock geo-chemical characterization using an additional juvenile lithic clastand hand-picked scoriaceous lapilli fragments (Fig. 4b) from twodistinct beds of unit F (indicated by asterisks, Fig. 2b). The basalticlithic fragments are dark grey in colour with varying vesicularto micro-vesicular textures (Fig. 4e). The spherical-shaped vesiclesare up to 2 mm in diameter, displaying rare coalescence (Figs. 4g–h). The basalt is porphyritic, with 55–60% phenocryst and

Fig. 4. Grain morphology and petrographic characteristics of the Te Hukui Basalt; (a): slightly cemented lapilli tuff of unit C; (b): grain morphology of−2.5 to−3.5 phi size scoriaceousjuvenile fragments from unit F; (c): grain morphology of bulk 2 phi fragments from unit F, (SEM image); (d): typical morphology of 3 phi size basaltic juvenile and accidental rhyoliticfragments, (SEM image); (e): vesicle textures of lithic clast with two types of vesicularity; (f): crystal nodule with plagioclase (pl) and olivine (ol) crystals; (g-h); groundmasstextures, vesicle shapes with predominantly lath shaped plagioclase crystals, cross polarized light; (i): SEM image of clinopyroxene (cpx) and plagioclase crystal with resorbed Na-richcore; (j): SEM image of plagioclase crystal with Na-rich spongy cellular core; (k–l): Na and Ca element map of zoned plagioclase crystal captured by field emission SEM (HokkaidoUniversity).

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microphenocryst content (Figs. 4g–h). Phenocryst phases mostlyconsist of euhedral plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine, and rareglomerophorphyritic aggregates of mostly subhedral crystals of thesame mineral association (Fig. 4f). Microphenocrysts are mostlylath-shaped plagioclase feldspars. The groundmass is fully crystal-lized with plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine and opaque phases(Figs. 4g-h). Plagioclase phenocrysts have a maximum size of 2 mmranging down to microphenocryst sizes. The larger grains are tabularin shape, while lath shapes are more common for smaller crystals.Larger plagioclase grains show a wide diversity in zonation patterns:1. Na-rich resorbed core, Ca-rich rim (Fig. 4i); 2. sieve-textured, re-sorbed Na-rich core, Ca-rich rim (Fig. 4j); 3. sieve-textured core

without visible resorption and oscillatory zoning outside the core;4. resorbed Na-rich core and oscillatory zoned rim; 5. Na-rich corewith Ca-rich and Na-rich overgrowths and a Ca-rich rim; and 6. Na-rich plagioclase without zoning and characterized by distinctive ex-tinction angles occurs rarely. Clinopyroxenes are usually 0.8 to0.2 mm in size without any zonation or resorption. Olivine pheno-crysts always have a thin resorption rim. Most commonly their sizeis between 0.3 and 0.1 mm, and oscillatory zoning is sometimes vis-ible by SEM within the smaller grains. Element mapping of largerplagioclases also indicates Ca-rich rims and Na-rich cores, withsome crystals having multiple Ca-rich zones overgrown on Na-richcores and zones (Figs. 3k–l).

Table 1Whole rockmajor and trace element geochemistry of the Te Hukui Basalt and compositions of Tatua and Ben Lomond Basalts (Hiess et al., 2007). The scoriaceous fragments for S.1 and S.2samples were collected from the outcrop on the eastern side of Te Hukui Stream from unit F as indicated in Fig. 2b by asterisks. Compositions of scoriaceous fragments indicate some con-tamination with country rocks. Analyses are by XRF at University of Waikato, New Zealand.

Te Hukui *1(lithic A)

Te Hukui *1(lithic B)

Te Hukui *1(S.1 scoria)

Te Hukui *2(S.2 scoria)

Tatua (Hiess et al., 2007) Ben Lomond (Hiess et al., 2007)

SiO2 (%) 50.25 49.78 51.94 52.08 50.33 49.65TiO2 (%) 1.26 1.26 1.22 1.30 1.31 1.14Al2O3 (%) 16.79 16.95 17.07 17.16 17.09 17.95Fe2O3 (T) (%) 10.24 10.25 9.97 9.97 10.36 10.9MnO (%) 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18MgO (%) 6.59 6.73 6.14 6.17 6.21 5.78CaO (%) 10.69 10.61 9.98 9.86 10.34 9.48Na2O (%) 3.07 3.16 3.06 2.90 3.18 2.64K2O (%) 0.43 0.44 0.59 0.56 0.41 0.32P2O3 (%) 0.23 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.24 0.17LOI (%) 0.30 1.84 0.70 1.00 0.44 2.07Total (%) 100.02 100.02 101.06 101.38 100.08 100.28Sc (ppm) 29 32V (ppm) 239 226 240 266Cr (ppm) 81 52 29 38Co (ppm) 35 34Ni (ppm) 41 32 27 24Cu (ppm) 23 41Zn (ppm) 78 81 82 89Ga (ppm) 18 19 18 18As (ppm) 5 5Rb (ppm) 12 18 2 4Sr (ppm) 307 295 335 296Y (ppm) 23 27 29 34Zr (ppm) 130 139 147 88Nb (ppm) 4 4 8 5Mo (ppm) 4 4Cs (ppm) 10 11Ba (ppm) 125 176 143 494La (ppm) 1 5 5 5Ce (ppm) 24 33 33 31Nd (ppm) 20 15 27 16Pb (ppm) 3 3Th (ppm) 4 4 3 3U (ppm) 3 3 1 3

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The whole rock geochemical characteristics are very similar to otherHAB localities with a slightly lower Al2O3 content (Table 1). TAS classi-fication indicates that the chemical composition is closest to the Tatua

Fig. 5. TAS classification of Te Hukui Basalt (L.A. lithic A; L.B. lithic B; S.1. – scoria; S.2. –scoria) and other basalts of the Taupo-Whakamaru area (Ben. – Ben Lomond; Kak. –Kakuki; Kin. – Kinloch; K-Tr. – K-Trig; Ong. – Ongaroto; Tat. – Tatua) (Brown et al.,1994; Hiess et al., 2007; Matheson, 2010). (For interpretation of the references to colourin this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Basalt (Fig. 5) (Hiess et al., 2007), which is the nearest known HAB oc-currence to Te Hukui (Fig. 1).

5. Discussion and conclusions

The topographic position of the newly discovered basaltic associa-tion is identical with the neighbouring ridges consisting of the OrakonuiFormation. This suggests that both the Te Hukui Basalt and ignimbriteexposures of the basement at the side of the present craters were ex-posed by excavation relating to Puketerata activity. However, the spatialrelationship between the craters of the older Te Hukui and youngerPuketerata eruptions is unclear. Thus, we propose two feasible explana-tions based on themorphological observations (Fig. 6) of the sequence;(a) surfical TeHukui deposits had already eroded prior to the Puketerataeruption, which then exposed the intra-crater deposits, or (b) thePuketerata eruption occurred through the existing crater of Te Hukui,which widened the crater and exposed the older Te Hukui depositsthat were deposited in proximity of the crater. The polymict brecciacharacterized by andesitic to rhyolitic lithic components, which havenot been found on the surface, suggests deep excavation due tomagma/water interaction that occurred at least a few hundreds of me-ters below the surface. The variably inclined layers most likely formedby slumping, on the steep inner wall of the crater. These sedimentolog-ical features are indicative for maar-diatreme volcanism, while the exis-tence of stratified pyroclastic beds corresponds to an upper diatremefacies (White and Ross, 2011). The formation of diatremes induced byenergetic phreatomagmatic activity (Lorenz, 2007) is indicated by

Fig. 6. Possible topographic relationship between the craters of the Te Hukui Basalt andPuketerata subject to the exposure of the Te Hukui sequence, not to scale; (a) Te Hukuisequence represents intra-crater deposits; (b) exposed Te Hukui sequence representsthe remnant of ejecta ring. In both cases, the Te Hukui outcrops were exposed by thelatter Puketerata activity.

Fig. 7. Model for possible rock types of erupting magma due to the interaction betweenvariable sized basaltic magma intrusions (BI) and rhyolitic melt lenses (ML) in case of amelt-dominated or crystal mush-dominated silicic magma reservoir. Basaltic eruptionsare expected only in case of minor interaction with melt lenses (e), while other casesbasaltic magma may trigger rhyolitic eruption (a and b) or mixing with rhyolitic magmawithout eruption (c and d).

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pyroclastic flow and surge beds. The extra-crater deposits of typicalmaar-forming activity have a maximum thickness of a few tens of me-ters near the source (Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983), and their typicallyunconsolidated nature makes them very vulnerable to erosion. Thelack of basaltic deposits of the surrounding area suggests high erosionrates, further supporting amodel inwhich the exposed sequence depos-ited within the depression of the crater (Fig. 6a).

The Te Hukui sequence can be divided into three different divisionsby the dominant characteristics of deposits. The formation of the lowestdivision (units A–C) was dominated by high fragmentation of theerupting magma and admixture with variously fragmented countryrocks as a result of deep-seated phreatomagmatic explosions (Lorenz,1986; Valentine and White, 2012). The middle division (D–F) indicatesan alternation of magmatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions. The la-pilli sized fragments of fall beds correspond to Strombolian activity(e.g. Houghton and Gonnermann, 2008), while the shapes of juvenileash indicates either Strombolian or phreatomagmatic origin similarto the activity at Ohakune, TVZ (Kósik et al., 2016b). The sampled ba-saltic lithic fragments most likely originated from the margin of theconduit/vent, where the lava solidified as part of a larger bodyprior to fragmentation and transportation to their locality. Theupper division (only found at the western outcrop) is considered topresent reworked deposits of the ejecta ring through granularflows and fluvial sedimentation.

The petrological and geochemical investigation revealed that thecomposition of the Te Hukui Basalt is very similar to other HABs withinthe TVZ. Rare Na-rich plagioclase xenocrysts and complex plagioclasezonation patterns imply some degree of mixing with rhyolitic magmaprior to eruption. The mafic chemical composition of the eruptedmate-rial with signs of minor interaction with rhyolitic magma suggest thatthe dyke feeding the Te Hukui eruption did not interact with eruptiblerhyolitic melt lenses, but instead shot through a crystal mush (Fig. 7).Stalling/underplating mafic melts need of the order of 103 years toequilibrate with their environment (Annen, 2011), thus at least a fewthousands of years are required to increase the amount of eruptible si-licic melt by multiple basaltic intrusions and underplating to producea rhyolitic eruption at the same location.

The stratigraphic age of the Te Hukui Formation is older than thePuketerata activity, while its maximum age is corresponds to the ageof the ignimbrites of Orakonui Formation (244–268 ka) (Leonard,2003). The thick soil horizon (most likely correlating to Mokai Sand;Vucetich and Pullar, 1969) on the top of the basalt demonstrates thatthis basaltic activity was an eruptive event distinct from the activity ofPuketerata, and it sets the minimum age of the Te Hukui event beforethe eruption of the Oruanui Ignimbrite (25.4 ka) (Vandergoes et al.,2013). Considering that this area was characterized by significant ero-sion before and after the climactic Oruanui eruption, the deeply erodedbasaltic sequence is at least a few thousand years older than theOruanuieruption. Besides high erosional rates, burial was the most importantfactor that modified the broader landscape. Thus it cannot be ruledout that our knowledge about the locations of all the basaltic vents ordeposits is incomplete. It seems that most of the HAB occurrences arearranged to an eastern and a western fault zone (Fig. 1), located at theedges of a central extensional area of the TVZ affected by young faulting.This kind of arrangement may have been influenced by the physicalconditions of the silicic magma reservoirs, such as the crystal mush/eruptible melt ratio.

Acknowledgement

This research is supported by a Doctoral Scholarship of Institute ofAgriculture and Environment, Massey University awarded to SK. Wethank Harakeke Co Ltd. for access to their land. GFZ thanks HisayoshiYurimoto for access to the FE-SEM at Hokkaido University and NaoyaSakamoto for help with data acquisition. We would also like to thankDario Pedrazzi and an anonymous reviewer for constructive comments,which improved this manuscript.

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