M. Schidlowski, S. Golubic, M.M. Kimberley, D.M. McKirdy, P.A. Trudinger (Eds.)

Early Organic Evolution Implications for Mineral and Energy Resources

With 256 Figures and 50 Tables

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest

Managing Editor

Prof. Dr. Manfred Schidlowski Chairman, IGCP Project 157

Max-Planck-Institut fUr Chemie (Otto-Hahn-Institut), Saarstr. 23, W-6500 Mainz, FRG

Editors

Prof. Dr. Stjepko Golubic Biological Science Center Boston University Boston, MA 02215, USA

Prof. Dr. Michael M. Kimberley Dept. of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC 27695-8208, USA

Dr. David M. McKirdy, Sr. Lecturer Dept. of Geology & Geophysics University of Adelaide Adelaide, S.A. 5001, Australia

Dr. Philip A. Trudinger Bureau of Mineral Resources Division of Continental Geology GPO Box 378 Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia

Proceedings of the 9th Alfred Wegener Conference being the Final Meeting of IGCP-Project 157 (Early Organic and Mineral & Energy Resources), Maria Laach, FRG, September 19-23, 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Alfred Wegener-Conference (9th: 1988 : Abtei Maria Laach) Early organic evolution: implications for mineral and energy resources: proceedings of the 9th Alfred Wegener Conference, being the final meeting of IGCP-Project 157 (early organic evolution and minerals & energy resources), Maria Laach, FRG, September 19-23, 1988 / M. Schidlowski ... let al.] (eds) . Includes index. ISBN-13 978-3-642-76886-6 e-ISBN-I3: 978-3-642-76884-2 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-76884-2

1. Organic geochemistry-Congress. 2. Geology. Stratigraphic-Precambrian-Congresses. 3. Geology, Stratigraphic-Paleozoic-Congresses. 4. Stromatolites-Congresses. 5. Paleopedology-Congresses. 6. IGCP Project 157-Congresses. I. Schidlowski, M. II. IGCP Project 157. III. Title. QE516.5.A441988 553'.I-dc20

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Preface

This volume is the final outcome of a conference designed to wrap up IOCP Project 157 (" Early Organic Evolution and Mineral and Energy Resources ") after a decade of prolific activity. The picturesque solitude of Maria Laach Abbey in the Eifel Mountains (FRO) provided the appropriate setting for a conclave of some 80 specialists from the various walks of the field who, during the week of Sept. 19 - 23, 1988, strived hard to define the state of the art in the principal segments of this Earth Science frontier.

The following pages contain the essence of the conference transactions, giv­ing a vivid cross-section of the activities pursued by IOCP Project 157 during its final years. The coverage of topics is not necessarily complete, but rather eclec­tic in part. With regard to single papers dealing with modern analogues of ancient processes, the book title might even be considered a grave misnomer. Neverthe­less, all contributions relate to the subject in the widest sense, and the reader should be reminded that much of the heterogeneity reflected by the volume de­rives from the fact that it is primarily a research report from a highly inter­disciplinary field rather than a textbook. To secure at least some balance be­tween these opposite goals, each of the four subprojects is introduced by one or more review papers that summarize the field as a whole (or major facets there­of) for the benefit of those readers in need of introductory guidance. Consider­ing the principal character of the book as a progress report from an actively evolving field, editorial efforts to eliminate occasional inconsistencies among in­dividual contributions were kept to a minimum, the rationale being that there must be room for different viewpoints and a continuing dialogue.

As is nowadays almost common for conference proceedings, this volume also had an extended gestation period. However, the potentially adverse effects of such delay are largely offset by the fact that most papers do not concern themselves with ephemeral issues, and that the authors were given ample oppor­tunity to apply a final touch to their texts during the copy-editing procedure. Accordingly, we may safely claim that the gist of the concepts set out on the subsequent pages is contemporaneous with the year given on the copyright page. By summarizing our current knowledge of the field, the book as a whole will hopefully serve as a springboard for shifting frontiers further into the unknown. I am convinced that future generations of students interested in early organic evolution and biologically mediated geochemical transformations will detect in this volume several ideas that have stood the test of time.

As organizer of the conference that has materialized in this volume, it re­mains for me to acknowledge the generous support given by the UNESCO­IOCP Organisation (Paris), the Alfred Wegener Foundation (Bonn), the Deut­sche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Bonn) and the Max Planck Society (Munich). Moreover, special thanks are due to my subproject leaders for their unfailing commitment, notably as coeditors of this volume (which, in the case of Dave McKirdy, included the virtual rewriting of five papers of his section!). Hubert

VI Preface

Wiggering volunteered to compile the index, and a legion of reviewers (see se­parate list) helped to secure a high scientific standard. Last, but not least, I should like to mention the monasterial hospitality offered by the resident Bene­dictine community, and a donation by Mr. Harald Eckes. Nieder-Olm. which substantially added to both the flavour and the spirits of the meeting.

Mainz, October 1991 Manfred Schidlowski

The Editors would like to greatfully acknowledge the help of the following re-viewers:

P. Aharon J. Hahn A. E. Ringwood R. Alexander T. C. Hoering J. D. Saxby S. M. Awramik C. F. Hoffmann M. Schidlowski B. D. Batts H. D. Holland Shen Su Sun R.A. Berner B. Horsfield G. W. Skyring E. N. Cameron H. Jannasch M. Smyth A. R. Chivas R. J. F. Jenkins B. Spiro J. Connan R.l. Kagi E. F. Stumpfl A. C. Cook M. M. Kimberley R. E. Summons D. J. Des Marais A. H. Knoll G.H. Taylor T. H. Donnelly A. Kra use-Mirus W. R. Taylor S. Eldridge G. W. M. Lijmbach P. A. Trudinger M. H. Engel S.A. Macko H. G. Triiper C. B. Foster D. M. McKirdy J. Veizer H. Friedrichsen D. A. Mossman J. K. Volkmann A. P. Gize S. Pickering M. R. Walter S. Golubic T. G. Powell M. A. Wilson J. D. Gorter R. Raiswell D. E. Grandstaff G. Retallack

List of Contributors

Aharon, P., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-4104, USA

AI-Biatty, H.J., Dr. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

Awramik, S. M., Prof. Dr. Department of Geological Sciences, University of Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA

Banerjee, D. M., Dr. Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India

Bertrand-Sarfati, J., Dr. CNRS, Centre Geologique et Geophysique de l'Universite des Sciences et Techniques, Place Eugene Bataillon, 34060 Montpellier Cedex, France

Bharati, S., Dr. Geology Department, University of Oslo, Postboks 1047, 0316 Blindern, Oslo 3, Norway

Brongersma-Sanders, M., Dr. National Naturhistorisch Museum, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands

Bustin, M., Dr. Department of Geological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 2B4, Canada

Carl, N., M. Sc. Environmental Science Division, School of Applied Science and Technology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel

Crick, 1. H., Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Division of Continental Geology, GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia

Deb, M., Dr. Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India

x List of Contributors

Deines, P., Prof. Dr. Department of Geosciences. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802. USA

Des Marais. D. L Dr. NASA Ames Research, Center, Moffett Field. California 94035. USA

Donnelly, T. H., Dr. CSIRO Division of Water Resources, P.O. Box 1666. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia

Dor. L Dr. Environmental Sciences Division. School of Applied Science and Technology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel

Douglas, A. G., Dr. NRG in Fossil Fuels of Environmental Geochemistry, University Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Drummond Building, Newcastle upon Tyne. NEI 7RU, UK

Dypvik, H., Dr. Geology Department. University of Oslo. Postboks 1047, 0316 Blindern, Oslo 3. Norway

Eglinton, T. L Dr. Organic Geochemistry Unit. Technical University of Delft. 2628 RZ Delft, The Netherlands

Fan. P., Prof. Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000, PR China

Farrow, C. E. G., Dr. Department of Geology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario. KIS 5B6, Canada

Foster. C. B., Dr. Western Mining Corp. Ltd., Petroleum Division, 28 Ventnor Avenue. West Perth W.A. 6005, Australia

Fowler, M. G., Dr. Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada, 3303-33rd St. N.W., Calgary, Alberta T2L 2A 7, Canada

von Gehlen, K., Prof. Dr. Institut fUr Geochemie, Petrologie und Lagerstiittenkunde. Senckenberg-Anlage 28, W-6000 Frankfurt a.M. L FRG

Glaessner. M. F.. Prof. Dr. (deceased) Department of Geology and Geophysics. The University of Adelaide. Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia

Goodarzi, F, Dr. Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Geological Survey of Canada, 3303-33rd St. N.W., Calgary. Alberta T2L 2A 7, Canada

List of Contributors

Golubic, S., Prof. Dr. Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 0221S, USA

Gorzawski, H., Dr. Max-Planck-Institut fur Chemie, Saarstr. 23, W-6S00 Mainz, FRG

Hayes, J. M., Prof. Dr. Biogeochemical Laboratories, Department of Chemistry and Geology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 4740S, USA

Hirner, A. v., Prof. Dr. Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitiit, Theresienstr. 41, W-8000 Munchen 2, FRG

Holland, H. D., Prof. Dr.

XI

Harvard University, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

Horsfield, Boo Dr. Institut fur Erdol und Organische Geochemie, Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W -S170 J iilich, FRG

Hutchinson, R. W., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA

Imbus, S. w., Dr. School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

Kimberley, M. M., Prof. Dr. Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, North Carolina State University. Raleigh. NC 2769S-8208, USA

Knoll, A. H., Prof. Dr. Botanical Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge. MA 02138, USA

Lambert. 1. B., Dr. Elisian Resources, 2 Bonwick Place, Garran, Canberra, ACT 260S, Australia

Larter, S. R., Dr. Geology Department, University of Oslo, Postboks 1047,0316 Blindern, Oslo 3, Norway

de Leeuw, J. w., Dr. Organic Geochemistry Unit, Technical University of Delft, 2628 RZ Delft, The Netherlands

Leistner, F., Dr. Institut fur Erdol und Organische Chemie, Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W-S170 Julich, FRG

Li, J., Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China

XII List of Contributors

Li, y, Dr. Laboratory of Biogeochemistry and Gas Geochemistry, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China

Li, Z., Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China

Liew, T. c., Dr. Max-Planck-Institut fur Chemie, Saarstr. 23. W-6500 Mainz. FRG

Littke, R., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Geochemie, Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, 5170 Jillich, FRG

Makarikhin, v., Dr. Geological Institute, Karelian Branch, USSR Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, 385 610, USSR

Marmo, J. S., Dr. Geological Survey of Finland, 02150 Espoo, Finland

Marzi, R., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Organische Chemie. Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W-5170 Jillich. FRG

McKirdy, D. M., Dr. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia

Meng, Q., Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou 730000, PR China

Meyers, P. A., Prof. Dr. Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1063, USA

Miller, A. R., Dr. Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OE8, Canada

Mossman, D. J., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology, Mount Allison University, Sackville. New Brunswick. EOA 3CO, Canada

Nagy, B., Prof. Dr. Laboratories of Organic Geochemistry, Department of Geosciences, The University of Arizona. Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

Needham, R. S., Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics, GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia

List of Contributors

Neumann-Mahlkau, P., Prof. Dr. FB 9, Geologie, Universitiit, Gesamthochschule Essen, Postfach 103764, W-4300 Essen 1, FRG

Ohmoto, H., Prof. Dr.

XIII

Department of Geosciences. Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA

Pentecost, A., Dr. Division of Biosphere Sciences. King's College. Campden Hill Road, London W8 7 AH. UK

Pflug, H. D .• Prof. Dr. Geologisches Institut der lustus-Liebig-Universitiit. W-6300 Giel3en. FRG

Powell. T. G .• Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia

Premovic. P. L Prof. Dr. Laboratory for Geochemistry. Department of Chemistry. Faculty of Sciences. University of Nis. 18000 Nis. Yugoslavia

RaiswelL Roo Dr. Department of Earth Sciences. University of Leeds. Leeds. LS291T. UK

Reimer. T. 0 .. Dr. Bernhard-May-Str. 43. W-6200 Wiesbaden. FRG

Reitz, E .. Dr. Geologisches Institut der lustus-Liebig-Universitiit. W-6300 Giel3en. FRG

Retallack, G. 1., Prof. Dr. Department of Geology. University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1272. USA

Robinson. B. Woo Dr. Institute of Nuclear Sciences, DSIR. P.O. Box 31312. Lower Hutt. New Zealand

Ronov. A. Boo Prof. Dr. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry. USSR Academy of Sciences. 117975 Moscow V-334. USSR

Rullkatter. 1., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Organische Geochemie, Forschungszentrum liilich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W -5170 Jiilich. FRG

Schenk, H.l., Dr. Institut fUr Erdal und Organische Geochemie, Forschungszentrum liilich GmbH, Postfach 1913, W-5170 liilich, FRG

Schidlowski, M., Prof. Dr. Max-Planck-Institut fUr Chemie, Saarstr. 23, W-6500 Mainz, FRG

XIV List of Contributors

Selbach. H.-J .. Dipl.-Geol. FB 9. Geologic. U niversitiit. Gesamthochschule Essen. Postfach 103764. W-4300 Essen 1. FRG

Shen. P. Dr. Laboratory of Biogeochemistry and Gas Geochemistry. Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000. PR China

Sinninghe Damste. J. S .. Dr. Organic Geochemistry Unit. Technical University of Delft. 2628 RZ Delft. The Netherlands

Strauss. H .. Dr. Ruhr-Universitat Bochum. Institut fUr Geologie. W-4630 Bochum 1. FRG

Stuart-Smith. P G .. Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Geology and Geophysics. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia

Summons. R. E .. Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Geology and Geophysics. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia

Trudinger. P A.. Dr. Bureau of Mineral Resources. Division of Continental Geology. GPO Box 378. Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia

Wiggering. H .. Dr. FB 9. Geologie. Universitat. Gesamthochschule Essen. Postfach 103764. W-4300 Essen 1. FRG

Xu. y. Prof. Laboratory of Biogeochemistry and Gas Geochemistry. Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000. PR China

Yu. X .. Dr. Lanzhou Institute of Geology. Academia Sinica. Lanzhou 730000. PR China

Table of Contents

Introduction

Early Organic Evolution and Mineral and Energy Resources: A Farewell Address to IGCP Project 157 M. Schidloll'ski ........................... .

1. Precambrian Weathering and Paleosols

Introduction to Precambrian Weathering and Paleosols M. M. Kimberley, H. D. Holland ............. .

How to Find a Precambrian Paleosol G. J. Retallack ............ .

Experimental Procedures to Simulate Weathering Under Atmospheres Which May Have Characterized the Early Archean

9

16

H. Wiggering, P. Neumann-Mahlkau, H.-J. Selbach . . . . . . . . 31

The Lower Proterozoic Hokkalampi Paleosol in North Karelia. Eastern Finland J. S. Marmo . ............................. .

Paleosol and Ore-Forming Processes in the Elliot Lake District of Canada

41

D. J. Mossman, C. E. G. FarroII' ......................... 67

Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Pre-1.65 Ga Paleosol Under Kombolgie Formation Sandstone of the Pine Creek Geosyncline, Northern Territory. Australia A. R. Miller, R. S. Needham, P. G. Stuart-Smith ........... 76

Carbonaceous High-Alumina Shale in the Transvaal Supergroup: Evidence of Early Proterozoic Karstic Weathering in a Marine Environment TO. Reimer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106

Significance of Precambrian Paleosols M. M. Kimberley . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Organic Matter in Precambrian and Early Paleozoic Sediments

Mantle Carbon: Concentration. Mode of Occurrence. and Isotopic Composition P. Deines . ......................... .

115

133

XVI Table of Contents

Carbon Cycle and Carbon Isotope Record: Geochemical Impact of Life over 3.8 Ga of Earth History M. Schidloll'ski, P. Aharon .................... 147

Precambrian Petroleum: A Decade of Changing Perceptions D. M. Iv!cKirdy. S. W Jmbus ................... 176

Paleontology and Biogeochemical Research: A Powerful Synergy M. F Glaessner. C. B. Foster ...................... 193

Proterozoic Organic Carbon - Its Preservation and Isotopic Record H. Strauss. D.l. des Marais, 1. M. Hayes. R. E. Summons . . . . . 203

An Assessment of the Precambrian/Cambrian Transition Events on the Basis of Carbon Isotope Records P. Aharon, T C. Liel\' ............................... 212

Stratiform and Globular Organic Matter in the Lower Proterozoic Metasediments at Elliot Lake. Ontario. Canada B. Nagy, D.l. Mossmann .................... .

Organic Carbon Isotopic Composition of Proterozoic Sedimentary Rocks from India: Preliminary Results

224

D. M. Banerjee, M. Deb, H. Strauss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 232

Organic Free Radicals in Precambrian and Paleozoic Rocks: Origin and Significance P. 1. PrenlOvic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

On the Atypical Petroleum-Generating Characteristics of Alginite in the Cambrian Alum Shale B. Horsfield, S. Bharati, S. R. Larter, F Leistner, R. Littke. H. 1. Schenk. H. Dypvik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Distribution and Structure of Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Sulfur Compounds Released from Four Kerogens of Ordovician Age by Means of Flash Pyrolysis A. G. Douglas, 1. S. SinningIJe Damste, 1. W de Leew\" T 1. Eglin ton , M. G. FOI\'ler .............................. 267

Thermal Maturity of Early Paleozoic Sediments as Determined by the Optical Properties of Marine-Derived Organic Matter - A Review F Goodar:::i. M. G. FOI\'/er. M. Bustill. D. M. McKirdy . . . . . .. 279

Hydrocarbon Composition of the Late Proterozoic Oils of the Siberian Platform: Implications for the Depositional Environment of Source Rocks R. E. Summons, T G. POI\'el/ ....................... 296

Biomarkers and Other Hydrocarbons in Upper Sinian Stromatolitic Dolostones from Southwest China P. Fan. 1. Li. Q. Meng. X. Yu. Z. Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Table of Contents XVII

Natural Gas in Sinian Reservoirs of the Weiyuan Area, Sichuan Province: The Oldest Gas in China y. Xu, P. Shen, Y. Li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Biological Markers in Paleozoic Sedimentary Rocks and Crude Oils from the Michigan Basin: Reassessment of Sources and Thermal History of Organic Matter J. Rullkotter, R. Marzi, P. A. Meyers ..................... 324

The Influence of Gloeocapsomorpha prisca on the Organic Geochemistry of Oils and Organic-Rich Rocks of Late Ordovician Age from Canada M. F. Fowler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 336

3. Antiquity and Metallogenic Potential of Bacterial Sulfate Reduction

Sulfur in the Earth's Mantle - A Review K. von Gehlen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Bacterial Sulfate Reduction: Current Status and Possible Origin

359

P. A. Trudinger ............................. 367

Biogeochemistry of Sulfur and the Mechanisms of Sulfide-Sulfate Mineralization in Archean Oceans H. Ohmoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

Biological and Abiological Sulfate Reduction in Two Northern Australian Proterozoic Basins T H. Donnelly, I. H. Crick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398

Global Oxidation and a Supercontinent in the Proterozoic: Evidence from Stable Isotopic Trends I. B. Lambert, T H. Donnelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Depositional and Diagenetic C - S - Fe Signatures and the Potential of Shales to Generate Metal-Rich Fluids

408

R. Raiswell, H. J. Al-Biatty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Genetic Relationship Between Elementary, Organic, and Pyritic Sulfur in Sediments A. V. Hirner, B. W Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

4. Fossil Microbial Ecosystems of the" Stromatolitic" Type and Their Modern Analogs

The History and Significance of Stromatolites S. M. Awramik ............. .

Proterozoic and Living Cyanobacteria A. H. Knoll, S. Golubic ......... .

Lower Precambrian Stromatolite Associations of Karelia V. Makarikhin ......................... .

435

450

463

XVIII Table of Contents

Tussocky Microstructure, a Biological Event in Upper Proterozoic Stromatolites: Comparisons with Modern Freshwater Stromatolite Builders J. Bertrand-Sarlati, A. Pentecost ............. .

On the Association of Ore Deposits with Stromatolites M. Brongersma-Sanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Experimental Hypersaline Ponds as Model Environments for Stromatolite Formation 1. Microbenthos Composition and Biomass Accumulation

468

478

1. Dor, N. Carl, M. SchidlOlt'ski ......................... 483

Experimental Hypersaline Ponds as Model Environments for Stromatolite Formation 2. Isotopic Biogeochemistry M. SchidIOlt'ski, H. Gorzawski, I. Dor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 494

Palynostratigraphy in Phanerozoic and Precambrian Metamorphic Rocks H. D. Pflug, E. Reitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 508

5. General Topics

Mineral Deposits and Metallogeny: Indicators of Earth's Evolution R. W Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

Chemical Evolution of Sedimentary and Magmatic Rocks in the Earth's Crust A. B. RonoL' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 551