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MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AND THE EXPERIENCE OF
LEARNING IN EDUCATIONAL LEISURE SETTINGS
Jan Packer BA (Hons)
Centre for Innovation in Education
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements
for the Doctor of Philosophy
2004
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i
KEYWORDS
Museum learning
Environmental and heritage interpretation
Visitor studies
Motivation
Educational leisure
Free-choice learning
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ABSTRACT
Motivation is an important aspect of learning in educational leisure settings
because it affects the choices visitors make regarding what to attend to, the
amount of effort they devote to learning, and the extent to which they enjoy
the experience. Commonly, however, visitors seek entertainment, social or
restorative experiences as well as, or in preference to, a learning experience.
This research investigates the impact of motivational factors on the
experience of learning in educational leisure settings. Motivational factors are
considered in terms of four components - personal goals, capability beliefs,
context beliefs and situational incentives. The experience of learning is
considered in terms of visitors’ perceptions of the experience, rather than
objective measures of learning outcomes, as the experience itself is seen as
the desired outcome of the visit.
Visitors to six different educational leisure settings in South East Queensland
were invited to participate in the research, including a museum, an art
gallery, a wildlife centre, an aquarium, and guided tours of natural and
cultural heritage sites. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using
questionnaires (499 participants) and interviews (52 participants) in order to
ascertain the importance to visitors of different types of learning experiences;
identify the extent to which motivations for learning vary across sites and
visitor groups; investigate the relationships between the educational,
entertainment, social and restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience; and
examine the impact of motivational factors on visitors’ experience of learning
in leisure settings.
The findings support the importance of learning to visitors in a range of
educational leisure settings. Visitors seek an experience that combines
elements of learning and discovery, and is perceived to be both effortless and
fun. It is concluded that the characteristics of learning in educational leisure
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settings contribute to a synergy between the educational and entertainment
aspects of the experience. Situational factors are more important than
personal factors in motivating visitors to engage in and experience this type
of learning. This is of great significance to educational leisure settings as it
implies that sites have a reasonable degree of control over the motivational
factors that influence visitor engagement in learning.
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PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS
FROM THIS THESIS
Refereed publications
Packer, J. (2001). Motivations for learning: Visitors’ perceptions of the
educational element in leisure experiences. In P. Singh and E.
McWilliam (Eds.) Designing Educational Research: Theories, Methods and
Practices. Post Pressed, Flaxton, Qld, pp. 115-126.
Packer, J. and Ballantyne, R (2002). Motivational factors and the visitor
experience: A comparison of three sites. Curator: The Museum Journal,
45 (3), 183-198.
Packer, J. and Ballantyne, R. (2004). Is educational leisure a contradiction in
terms?: Exploring the synergy of education and entertainment. Annals
of Leisure Research, 7 (1), 50-65.
Conference presentations
Packer, J. and Ballantyne, R. (1999, July). When learning is not the motivation:
Principles for stimulating learning in informal settings. Paper presented
at the International Symposium on Society and Resource
Management, Environmental Interpretation and Communication
Theme, Brisbane.
Packer, J. (2001, September). Motivations for Learning: Visitors’ Perceptions of
the Educational Element in Leisure Experiences. Paper presented at the
Interpretation Australia Association International Conference, Alice
Springs.
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Packer, J. (2002, May). Motivational factors and the visitor experience: A
comparison of museums and other contexts. Paper presented at the
Uncover: Postgraduate Research in the Museum Sector Conference,
Sydney.
Packer, J. (2003, July) Motivational Factors and the Experience of Learning in
Interpretive Settings. Paper presented at the Visitor Studies Association
Conference, Columbus, Ohio.
Packer, J. and Ballantyne, R. (2003, September). Is educational leisure a
contradiction in terms? Exploring the synergy of education and
entertainment. Paper presented at the Interpretation Australia
Association Conference, Melbourne.
Packer, J. (2004, August). Learning for fun: Implications for informal learning
environments. Paper presented at the Visitor Studies Association
Conference, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Keywords .............................................................................................................................................. I Abstract................................................................................................................................................. II Publications and presentations from this thesis ........................................................................... IV Table of contents................................................................................................................................ VI List of tables ........................................................................................................................................IX List of figures ......................................................................................................................................XI Statement of authorship .................................................................................................................. XII Acknowledgments ..........................................................................................................................XIII CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1 1.1 The Research Problem...........................................................................................................2 1.2 Theoretical Framework .........................................................................................................2 1.3 Research Aim and Approach ...............................................................................................4 1.4 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................................7 1.5 Outline of this Thesis.............................................................................................................8 CHAPTER 2: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE......................................................................10 PART ONE: LEARNING IN LEISURE SETTINGS ...................................................................13 2.1.1 Introduction to Part One .....................................................................................................13 2.1.2 The Nature of Educational Leisure Settings.....................................................................15 2.1.3 How Learning in Leisure Settings Differs From Learning in Formal Settings ............17 2.1.4 Theories of Learning in Leisure Settings ..........................................................................18
General theories of learning .......................................................................................19 Museum learning.........................................................................................................20 Interpretation ...............................................................................................................23 Implications for research ............................................................................................27
PART TWO: MOTIVATION..........................................................................................................29 2.2.1 Introduction to Part Two.....................................................................................................29 2.2.2 What is Motivation?.............................................................................................................30 2.2.3 Overview of Theoretical Approaches to Motivation.......................................................32 2.2.4 An Integrative Framework of Motivational Factors........................................................34 2.2.5 Motivation and Learning ....................................................................................................40
The role of motivation in learning.............................................................................40 The natural motivation to learn.................................................................................41 The problem of motivation in formal learning settings .........................................42 The problem of motivation in informal learning settings......................................44
PART THREE: MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING IN LEISURE SETTINGS........................46 2.3.1 Introduction to Part Three ..................................................................................................46 2.3.2 Personal Goals as Motivational Factors for Learning in Leisure Settings....................48
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2.3.3 Capability Beliefs as Motivational Factors for Learning in Leisure Settings .............. 50 2.3.4 Context Beliefs as Motivational Factors for Learning in Leisure Settings................... 51 2.3.5 Situational Incentives as Motivational Factors for Learning in Leisure Settings ....... 52
Social incentives for learning .................................................................................... 52 Task incentives for learning ...................................................................................... 53 Emotional incentives for learning............................................................................. 54
2.3.6 Educational Leisure: A Contradiction in Terms?............................................................ 56 Education and entertainment defined ..................................................................... 57 Education and entertainment: Possible conflicts.................................................... 58 Education and entertainment: Potential complementarities ................................ 59 The importance of experience ................................................................................... 61
SUMMARY OF REVIEW AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................... 63 CHAPTER 3: METHOD................................................................................................................. 67 3.1 Introduction to Method...................................................................................................... 67 3.2 Philosophical Underpinning.............................................................................................. 67 3.3 Overview of Research Approach ...................................................................................... 68 3.4 Research Sites....................................................................................................................... 70 3.5 Procedure and Participants................................................................................................ 72
3.5.1 Stage 1 Study................................................................................................ 72 3.5.2 Stage 2 Study................................................................................................ 79
3.6 Stage 1 Instruments............................................................................................................. 82 3.6.1 Motivational factors .................................................................................... 85 3.6.2 Indicators of learning motivation ............................................................. 96 3.6.3 Visitor outcomes.......................................................................................... 98
3.7 Stage 2 Instruments........................................................................................................... 102 3.8 Overview of Data Analysis .............................................................................................. 104
3.8.1 Stage 1 ......................................................................................................... 104 3.8.2 Stage 2 ......................................................................................................... 107
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - STAGE 1 STUDY ..................................... 109 4.1 The Importance of Learning in Educational Leisure Settings..................................... 109
4.1.1 The importance of learning and discovery goals: Pre-visit ................. 110 4.1.2 The importance of learning in the visitor experience........................... 113 4.1.3 Summary of findings ................................................................................ 116
4.2 Variations in Motivational Factors across Sites and Visitor Groups.......................... 117 4.2.1 Variations by site....................................................................................... 118 4.2.2 Variations by visitor group...................................................................... 124 4.2.3 Summary of findings ................................................................................ 127
4.3 Relationships between the Educational, Entertainment, Social and Restorative Aspects of the Visitors’ Experience................................................................................. 129
4.3.1 Visitors’ responses to direct questions ................................................... 130 4.3.2 Statistical relationships between aspects of experience ....................... 131 4.3.3 Summary of findings ................................................................................ 134
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4.4 The Impact of Motivational Factors on Visitors’ Experience of Learning..................135 4.4.1 Relationships between motivational factors, indicators of motivation and the learning and discovery experience............................................136 4.4.2 Results of structural equation modelling analysis ................................140 4.4.3 Summary of findings .................................................................................147
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - STAGE 2 STUDY .......................................148 5.1 Summary of Research Aims .............................................................................................148 5.2 Results of Quantitative Analysis......................................................................................148 5.3 Results of Qualitative Analysis ........................................................................................150
5.3.1 The nature of learning in educational leisure settings..........................151 5.3.2 The value of learning in educational leisure settings............................164 5.3.3 The limits of learning in educational leisure settings ...........................170 5.3.4 The relationship between education and entertainment in educational leisure settings ............................................................................................175
5.4 Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................180 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................181 6.1 Summary of Findings in Relation to Research Questions ............................................181
6.1.1 The importance of learning.......................................................................181 6.1.2 Variations in motivational factors ...........................................................182 6.1.3 Relationships between aspects of the experience ..................................183 6.1.4 Motivational factors and the experience of learning.............................188
6.2 Implications of Findings for the Advancement of Theory and Further Research.....189 6.3 Limitations of the Study....................................................................................................193
6.3.1 Sampling issues ..........................................................................................193 6.3.2 Measurement issues...................................................................................195 6.3.3 Design issues ..............................................................................................196
6.4 Final Concluding Comments............................................................................................197 APPENDIX A: STAGE 1 QUESTIONNAIRE ...........................................................................199 APPENDIX B: STAGE 1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS..........................................................213 APPENDIX C: STAGE 2 QUESTIONNAIRE ...........................................................................231 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS ..........................................................................235 Museum site visitors: M1 – M21 ......................................................................................237 Aquarium (Interpretive site) visitors: A1 – A22 ............................................................267 Forest Walk (Natural site) visitors: FW1-FW9 ...............................................................292 APPENDIX E: PILOT STUDY FACTOR ANALYSIS RESULTS ..........................................303 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................307
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Participation rates at each site (Stage 1) .......................................................................... 74 Table 3.2 Descriptive data by site (Stage 1) ..................................................................................... 76 Table 3.3 Participation rates at each site (Stage 2) .......................................................................... 80 Table 3.4 Descriptive data on participants (Stage 2) ....................................................................... 81 Table 3.5 Variables addressed in questionnaire survey.................................................................... 83 Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics for the Personal Goals subscales .................................................. 111 Table 4.2 Correlations between the five Experience subscales and Satisfaction............................. 116 Table 4.3 Importance of learning by site, as indicated by personal goals and the learning-
satisfaction relationship .................................................................................................. 120 Table 4.4 Number of items from each subscale among the ten most popular reasons for visiting.. 122 Table 4.5 Reciprocal influences between learning and other aspects of the visitor experience ....... 130 Table 4.6 Correlations between the experience of Learning and Discovery and other aspects of
visitor experience ............................................................................................................ 132 Table 4.7 Correlations between indicators of learning motivation and aspects of visitor
experience........................................................................................................................ 134 Table 4.8 The effects of personal goals and situational factors on the experience of learning and
discovery ......................................................................................................................... 140 Table 5.1 Percentage of respondents indicating moderate or strong agreement with conceptions of
learning items ................................................................................................................. 149 Table B1 Rotated Factor Matrix (Personal Goals) ........................................................................ 215 Table B2 Descriptive statistics for the Personal Goals subscales .................................................. 216 Table B3 Personal Goal subscales by site ...................................................................................... 216 Table B4 Personal Goal subscales by site type............................................................................... 217 Table B5 Descriptive statistics for individual personal goals........................................................ 218 Table B6 Descriptive statistics for the Need for Cognition Scale .................................................. 219 Table B7 Need for Cognition by site and by site type.................................................................... 219 Table B8 Descriptive statistics for the Context Beliefs subscales .................................................. 219 Table B9 Context belief subscales by site....................................................................................... 220 Table B10 Context belief subscales by site type............................................................................... 220 Table B11 Context belief individual item means by site type .......................................................... 221 Table B12 Descriptive statistics for the Setting Characteristics subscales...................................... 221 Table B13 Setting Characteristics subscales by site ........................................................................ 222 Table B14 Setting Characteristics subscales by site type ................................................................ 222 Table B15 Situational Factors (11-item) subscale by site and site type........................................... 223
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Table B16 Descriptive statistics for the Selection of Learning Options and Adoption of a Casual
Approach subscales ..........................................................................................................223 Table B17 Descriptive statistics for Persistence and Evasion of Learning subscales........................224 Table B18 Descriptive statistics for Mental Effort subscale.............................................................224 Table B19 Motivated Learning Behaviours (10-item) subscale by site and site type........................224 Table B20 Descriptive statistics for the Relationship between Learning and Other Aspects items..225 Table B21 Descriptive statistics for the Experience subscales..........................................................225 Table B22 Experience subscales by site ............................................................................................226 Table B23 Experience subscales by site type ....................................................................................227 Table B24 Descriptive statistics for individual experience items .....................................................227 Table B25 Descriptive statistics for the Arousal of Interest subscale...............................................228 Table B26 Arousal of interest subscale by site and site type ............................................................228 Table B27 Descriptive statistics for Gap scores................................................................................228 Table B28 Learning and Discovery Gap scores by site and site type ...............................................229 Table B29 Descriptive statistics for the Visitor Satisfaction subscale..............................................229 Table B30 Visitor Satisfaction by site and site type .........................................................................229 Table E1 Rotated Factor Matrix (Pilot Study Personal Goals)......................................................304
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 The Contextual Model of Learning (Falk & Dierking, 2000). .................................. 22
Figure 2.2. Advertisement for “ed-venture tourism”................................................................... 60
Figure 2.3. Summary of literature review...................................................................................... 64
Figure 3.1. Loading of items onto the five factors. ....................................................................... 89
Figure 3.2. Interview Guide........................................................................................................... 103
Figure 4.1. Variations in personal goals by site. ......................................................................... 121
Figure 4.2. Summary of theoretical framework .......................................................................... 136
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STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a
degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of
my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signed: ___________________________________
Date: ___________________________________
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis represents much more than the results of three years’ study and
research. It has built on knowledge, experience and interests that have
developed over a much longer period. So to my supervisors, Roy Ballantyne,
John Bain and Nola Purdie, go my sincere thanks not only for their support
and advice on this project, but for their encouragement, example, critical
discussion and friendship over many years. To Roy and John in particular,
thank you for persuading me to embark on the PhD experience, and for
giving me such excellent models to inspire my academic career.
I am very grateful to the 600+ visitors who so willingly and generously gave
of their leisure time to reflect on the experience of learning, and to the six
educational leisure settings who provided access to their facilities and
visitors. The financial support provided by the Australian Postgraduate
Award and Queensland University of Technology is also greatly appreciated.
Finally, thanks to my family, friends, colleagues and fellow students who
have supported and shared the learning experience. I hope you all discover
the many ways in which learning can be fun.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The world today is in the midst of a revolution as “the industrial society that
marked the 20th century rapidly gives way to the information society of the
21st century” (World Summit on the Information Society, 2003, The
Challenge). This fundamental transformation is likely to produce change in
many aspects of our lives, including knowledge dissemination, social
interaction, education, leisure and entertainment. People today have a
“voracious appetite for learning” because in our present-day society,
“knowledge is power, knowledge is security, knowledge is the ultimate
means to control fate” (Falk & Dierking, 2000, p. 62).
People today are spending increasing amounts of time engaged in learning
during their leisure time, through television, radio, newspaper and the
Internet, and through travel and recreation experiences (Falk & Dierking,
2002). Indeed, Falk and Dierking (2002) suggest that even traditional school
subjects such as science and history are not primarily learned through school,
but through free-choice learning experiences. “Now, as well as historically,
most Americans acquire most of the knowledge, understanding, and
information they require for their daily lives outside of school” (p. 10). For
this reason, Frankel (2001) labels the free-choice education sector “a sleeping
giant”.
This research addresses a number of important issues regarding the
experience of learning in leisure settings: How important are learning
experiences in people’s expectations of, and satisfaction with leisure
activities? How do learning experiences align or conflict with other aspects
of the leisure experience? What are the motivational factors impacting on the
experience of learning in leisure settings? The research thus contributes to
developing the theoretical foundations of this increasingly important
research field.
2
1.1 The Research Problem
Leisure settings such as museums, zoos, national parks, historical sites, and
guided tours have the potential to play an important role in the information
and education infrastructure of society. In fact, many such settings include
public education as part of their mission and receive public funding
accordingly. However, theory and research regarding how, what and why
visitors learn in these settings is still at an early stage of development. This
study extends the theoretical foundations for the study of learning in leisure
settings by applying theoretical constructs from the fields of psychology and
education. In particular, the study examines the impact of motivational
factors on learning in leisure settings.
Motivation is an important factor in informal learning because it affects the
choices visitors make regarding what to attend to, the amount of effort they
devote to their learning or participation, and the extent to which they enjoy
the experience of learning (Brown, 1988; Schiefele, 1991). Falk and Dierking
(2000) suggest that in free-choice learning environments, where people can
freely select what to learn and whether to come in the first place, “it is not
possible to understand learning in the absence of understanding an
individual’s motivation for learning” (p. 71). However, visitors to leisure
settings do not necessarily come with a deliberate intention or motivation to
learn (Mitchell, 1998; Schauble, Beane, Coates, Martin, & Sterling, 1996).
Commonly, they seek entertainment, social or restorative experiences as well
as, or in preference to, a learning experience. This study examines this
apparent conflict using a theoretical framework derived from theories of
motivation.
1.2 Theoretical Framework
In examining motivational factors and the experience of learning in leisure
settings, I have used a model which draws on both Ford’s (1992)
3
Motivational Systems Theory and Maehr and Braskamp’s (1986) Theory of
Personal Investment. Ford sees motivation as “the organized patterning of
personal goals, emotional arousal processes, and personal agency beliefs” (p.
78). These three sets of factors work together to direct and energise
competent functioning. Maehr and Braskamp also see motivation in terms of
three inter-related facets: personal incentives, thoughts about self, and
options perceived to be available. These two theories have in common a
focus on interacting components in their representation of motivational
factors. Further, there is considerable overlap between the former’s personal
goals and the latter’s personal incentives; between the former’s personal
agency beliefs and the latter’s beliefs about self and environmental options.
They differ, however, in their emphasis on the personal (Ford) and
situational (Maehr and Braskamp) aspects of motivation. Because both of
these aspects are vital in understanding visitors’ experiences of learning in
leisure settings, I have used a synthesis of these models as a framework to
guide this research. Motivational factors are considered in terms of four
components - personal goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs and
situational incentives.
It should be noted that whereas motivational factors are defined and
structured according to this theoretically determined model, the experience
of learning is only loosely defined and structured in the present research to
enable visitors’ perspectives on the experience of learning in leisure settings
to emerge. There are a number of reasons for proceeding in this manner.
First, the psychological concept of motivation has been explored in great
depth, both theoretically and empirically, over many years. Ford’s theory in
particular seeks to provide a “theoretical umbrella” (1992, p. 172) under
which much of the preceding work can be integrated. I have chosen to use
this well-established theoretical framework to ensure that all relevant aspects
of motivation are covered in the research.
4
Our understanding of the nature of learning in leisure settings, by contrast, is
not so well-established. It is only very recently that a comprehensive
theoretical model of museum learning (Falk and Dierking, 2000) has
emerged, which draws together concepts from a variety of research fields.
The usefulness of this model has not yet been thoroughly tested in the
museum contexts in which it was developed, and the extent to which it
might be generalisable to non-museum contexts has not been explored. This
study will contribute to such theoretical development by exploring learning
in leisure settings from the visitors’ perspective.
Another reason for focussing on visitors’ perceptions of learning processes
and outcomes, rather than objective measures such as knowledge gains or
attitude and behaviour changes is the difficulty of defining the desired
outcomes of an educational leisure experience. Visitors to educational
leisure settings “buy” or “consume” an experience – the experience itself
often being the desired outcome or product sought (Beeho & Prentice, 1997;
Moscardo & Pearce, 1986; Prentice, 1993b). The experience of learning may
be accompanied by benefits such as enjoyment, self-esteem or impressing
others, regardless of whether the knowledge or skill is retained or
subsequently used (Tough, 1979). This research, then, explores visitors’
thoughts, feelings and motivations regarding learning in leisure settings,
rather than measuring learning against pre-defined or theoretically
determined standards.
1.3 Research Aim and Approach
The general aim of this study is to investigate the impact of motivational
factors on the experience of learning in leisure settings, using a theoretical
framework drawn from the study of motivation. Specifically, the objectives
are to:
5
1. ascertain the importance of different types of learning experiences to
visitors in a range of educational leisure settings;
2. identify the extent to which motivations for learning vary across sites
and visitor groups;
3. investigate the relationships between the educational, entertainment,
social and restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience; and
4. examine the impact of motivational factors (personal goals, capability
beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives) on visitors’
experience of learning in leisure settings.
The variable sets considered are portrayed graphically in Figure 1.1. The
relationships within and between three sets of variables are addressed:
motivational factors (defined in terms of both personal and situational
components), indicators of motivation (defined in terms of the selective
direction, energisation and regulation of behaviour) and visitor outcomes
(defined in terms of visitors’ experience of learning, the relationships
between the educational, entertainment, social and restorative aspects of
their experience, and their satisfaction with the experience). This framework
is discussed in greater detail in Section 2.2.4.
Both quantitative and qualitative research methods have been employed to
provide complementary perspectives on the research questions. This
combination of methods enables the research questions to be addressed with
both breadth and depth and allows each to compensate for the limitations of
the other. A quantitative study was conducted first (Stage 1), obtaining
questionnaire data from visitors to six different educational leisure sites. A
qualitative study (Stage 2) was conducted approximately 12 months later,
involving interviews with a different group of visitors to three of the six sites.
Capability beliefs
Context beliefs
Situational incentives
Personal goals
MOTIVATIONAL
FACTORS
Situ
atio
nal
Pe
rson
al
INDICATORS OF
MOTIVATION
VISITOR
OUTCOMES
Filtered through
personal perceptions
Dependent on
situational referents
Direction
Selection of
learning options
Energisation
Investment of
mental effort
Regulation
Persistence in learning
Visitor experience
Educational
Entertainment
Social
Restorative
Visitor
satisfaction
Figu
re 1
.1. T
heor
etic
al fr
amew
ork
of v
aria
ble
sets
add
ress
ed in
the
stud
y
7
1.4 Significance of the Study
This research contributes to theoretical advancement in the field and
provides a basis for the design of more effective educational leisure
experiences in a range of settings. In particular:
• By providing evidence regarding the meaning and importance of
learning to visitors, the research supports and reinforces the need for
further development of the educational component of leisure
experiences.
• By exploring variations in motivations for learning across sites and
visitor groups, the research contributes to the development and
application of theoretical principles for learning in both museum and
non-museum settings.
• By highlighting the relationships between educational and other
aspects of visitors’ experience the research informs the development
of educational experiences that more adequately meet visitors’
multiple needs.
• By investigating the motivational processes that impact on the
learning experience, the research enables the development of visitor
experiences which encourage and facilitate learning, even when
learning is not the visitor’s primary goal.
These contributions to the development of educational leisure experiences
will, in turn, enrich visitors’ leisure experiences and encourage visitors to
broaden their knowledge and understanding of the world and their place in
it.
[M]useums would probably be even more effective if staff better
understood the nature of learning, the reasons people seek out
and use museums as places for personal learning, and how
8
contextual factors can be used to facilitate learning. (Falk &
Dierking, 2000, p. 177)
1.5 Outline of this Thesis
Chapter Two consists of a comprehensive literature review in three parts,
which address:
1. the nature of learning in leisure settings;
2. theoretical approaches to an understanding of motivation; and
3. the impact of motivational factors on the experience of learning in
leisure settings.
Chapter Three contains a detailed description of and rationale for the method
used in addressing the research aims. This chapter describes the
development and refinement of the Stage 1 questionnaire through pilot
testing, and presents reliability and validity data from the Stage 1 study.
In Chapter Four, the results of the Stage 1 study are presented and discussed
in relation to each of the four research objectives. The results are interpreted
in the light of relevant prior research and theory.
Chapter Five presents and discusses the results of the Stage 2 study. The
qualitative data are interpreted in relation to prior research and theory and
the analysis is illustrated with excerpts from visitor interviews.
In Chapter Six, the major findings from Stage 1 and Stage 2 are drawn
together, in relation to the four research objectives. The ways in which these
findings contribute to and extend the theoretical foundations for the study of
learning in leisure settings are discussed, the limitations of the research
noted, and implications for further research presented.
9
Five Appendices are provided:
• Appendix A The Stage 1 questionnaire;
• Appendix B Descriptive statistics for each of the
questionnaire subscales;
• Appendix C The Stage 2 questionnaire;
• Appendix D Complete interview transcripts; and
• Appendix E Pilot study factor analysis results.
10
CHAPTER 2: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
As societies change from industrially-based to knowledge-based economies,
lifelong and free-choice learning are gaining more and more attention (Falk
& Dierking, 2000, 2002). Leisure settings provide an increasingly important
medium through which people can acquire information, develop ideas and
construct new visions for themselves and their society:
For many people, the information they encounter while at leisure
may offer the only opportunity to learn about their bonds to the
environment, or to their history and culture.
(Moscardo, 1998. p. 4)
However, it cannot be assumed that visitors to leisure settings have actually
come to learn something. Even in museum settings, which have long been
considered “educational institutions” (Anderson, 1997a), it has been
suggested that, “a large percentage of visitors are there to ‘kill time’, to be
entertained, to satisfy curiosity, or to ‘people watch’” (Koran & Koran, 1986,
p.12). More recent entrants to the educational leisure market deliberately
cater to their visitors’ entertainment motives, while attempting to maintain
an educative value:
Visitors go to places like Epcot or Disneyland primarily for
entertainment. The design of exhibits in this style of theme park is
such that, incidentally, the visitor learns a great deal of
information about a range of issues, including social and political
history, technological developments, agriculture, wildlife,
evolution, conservation, cultural diversity, and futuristic
possibilities. The Walt Disney company uses the term
“imagineering” to describe what it is attempting to achieve with
its exhibits, and, while the goal may sound fanciful, it parallels
11
what many museum exhibit designers try to achieve. (Hedge,
1995, p. 106-107)
Such is the paradox of learning in leisure settings. Public education is seen as
an important reason for the existence of museums, zoos, wildlife centres, and
natural and cultural heritage sites, and is a major component of the
experience offered to visitors. Yet the very nature of the setting implies that
learning is rarely the primary motive for the visit and many visitors come
with no deliberate intention to learn. If educational leisure settings are to
provide an effective education experience for their visitors, it is necessary to
develop an understanding of the ways in which motivational factors might
impact on their visitors’ experience of learning.
In the review which follows, this issue is examined from a number of
different theoretical perspectives, drawing from a range of disciplines
including education, psychology, museum studies, leisure studies and
tourism.
• Part One focuses on learning in leisure settings. The concept of informal
or free-choice learning is introduced and the use of the term educational
leisure is explained. The characteristics of learning in leisure settings
are explored and the differences and similarities in relation to formal
learning settings discussed. A number of different theoretical
approaches to learning in leisure settings are reviewed, leading to a
richer understanding of the importance of motivational factors in
these settings.
• In Part Two, the concept of motivation is defined and reviewed and
various theoretical approaches are summarised. A synthesis of the
major approaches provides a theoretical framework to support and
guide the present research. Finally, the role of motivation in learning
12
is explored and problems of motivation in both formal and informal
learning settings are identified.
• Part Three reviews theory and research in leisure motivation and
applies the theoretical framework developed in Part Two to a
discussion of motivational factors and the experience of learning in
leisure settings. The tensions between learning and leisure, and the
complementarity of education and entertainment, provide the
stimulus for several research questions that are explored in this thesis.
Finally, the various conclusions of, and questions arising from, the review
are summarised, leading to a restatement of the aims of the present research.
13
PART ONE: LEARNING IN LEISURE SETTINGS
2.1.1 Introduction to Part One
Learning is a means to a potentially better future, both for the individual and
for society, as the major problems of society cannot be solved without
changing people (Tough, 1979). Life-transforming learning experiences may
be evoked by a range of activities, including reading a book or poem,
engaging in discussion, watching television, experiencing a painting,
travelling, observing, reflecting, and doing (Mezirow, 1990; Tough, 1979).
Anderson (1997a; 1997b), observing the rapid growth in the learning needs of
Western society, has predicted that education will become a major industry
for developed countries in the twenty-first century and that the formal
education sector alone will not be adequate to meet these needs. Learning in
informal or leisure settings will thus have an increasingly important role to
play in society.
Some theorists have attempted to classify different types of learning, usually
in terms of the amount or type of structure, intentionality and control
involved (Gunn, 1987; Sargant, 1991). Formal learning is structured and
controlled by teachers and curricula, regulated by assessment and grading
systems that certify mastery of specific knowledge, and engaged in by
learners with the deliberate intention to learn (or at least to attain some
qualification or standard) (Gunn, 1987). Informal (incidental) learning is
unstructured, unsystematic, and occurs incidentally or unintentionally
through exposure to one’s environment and day-to-day experiences (Coombs
cited in Sargant, 1991). Between these two extremes are non-formal
learning, such as a community education class, which is similar to formal
learning in its structure and intentionality, but is not usually regulated by
curricula and grading systems; and informal (media-based) learning which
14
is similar to informal learning in that learning occurs incidentally or
unintentionally, but differs in that it does have a degree of structure imposed
by its author (Gunn, 1987; Rogers, 1997)1.
Learning in leisure settings is usually considered as a type of informal
(media-based) learning. However, it may at times overlap with formal
learning (e.g., when school students visit a museum or heritage site on a class
excursion) or non-formal learning (e.g., when structured education
programmes are offered to the general public). Falk and Dierking (2000) use
the term free-choice learning to refer to this type of learning, which is self-
directed, voluntary, and guided by a person’s needs and interests. Falk and
Dierking suggest that learning does “functionally differ” depending on the
conditions under which it occurs (2000, p. 136), thus learning in museums is
different from learning in any other setting.
Free-choice learning is the most common type of learning that
people engage in… Free-choice learning is so common that we
have taken it for granted, despite its being as vital as learning in
school and the workplace.
(Institute for Learning Innovation, 2002)
For the purposes of this research then, the focus of attention will be on
learning in informal or leisure settings. The term “informal learning setting”
has often been used in the literature to refer to places people go in their
leisure time, which offer some form of free-choice educational experience
(Falk, Dierking, & Holland, 1995b). Instead of this term, however, I have
elected to use the term educational leisure setting as I believe it describes more
1 It should be noted that there is some variation among the classifications proposed by Coombs, Gunn and Rogers. The classification described here is a compilation of a number of sources and does not correspond directly with any one of these authors’ systems, although it is closer to Gunn’s and Coombs’ than to Rogers’.
15
accurately the way such settings are perceived by the visiting public, with
the emphasis on leisure rather than on learning.2 The complex relationship
between learning and leisure is discussed in greater detail in Section 2.3.6
below and is a major focus of this research.
The following sections will examine the nature of educational leisure
settings, the ways in which they differ from formal learning settings, and the
development of theory in relation to learning in such settings.
2.1.2 The Nature of Educational Leisure Settings
Educational leisure settings are many and varied. They include, for example,
art, history and natural history museums, botanical gardens, nature centres,
national parks, science centres, zoos, aquaria, historic houses, historic
reconstructions, and heritage and archaeological sites. Probably the best-
known and most researched of these settings is the museum. In fact, the
term museum has at times been used generically to include all of the above
(Falk & Dierking, 1995; Hooper-Greenhill, 1999a), and these different settings
are seen to have much in common (Falk, Dierking, & Holland, 1995a). The
International Council of Museums defines a museum as “a non-profit-
making, permanent institution in the service of society and its development,
and open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates
and exhibits, for purposes of study, education and enjoyment, material
evidence of people and their environment” (Anderson, 1997a, p. xii). With
the exception of the phrase “non-profit-making”, this definition could indeed
include a wide range of educational leisure settings.
2 It is recognised that leisure activities vary enormously in the extent to which they explicitly incorporate an educational component. For the purposes of this thesis, only those settings in which visitor learning (in the broad sense defined in Section 2.1.3 below) is considered to be part of the setting’s mission are included. Where learning considerations are already implied within the text, the term “leisure setting” will be used to avoid repetition.
16
In recent years there has been a renewed awareness of the contribution that
museums and other educational leisure settings can make to lifelong public
learning (Anderson, 1997a; Downs, 1995; Edward, 1995; Falk & Dierking,
1992; Falk et al., 1995a; Hooper-Greenhill, 1999a; Moscardo, 1998; Schauble et
al.,1996; Weiler & Ham, 2000). Consequently, education has become a major
component of the experience offered to visitors as well as a major
justification in the competition for public funding (Bown, 1995; Cassels, 1992;
Hein, 1998; Moscardo & Pearce, 1986). A growing emphasis on
professionalism, accountability and customer service has also contributed to
making education a serious and central function in museums and other
leisure settings (Roberts, 1997).
Traditional museums, as the archetypal example of an educational leisure
setting, have a number of distinguishing characteristics that are true to
varying degrees of other leisure settings:
• The setting provides direct experience with real objects, people or
places (Falk, Dierking, & Holland, 1995c; Hooper-Greenhill, 1995);
• Learning is voluntary (Falk et al., 1995c);
• Learning is stimulated by the needs and interests of the learner
(Hooper-Greenhill, 1995);
• Visitors come alone, in small or family groups of mixed sexes, ages
and subject expertise with very diverse learning styles and prior
learning experiences (Anderson, 1995); and
• Learning is often socially mediated (Falk et al., 1995c).
As a result of these characteristics, the opportunities for learning offered in
leisure settings differ from, and complement, the learning provided by the
formal education sector (Anderson, 1997a).
17
2.1.3 How Learning in Leisure Settings Differs From Learning
in Formal Settings
The goals and purposes of educational leisure settings tend to be broader than
those commonly emphasised in formal learning settings such as schools
(Schauble et al., 1996). The desired learning outcomes are not limited to
acquiring new information or concepts, but extend also to encouraging
curiosity and exploration, changing attitudes, evoking feelings and
developing a sense of personal, cultural and community identity (Anderson,
1997a; Falk & Dierking, 1995; Falk et al., 1995c; Hein & Alexander, 1998;
Paris, 1997b; Roschelle, 1995; Schauble et al., 1996; Schauble, Leinhardt, &
Martin, 1997). Thus in leisure settings, the affective and cognitive aspects of
learning are seen to be closely intertwined (Falk & Dierking, 2000; Schauble
et al., 1996). Many educational leisure settings, including those that are
profit-based, have incorporated into their mission the development of
visitors’ cultural literacy (Anderson, 1997a; Falk et al., 1995a; Hein, 1998), the
promotion of an environmentally sustainable future (Ballantyne, 1998), and
public education about moral and ethical issues (Uzzell, 1998). In so doing,
these settings aim to enhance the quality of life, both of their visitors and of
society as a whole.
Educational leisure settings also differ from formal learning settings in terms
of the way instructional processes are structured. Formal learning settings are
often characterised by prescribed roles, the teacher’s role being to define the
content, sequencing and assessment of instruction, and the learner’s role
being to attend classes and complete the work set by the teacher. In
educational leisure settings, there are usually no such prescribed roles, no
classes, no time constraints and no assessment requirements. Learning is
completely voluntary and self-motivated (Koran & Longino, 1982). Because
participation is voluntary, educational elements must often be embedded
18
within other agendas, such as social contact, enjoyment and entertainment
(Schauble et al., 1996).
Educational leisure settings have the potential to provide a more learner-
centred experience which involves exploring and examining, making choices,
making personal connections, developing one’s own way of understanding,
and controlling one’s own learning environment (Meadows, 1997; Paris,
1997b; Schauble et al., 1996). Learning in leisure settings often involves direct
experience with objects, thus allowing for learning through the senses,
especially sight, hearing and touch (Anderson, 1997a), and enabling abstract
concepts to be grounded and contextualised (Hooper-Greenhill, 1999b).
Learning in leisure settings is not without its difficulties, however. Unlike in
formal learning settings, visitors rarely receive any advance preparation for
learning or undertake any follow-up work, their time at the site may be
limited and they often spend only a few seconds at particular exhibits
(Ballantyne & Uzzell, 1994). Furthermore, learning is often not visitors’
primary intention, and in some cases may not be a priority at all (Ballantyne,
Packer, & Beckmann, 1998; Mitchell, 1997b; Mitchell, 1998; Schauble et al.,
1996). For many people, learning is, at best, an “added extra” (Hedge, 1995).
These factors act, therefore, to limit the learning potential inherent in leisure
settings, and to reinforce the need for attention to motivational aspects.
2.1.4 Theories of Learning in Leisure Settings
Research and theory regarding learning in leisure settings tends to be
fragmented across a number of discipline areas, thus limiting the potential
for practice to be guided by a coherent theory. The field of museum studies,
for example, encompasses learning in science museums, history museums
and art galleries, all of which have different learning goals and methods.
Learning in recreational settings such as national parks, heritage sites and
commercial tourist attractions is usually considered within the framework of
19
interpretation, which draws from both education and tourism theory. These
two fields – museum studies and interpretation – have much in common and
could be considerably enriched by a greater level of integration than is
presently evident. In order for our understanding of learning in leisure
settings to progress, it is thus necessary to build an integrated theoretical
foundation which incorporates research and theory from both museum and
non-museum settings.
In this section, I will firstly consider theories of learning developed in the
context of general education research3. I will then explore a number of
different theoretical approaches to museum learning and interpretation, and
will highlight the importance of motivational factors in understanding
learning in leisure settings. It is anticipated that the study of motivational
factors will make an important contribution to a theoretical foundation that
is relevant to both museum and non-museum contexts.
General theories of learning
Greeno, Collins and Resnick (1996), in their review of the concepts of
cognition and learning, suggest that three general perspectives have
contributed to theoretical understanding in this domain: the behaviourist, the
cognitive and the situative perspective. These three perspectives have
different implications for the way in which learning environments are
designed.
3 I have used the term “learning” throughout this document to cover a variety of meanings, ranging from the naïve conceptions and expectations of the visiting public, to formal theories based on research in educational psychology. The term is also used to refer to aspects of both process and outcome. Although it is necessary to review theoretical understandings of “learning” and its relationship to motivational factors in order to provide a solid foundation and reference point for the present research, it should be borne in mind that the major focus of this study is on the visitors’ experience of learning. This study will thus explore what learning means to visitors in the context of educational leisure settings, what outcomes, if any, they value, and the ways in which their understandings reflect those espoused by theorists.
20
In the behaviourist view, learning is a process of forming, strengthening and
adjusting associations between ideas or stimuli and responses. The
behaviourist perspective emphasises the transmission of organised
information and procedural knowledge. Learning environments are
designed to provide opportunities for active practice, feedback and
reinforcement of correct responses.
From the cognitive perspective, learning is a process of constructing
conceptual and cognitive structures. This perspective emphasises conceptual
understanding and intellectual activity. Learning environments are designed
to provide opportunities to interact with manipulative materials and to
discuss the meanings of these manipulations.
The situative perspective views learning as a process of enculturation
through interaction with material and social systems. This perspective
emphasises the importance of the contextual and social aspects of learning.
Learning environments are designed to provide authentic activities and
learning communities that foster thinking and problem-solving skills
(Putnam & Borko, 2000).
Evidence of each of these approaches to learning may be found in
educational leisure settings, and in theoretical discussions of how learning
experiences in leisure settings should be designed and evaluated (Ballantyne,
1998; Dierking, 1998; Ham & Krumpe, 1996; Uzzell, 1993). The following
discussion illustrates how these theories of learning, together with theoretical
approaches from other fields, have been applied in the context of museum
and interpretive settings.
Museum learning
Perceptions of the role and nature of museum learning have changed over
recent years, from conveying factual information to enabling visitors to
21
construct personally relevant meanings (Hooper-Greenhill, 1999b); from
emphasising the cognitive aspects of learning to recognising the importance
of the affective (Bicknell & Farmelo, 1993) and social (Dierking, 1998)
domains; and from a focus on objects and artefacts to a focus on the
consumer (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998; Nuttall, 2001). These changes, which
reflect trends in general learning theories, have had a marked impact on the
way museum exhibits are designed and presented. Although museum
learning continues to focus predominantly on first-hand experience with real
objects (Anderson, 1997a), these objects are no longer crowded into “long
halls full of dusty cases” (Jeffery-Clay, 1997, p. 3), but are now used to tell a
story, ground abstract concepts, arouse curiosity and enable social learning
(Bown, 1995; Hooper-Greenhill, 1999a, 1999b; Jeffery-Clay, 1997). Visitors
are thus engaged in meaning-making rather than meaning-taking (Uzzell, 1998).
Unlike their predecessors, today’s museums recognise the importance of
allowing visitors to actively participate with exhibits. This, combined with
opportunities for social interaction, contemplation, inquiry and challenge,
suggests that museums have the potential to provide an ideal constructivist
learning environment (Hein, 1996; Jeffery-Clay, 1997; Roschelle, 1995; Wood,
1995). The extent to which visitors are motivated to take advantage of these
conditions is still a matter for debate, however (Treinen, 1993; Uzzell, 1992).
Falk and Dierking (2000) have recently provided a comprehensive overview
of research and theory in the area of museum learning. They propose the
Contextual Model of Learning as a theoretical framework for understanding
museum learning. According to this model (Figure 2.1), learning is seen as a
dialogue between the individual and his or her environment through time.
Falk and Dierking identify three overlapping contexts, within which learning
is situated – the personal, sociocultural and physical contexts. Stated simply,
learning begins with the individual, involves others, and takes place
somewhere. Learning is seen as the process and product of the interactions
between these three contexts, over time, in order to make meaning.
22
Figure 2.1 The Contextual Model of Learning (Falk & Dierking, 2000).
While much attention has been given to the physical context of the museum
experience (how exhibits and physical spaces are designed and presented),
the shift towards cognitive and situative views of learning has stimulated
greater interest in the personal contexts (the visitor’s prior knowledge and
experience, motivation and interests) and the sociocultural contexts of
learning (the importance of opportunities to test and exchange ideas,
information and opinions with others) (Hooper-Greenhill, 1999a; Wood,
1995). This thesis will focus on the personal context of learning, and in
particular, motivational factors, although as indicated in Part Two of this
chapter, motivation is viewed from a “situated” perspective that
acknowledges the importance of the physical and social context.
23
Interpretation
While the field of museum learning has grown out of the perceived need to
preserve and communicate cultural heritage, usually for the benefit of the
local community to which the museum belongs, the field of interpretation
has grown out of the perceived need to conserve and manage natural
heritage, and to enhance the experience of visitors and tourists. Despite
these different beginnings, however, the two fields share much common
ground.
The Society for the Interpretation of Britain’s Heritage (1998) defines
interpretation as “the process of explaining to people the significance of the
place or object they have come to see, so that they enjoy their visit more,
understand their heritage and environment better, and develop a more
caring attitude towards conservation” (p. 27). It is interesting that this
definition of interpretation gives primacy to visitor enjoyment, a concept that
is mentioned, but rarely emphasised, in the museum learning literature. The
concern with the entertainment function of interpretation probably reflects
the influence of the tourism and recreation context within which
interpretation has arisen. Indeed, in many tourism and recreation settings,
interpretation is a critical component of visitor experience, if not the
experience itself (Hall, Mitchell, Springett, & Springett, 1992; Moscardo,
1999).
As well as its education and entertainment functions, interpretation can also
contribute to public relations and people management (Moscardo, 1991, 1999;
Turner, 1991). Interpretation is vital to the rapidly growing ecotourism
industry, as well as other forms of sustainable tourism, because it involves
educating tourists about the consequences of their actions and encouraging
them to engage in sustainable behaviours (Moscardo, 1996). The role of
interpretation in encouraging visitors to question their values, attitudes and
actions regarding contentious issues has also been explored (Ballantyne &
24
Uzzell, 1993; Uzzell, 1998; Uzzell & Ballantyne, 1998b). In this regard,
interpreters have been urged to consider themselves active agents of change
rather than passive transmitters of information or values (Uzzell, 1998).
As in the field of museum learning, the theory and practice of interpretation
have changed over recent years, in response to new emphases in theories of
learning, as well as the influence of the market-driven tourism industry.
Thus attention has shifted from the resources to be managed and interpreted
to the needs of visitors (Uzzell, 1989b), from interpreting objects to visitors to
empowering visitors to make their own interpretations (Roberts, 1993).
Although the methods of interpretation are many and varied, including
guided tours, signage, exhibits and demonstrations (Heimlich, Diem, &
Farrell, 1996), certain key principles have been developed for professional
practice. These commenced with Tilden’s (1957) principles and have most
recently been refined by Ham and Weiler (Ham, 1992; Weiler & Ham, 2000).
According to these authors, interpretation should be concerned with
imparting a deep overriding notion of “the importance of it all” rather than
specific subject knowledge; be enjoyable; connect with something personally
important or significant; be well organised; and have a theme.
Recently, leaders in the field have called for more serious attention to
developing a theoretical underpinning for interpretive practice (Ballantyne &
Uzzell, 1999; Moscardo, 1988; Uzzell, 1998). Some of the areas in which
relevant theory has been developed, are communication theory (Ham, 1992),
socio-cognitive conflict theory (Uzzell, 1992, 1998), constructivist learning
theory (Ballantyne, 1998; Ballantyne & Uzzell, 1999) and mindfulness
(Moscardo, 1988; Moscardo, 1996; Moscardo, 1999). Other theoretical issues,
such as attitude and behaviour change, a theory of place and place identity,
and gender issues are alluded to by Ballantyne and Uzzell (1999) and
incorporated in their edited volume on contemporary issues in heritage and
environmental interpretation (Uzzell & Ballantyne, 1998a).
25
Communication theory
Ham’s (1992) manual on environmental interpretation, although a very
practical guide to the hows of the craft, also devotes considerable attention to
the rationale of why particular communication techniques work, primarily
from the perspective of cognitive psychology. Ham considers that the goal of
interpretation is to communicate a message, and to do it in a way that is
entertaining and interesting. Because visitors to educational leisure settings
are usually a “non-captive” audience, interpreters must rely on motivators
such as interest and entertainment value to attract and hold their attention.
Thus the “interpretive approach” to communication is characterised as
pleasurable (entertaining and fun); relevant (connecting with prior
knowledge and personal values); organised (easy to follow); and thematic
(communicating a message).
Socio-cognitive conflict theory
Visiting an interpretive site is a social experience for most people (Dierking,
1998; Falk & Dierking, 2000; Uzzell, 1998). Social interaction can contribute to
learning by opening up different perspectives, providing a model for
learning, providing opportunities to test and exchange ideas, information
and opinions, and motivating learning through obligation to the group (Paris
& Turner, 1994; Paris, 1997b; Wood, 1995). In particular, Uzzell (1992; 1993)
and Blud (1990) argue that learning results from the coordination and
resolution of cognitive conflicts between individuals, and thus interpretation
that is designed to encourage social interaction will be more effective than
that relying on individual cognition alone. Similarly, Falk and Dierking
(Dierking, 1998; Falk & Dierking, 2000) stress the role of sociocultural
mediation in personal meaning-making. Such mediation is not restricted to
interactions between visitors, but may include the interaction between the
visitor and the exhibit designer, by means of communication media.
26
Constructivist learning theory
Ballantyne (1998) discusses the application of constructivist learning theory
to environmental interpretation. He suggests that interpreters need to
consider visitors’ prior learning, the possible inconsistencies within their
environmental conceptions, and the potential misconceptions they may hold.
Interpretive strategies can then be designed which challenge these
conceptions, help visitors become aware of the inconsistencies within and
consequences of their conceptions, as well as the relative merits of alternative
conceptions (Ballantyne & Packer, 1996). When a range of different
perspectives or viewpoints is presented in this way, visitors can assume
greater control over their own learning, thus increasing intrinsic motivation
to explore and learn more (Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995).
Mindfulness
Moscardo (1988) proposes a cognitive model of visitor responses in
interpretive settings based on the concept of mindfulness and mindlessness
(Langer, 1989). Langer cites research which demonstrates that many
ostensibly “intelligent” activities, such as reading and writing, can be done
quite automatically, without thinking. She uses the common expression
“when the light’s on and nobody’s home” (p. 9) to characterise this state of
mindlessness. Moscardo applies this concept to educational leisure settings,
arguing that many visitors are mindless or mentally passive in their response
to interpretive materials. They act out behavioural routines with little
questioning or processing of new information. Mindful visitors, by contrast,
pay attention to their environment, react to new information, create new
ways of seeing the world, and new routines or scripts for behaviour. The
extent to which visitors are mindful is a function of both communication
factors (features of the interpretation offered, e.g., novelty, variety, visitor
control and involvement) and visitor factors (things that visitors bring with
them, e.g., knowledge, interests, motives and social group). Mindful visitors
27
enjoy their visit more, express greater satisfaction, learn more, and are more
interested in exploring a topic or place (Moscardo, 1999).
A similar concept to Moscardo’s mindlessness is Treinen’s (1993) “active
dozing” which is the term he uses for the relatively planless and purposeless
activity common to mass communication situations. He extends the concept,
however, to include the idea that people actively search for pleasant but
purposeless mental stimulation, which quickly wears out and must be
continuously replaced in order to maintain the desired state of excitement.
The majority of museum visitors, Treinen maintains, are driven more by
curiosity and the desire for amusement than by a serious interest in the
subject or the desire to educate themselves. Thus visitors to educational
leisure settings may behave like television viewers who constantly switch
channels in search of some new but fleeting stimulation. This phenomenon
is not conducive to mindful learning which is purposeful, effort demanding
and time consuming (Berry, 1997; Salomon, 1983; Snow & Jackson, 1994).
Implications for research
The three theoretical perspectives on learning that have emerged from
general education research - behaviourist, cognitive and situative – have each
had implications for the way learning experiences in leisure settings have
been designed and evaluated. Early research in this area was undertaken
from a behaviourist perspective on learning and focused on aspects of
exhibits or experiences that increased their “attracting” and “holding”
power. Learning outcomes were concerned simply with recall of factual
information. More recently, the cognitive perspective has come to the fore,
stimulating research into the way visitors perceive and cognitively interact
with exhibits. Attempts have been made to measure learning outcomes in
terms of changes to cognitive schemata and conceptual understanding (Lee
& Uzzell, 1980). The beginnings of research from the situative perspective
can be seen in work on socio-cognitive conflict and the social mediation of
28
learning. Falk and Dierking’s (2000) Contextual Model of Learning is
consistent with a situative approach because of the importance placed on
contextual factors. Learning from this perspective is seen not only as an
outcome or product, but as a continuous process of developing and
elaborating understanding over time.
In most research, both in formal and leisure settings, the theoretical stance
taken with regard to learning determines the types of learning outcomes that
are considered appropriate or desirable. Leisure settings differ from formal
settings, however, in that learning experiences are not usually imposed or
regulated by educators, but rather must be willingly and voluntarily
embraced by visitors. In leisure settings, therefore, visitors’ perspectives
regarding what is appropriate or desirable are paramount. Accordingly, this
study will not impose a particular view of learning or set pre-determined
standards for the types of learning outcomes expected, but rather will seek to
elicit visitors’ perspectives regarding the experience of learning in leisure
settings and the learning outcomes they desire or value.
The theoretical approaches to learning in museums and interpretive settings
outlined above share a common emphasis on the need to stimulate visitors’
motivation to learn, whether it is through active participation, social
interaction, conceptual conflict and challenge, or interest and enjoyment.
This is the challenge inherent in educational leisure settings. On the one
hand, education is seen as a major component of the experience offered to
visitors as well as a vital aspect in the justification and competition for public
funding. On the other hand, the very nature of the setting implies that
education is not necessarily the primary motive for the visit, and the
motivation to learn must be elicited by aspects of the situation itself.
In the following section, the concept of motivation will be examined and its
importance for learning in both formal and informal settings discussed.
29
PART TWO: MOTIVATION
2.2.1 Introduction to Part Two
Researchers in the field of education have long recognised the importance of
motivation. As early as 1806, Herbart recognised the close relationship
between interest and learning (Herbart, 1965) and again in 1913, Dewey
highlighted the importance of interest as a motivating force in learning
(Dewey, 1913). Although the concept was somewhat overshadowed during
the periods in the history of psychology and education when behaviourism
and cognitive science held the limelight, more recently theorists have
acknowledged that a comprehensive theory of learning should incorporate
motivational aspects (Boekaerts & Nenniger, 1999; Hidi, 1990).
Motivation has played a particularly important role in the area of adult
learning or andragogy (Knowles, 1984), and is considered one of the
cornerstones of the andragogical model. Because most adult learning arises
from the personal, practical needs of everyday life (Tough, 1979), the kinds of
learning in which adults engage are a function of their goals and interests
(Boud, 1987). These may involve solving a problem, improving their
position in life, or enhancing their quality of life and leisure (Wlodkowski,
1993).
Despite its importance, the complexity of the concept of motivation has
hindered the development of “a model of student learning that integrates the
cognitive, metacognitive and motivational aspects of learning” (Boekaerts &
Nenniger, 1999, p. 7). The term motivation has been used, for example, to
refer to “a variety of interrelated cognitions and affects, including
expectations, goal orientation, perception of control, interest, self-concept of
ability, and intentions” (Boekaerts & Nenniger, 1999, p. 3). According to
30
Ford (1987), the concept of motivation has become so inclusive that its utility
is severely limited. Maehr (1984) avoids the term altogether, preferring
“personal investment” instead. The following sections will review several
theoretical approaches to motivation and develop a framework to guide and
support the present research.
2.2.2 What is Motivation?
motive a factor or circumstance that induces a person to act in a
particular way
motivate supply a motive to; be the motive of
cause (a person) to act in a particular way
stimulate the interest of (a person in an activity)
(Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 1996)
Although the dictionary definition of motivation appears simple, theoretical
analysis of the concept has revealed a range of meanings. Consider, for
example, the notion that motivation implies some sort of movement or
action. Motivation theorists have developed and refined this notion such
that at least three different aspects of movement or action can be specified
(Ford, 1992; Locke & Latham, 1994; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993). Thus
motivation is seen to impact on:
• the selective direction of behaviour (Why is one behaviour chosen over
another? What is the purpose of the behaviour?);
• the selective energisation of behaviour (How much effort is devoted to
the behaviour?); and
• the selective regulation of behaviour (Should a particular behaviour be
maintained, altered or terminated?)
Many theoretically-based definitions of motivation attempt to incorporate
these three aspects. For example:
31
• “a motive is any condition within a person that affects that person’s
readiness to initiate or continue an activity” (Wlodkowski, 1993, p. 2).
• “qualitatively, motivation directs the individual toward selecting
activities that will accomplish goals and/or satisfy interests;
quantitatively, motivation serves an energising function, providing
the effort and persistence needed to accomplish a goal or pursue an
interest” (Voss & Schauble, 1992, p. 104).
For the sake of clarity, however, some theorists prefer to separate these
functions by assigning a different concept label to each. For example:
• “motivation is defined as the organized patterning of three
psychological functions that serve to direct, energize, and regulate
goal-directed activity: personal goals, emotional arousal processes,
and personal agency beliefs” (Ford, 1992, p3).4
The dictionary definition of motivation also implies the concept of causation
- something that induces, causes or stimulates a particular behaviour. Again,
theoretical analysis has revealed the complexity of this idea. Causation may
lie in an individual’s biological needs and drives; affinities and aversions
acquired in the past; interest and enjoyment experienced in the present;
conscious intentions regarding the future; or, of course, a combination of
these factors (Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993; Parkinson & Colman,
1995). Thus the concept of motivation incorporates cognitive, affective,
behavioural and biological aspects. Further, motivation cannot simply be
regarded as an individual characteristic but must be defined and understood
in terms of the interaction between the person and the situational context,
where personal interpretations and subjective appraisals of environmental
4 This definition will be considered in greater detail in Section 2.2.4 below.
32
conditions play a mediating role (Boekarts, 2001; Paris & Turner, 1994; Volet,
2001).
Although defined simply as the “underlying why” of behaviour (Vallerand
et al., 1992), the concept of motivation has presented a monumental challenge
to theorists and researchers. The task of understanding the reasons
underlying human behaviour is clearly far from simple. Yet such an
understanding is vital, not only in education but in all fields of human
endeavour. As Ford (1992) suggests, motivation on the one hand “provides
the psychological foundation for the development of human competence in
everyday life” (p. 16) and on the other “is at the heart of many of society’s
most pervasive and enduring problems” (p. 201). In the following section,
some theoretical approaches to understanding human motivation are
reviewed.
2.2.3 Overview of Theoretical Approaches to Motivation
It has been estimated that there are over twenty internationally recognised
theories of motivation, many of which present opposing points of view
(Wlodkowski, 1993). Ford (1992) presents a summary of the major
information and ideas represented in these different theories. He uses the
term “identity crisis” (p. 4, p. 154) to characterise the disunity evident in the
field and proposes a solution which emphasises the underlying convergence
among the different theories. His model, which he entitles “Motivational
Systems Theory” is discussed in Section 2.2.4.
Ford describes the history of motivational theorising in terms of three phases:
• In the first phase (first half of the 20th century), motivation was equated
with internal and external forces such as instincts, needs, drives,
incentives and reinforcers, which were essentially beyond the control of
the individual. During this phase, the human capacity for self-direction
33
and self-regulation was generally not recognised and the emphasis was
rather on stability-maintaining mechanisms such as arousal reduction,
self-preservation and need satisfaction.
• In the second phase of theorising (1950s to early 1970s), the concept of
motivation became more closely associated with cognitive processes such
as decision-making, judgment, expectancy, causal attribution, and locus
of control. During this phase, the importance of emotion-related
concepts was de-emphasised.
• In the third phase (late 1970s to early 1990s), motivation theories became
increasingly powerful and sophisticated, although still largely cognitive
in orientation. Motivation was explored from the separate perspectives of
personal agency belief concepts, goal theories and emotional arousal
processes, these being brought together under Ford’s own integrative
Motivational Systems Theory.
In the period since Ford’s review was published in 1992, situated and
experiential approaches to the study of motivation have come to the fore
(Volet, 2001). Thus the context in which an activity is embedded is now
conceived as a major constituent of motivation (Turner, 2001). Research has
focussed on how the learning activity itself provides support or constraints
for learners’ engagement in learning, and how learners’ subjective appraisals
of situations influence their engagement in learning (Järvelä, 2001). This
move to a situative view of motivation parallels the move to a situative view
of learning, as discussed in Section 2.1.4, although the former is much less
theoretically developed than the latter (Turner, 2001).
In the present study, Ford’s theory, along with an earlier model proposed by
Maehr and Braskamp (1986), together provide a framework within which
motivation for learning in leisure settings can be considered. The recent
34
emphasis on contextual factors is also incorporated in this framework, which
is presented in Section 2.2.4 which follows.
2.2.4 An Integrative Framework of Motivational Factors
Ford (1992) developed Motivational Systems Theory in response to the lack
of consensus, cohesion, and integration which he perceived in the field of
motivation. His theory is thus designed as a “theoretical umbrella” (p. 172)
that brings coherence to the field by providing a framework within which
other theories can be understood. Motivation is seen as “an integrative
construct representing the direction a person is going, the emotional energy
and affective experience supporting or inhibiting movement in that direction,
and the expectancies a person has about whether they can ultimately reach
their destination. Motivation is not primarily one or another of these
processes – it is the organized patterning of all three components” (p. 78).
Ford labels these three components personal goals, emotional arousal
processes and personal agency beliefs, respectively.
Maehr and Braskamp’s (1986) Theory of Personal Investment also considers
motivation in terms of three inter-related facets: personal incentives,
thoughts about self and options perceived to be available. Whereas Maehr
and Braskamp’s thoughts about self and options perceived to be available
correspond closely with Ford’s personal agency beliefs, their understanding of
personal incentives differs from Ford’s portrayal of personal goals. Ford defines
personal goals as “thoughts about desired (or undesired) states or outcomes
that one would like to achieve (or avoid)” (p. 248) and includes such items as
wanting to experience excitement or wanting to meet social role obligations.
Maehr and Braskamp define personal incentives as “what the person
perceives to be attractive or unattractive in his or her environment” (p. 50)
and include doing something because it is exciting, or doing something in
order to please someone else.
35
On the surface these two approaches appear very similar, but there is a
subtle difference. Although the two models contain both personal and
situational aspects of motivation, Ford’s emphasis is on the former and
Maehr and Braskamp’s on the latter. Thus Ford, although recognising the
important influence of contextual factors, considers motivational processes to
be “qualities of the person rather than properties of the context” (p. 72). In
contrast, Maehr and Braskamp approach motivation by focusing first “on the
situation, including how the task is defined” (p. 35), although recognising
that “all such factors are filtered through the perceptions of the person” (p.
47). This variation in emphasis reflects the different purposes of the two
theories, Ford’s being a broad approach to human functioning across a range
of contexts and Maehr and Braskamp’s being developed specifically in the
context of work, although subsequently applied to education and health
(Duda, Smart, & Tappe, 1989; Maehr & Meyer, 1997). In terms of providing a
framework for research in the experience of learning in leisure settings, the
latter (situational) view is considered likely to yield more practical results.
As Maehr and Braskamp suggest, “Instead of thinking, first, about selecting
the right people or changing people who don’t have the right motivation, one
examines the situation and asks what there is about it that might be changed.
There is some reason to believe that this is a more promising possibility in
many cases” (p. 35).
The other difference between the two models is the inclusion (Ford) or
absence (Maehr and Braskamp) of the emotional component. To some
extent, this difference provides a balance to the personal/situational
variation noted above. Thus, in Ford’s model, the emotion component
represents the individual’s response to situational factors within the
environment or context of the task or behaviour. In Maehr and Braskamp’s
model, this response is incorporated, to some extent, into the concept of
personal incentives. For example, in Ford’s model, curiosity and interest are
considered to be emotions that are elicited by novel or unexpected events
36
and that facilitate the initiation of exploratory and investigatory behaviours.5
In Maehr and Braskamp’s model, curiosity and interest are part of a task-
related personal incentive. There are other emotions in Ford’s model,
however, which do not have a place in Maehr and Braskamp’s, e.g., anger
may be elicited by events that threaten or disrupt the achievement of an
individual’s goals and lead to responses that terminate the behaviour or
overcome the obstacles. The motivational influence of emotions is
considered an important factor in the context of learning in leisure settings6,
thus favouring Ford’s model in this instance.
In integrating these two models to provide a framework for the present
research, an attempt has been made to retain those features that are most
relevant and appropriate in the context of learning in leisure settings. Four
sets of motivational factors are included:
• personal goals (Ford’s desired outcomes)
• capability beliefs (Ford’s personal agency beliefs; Maehr and
Braskamp’s thoughts about self)
• context beliefs (Ford’s personal agency beliefs; Maehr and Braskamp’s
options perceived to be available) and
• situational incentives (Ford’s emotional responses to situations and
events; Maehr and Braskamp’s personal incentives).
Personal goals represent desired (or undesired) outcomes that the individual
would like to achieve (or avoid). Ford presents a 24-item taxonomy of
personal goals including affective, cognitive, social and task goals. Of course,
behaviour is often guided by multiple goals and in such cases, goal
alignment or goal conflict can facilitate or hinder motivated behaviour.
5 Ford’s identification of these phenomena as emotions would be disputed by some theorists, e.g., Clore and Ortony (1988). 6 This is discussed more fully in Section 2.3.5.
37
Capability beliefs are similar to Bandura’s (1977) concept of “self-efficacy”
and Deci’s (1980) concept of “perceived competence” and reflect an
individual’s confidence regarding their ability to achieve a goal.
Context beliefs reflect the perceived responsiveness of the environment in
relation to a particular goal, e.g., whether it provides adequate opportunity,
information, material resources, and emotional support.
Situational incentives include physical and social aspects and events which
are valued or perceived as attractive (or unattractive) by the individual7.
These include interesting, exciting or intrinsically motivating tasks, positive
interpersonal relationships, events that satisfy or threaten an individual’s
goals, and events that arouse an emotional response.
The first two of these are predominantly personal in nature, although they are
to a certain extent dependent on situational referents. For example, a
visitor’s personal goals relate to a particular visit in a particular setting; a
visitor’s capability beliefs or sense of competence relate to particular tasks
within the setting. The third and fourth constructs are predominantly
situational in nature, although they are filtered through the visitor’s personal
perceptions of the setting, its tasks and events.
These motivational factors are presumed to impact on the selective direction
of behaviour (the choice of one action over others), energisation of behaviour
(the amount of energy or effort expended) and regulation of behaviour (the
maintenance or repeated choice of an action over time). These behavioural
patterns thus act as indicators of motivated behaviour, as they demonstrate
7 The concept referred to here using the term “situational incentives” is slightly different from Maehr and Braskamp’s formulation of “personal incentives”, which include both personal and situational aspects. In effect, I have separated the personal from the situational for purposes of conceptual clarity. All of the personal aspects identified by Maehr and Braskamp are consistent with the personal goals construct.
38
“how and the degree to which individuals are investing themselves in a given
activity” (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986, p. 6). The personal investment of time,
talents and effort may lead to various desired outcomes such as achievement,
personal growth or life satisfaction. In the present study, indicators of
motivation will focus on the selective direction, energisation and regulation
of learning behaviours, and desired outcomes will be considered in terms of
the visitors’ experience of learning8 and satisfaction with their visit.
This model is portrayed graphically in Figure 1.1 (contained in Section 1.3)
and is reproduced here for ease of reference. It incorporates into one
integrative framework all of the major elements of many diverse theories of
motivation. It thus allows for a comprehensive view of motivation that
avoids the limitations inherent in focussing on singular aspects. In Part
Three of this review, this framework is applied to the consideration of
learning in leisure settings.
8 The concept of “experience” is discussed further in Section 2.3.6. It focuses on the subjective experience of learning which incorporates aspects of both the process and product of learning.
Capability beliefs
Context beliefs
Situational incentives
Personal goals
MOTIVATIONAL
FACTORS
Situ
atio
nal
Pe
rson
al
INDICATORS OF
MOTIVATION
VISITOR
OUTCOMES
Filtered through
personal perceptions
Dependent on
situational referents
Direction
Selection of
learning options
Energisation
Investment of
mental effort
Regulation
Persistence in learning
Visitor experience
Educational
Entertainment
Social
Restorative
Visitor
satisfaction
Figu
re 1
.1 (r
epro
duce
d).
Theo
retic
al fr
amew
ork
40
2.2.5 Motivation and Learning
The role of motivation in learning
Increasingly, in recent years, researchers have acknowledged that cognition
and learning cannot be adequately understood without reference to what are
commonly considered “affective” processes, motivation being one of the
most important of these9 (Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995; Hidi, 1990;
Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992). A considerable body of literature supports
the importance of motivation at all stages of the learning process. For
example, where people direct their attention, and how intently, may be
influenced by motivational factors such as the novelty or interest value of the
material (Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995), the emotional arousal
produced by the material (Herrmann & Plude, 1995) and the personal goals
held by learners (Ford, 1992). The goals people adopt in relation to a
learning situation create the framework within which they interpret and
react to events (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Thus people with different goals
approach a situation with different concerns, ask different questions, seek
different information, and respond differently to the experiences
encountered.
When people are motivated to learn, they are more willing to engage in
cognitive processes that demand prolonged effort and persistence (Brown,
1988; Pintrich et al., 1993; Schiefele, 1991). Motivation thus provides the
mental energy which is often necessary for learning (Koran, Koran, & Foster,
1988; Salomon, 1983). Deep processing, in particular, requires mental effort
and is therefore dependent on motivational factors (Salomon, 1981).
9 The theoretical understanding of motivation adopted in this thesis does not consider motivation as a purely “affective” process. However, it has been conceptualised that way in the past.
41
Motivational factors also contribute to less effortful learning experiences. It
has been suggested, for example, that learning motivated by interest requires
less effort, is faster, more effective and may occur automatically, without the
need for conscious control (Hidi, 1990; Krapp, 1999). The intuitive
impression that learning occurs more easily when one is interested and
motivated to acquire information is confirmed by psychological research
(Hedge, 1995).
Finally, individuals who are motivated to learn are more likely to experience
the rewards of learning – both intrinsic and extrinsic. For intrinsically
motivated learners, cognitive involvement itself can lead to enjoyment
(Schiefele, 1991) and to intrinsic satisfaction, irrespective of any external
rewards (Brown, 1988). When learning occurs for intrinsic reasons, it has
been shown to be highly effective learning (Falk & Dierking, 2000).
There are three things to remember about education. The first is
motivation. The second one is motivation. The third one is
motivation. (from a speech by Terrel Bell, quoted by Maehr &
Meyer, 1997, p372)
The natural motivation to learn
Csikszentmihalyi and Hermanson (1995) suggest that children are born with
a desire for knowledge, a natural motivation to learn. Categorising and
labelling, for example, are natural processes which children employ as they
attempt to master their world (Langer, 1989). Adults also are naturally
motivated to learn, to explore their environment, to make sense of things and
to grow through experience, even when there are no obvious or tangible
purposes that could be served (Deci, Ryan, & Williams, 1996; Falk &
Dierking, 1992; McCombs, 1991; Mitchell, 1997b; Spielberger & Starr, 1994).
Considered in this way, the motivation to learn is something that needs to be
nurtured or elicited through supportive interpersonal interactions and
42
environments, rather than established anew in an individual (McCombs,
1994). When a person is able to “uncover” these natural learning tendencies
and enjoyment of learning, patterns of lifelong learning may result
(McCombs, 1991).
Tough’s (1979) finding that it is common for people from all walks of life to
spend 700 hours a year at “learning projects” – which he defines as major,
highly deliberate efforts to gain certain knowledge and skill or to change in
some other way – provides empirical support for the concept of a natural
motivation to learn. Such motivation may present intrinsically (e.g., as
curiosity, interest or enjoyment of learning for its own sake) or extrinsically
(e.g., the need to learn in order to carry out some task).
This natural motivation or desire to learn, however, like other human
characteristics, is not shared equally by everyone (Houle, 1961). Some people
seek out new learning experiences while others prefer to avoid challenges to
their accustomed ways of thinking and behaving (Cross, 1981). Individual
differences in the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking have been
termed “the need for cognition” (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982; Cohen, Stotland, &
Wolfe, 1955). Boshier (1971), in his factor analytic exploration of the
motivational orientation of adult education participants, identified a similar
factor which he labelled “cognitive interest” and defined in terms of seeking
knowledge for its own sake. If people possess, albeit to varying degrees, a
natural motivation to learn, why is it that so much effort seems to be needed
to activate this motivation? The following sections will address this issue.
The problem of motivation in formal learning settings
In formal, as well as informal settings, students choose the extent to which
they will become cognitively engaged in and persist at a particular task on
the basis of motivational factors (Pintrich et al., 1993). It is a significant
problem, therefore, that students’ intrinsic motivation to learn has been
43
found to decline over the elementary school years and across the
elementary/secondary transition (Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Boekaerts &
Nenniger, 1999).
One explanation for this phenomenon is that the motivation to learn is
undermined by the abstract tasks confronted in school (Brown, Collins, &
Duguid, 1989; Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995; Lepper, 1988). As
school learning is usually removed from its real-world context, students have
difficulty seeing and experiencing the functionality of the knowledge they
are being taught (Brown et al., 1989; Lepper, 1988).
Another explanation may lie in the reliance on external motivators such as
grades in school learning. It has been demonstrated, for example, that
offering extrinsic rewards for performing an intrinsically interesting activity
actually decreases intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 1996). Thus, learning is
seen as a means to an end rather than an end in itself, with an accompanying
shift in students’ goal orientation from learning or mastery to performance or
ego orientations.
A third possibility is suggested by attribution theory (Weiner, 1986), which
concerns the ways in which individuals attribute success and failure to
ability or effort. In a school context that stresses the importance of relative
ability, some students prefer to withdraw their effort from a task, in order to
protect their self-esteem, if they believe that failure is a likely or even a
possible outcome. They can thus attribute their failure to a lack of effort
rather than a lack of ability (Anderman & Maehr, 1994). This becomes
particularly salient during adolescence when the need for self-esteem is at its
highest and could result in a stifling of the natural motivation to learn.
Whichever of these explanations is accepted, it can be argued that the natural
motivation to learn might be rekindled in situations that don’t resemble a
44
traditional classroom (i.e., in informal learning settings). These settings
enable learning to be embedded in a real-world, or in some cases a simulated
real-world context, are usually free from the constraints imposed by formal
assessment and grading systems, and carry little or no fear of failure. Such
settings have their own problems of motivation, however, which are the
focus of the remainder of this section, and indeed this thesis.
The problem of motivation in informal learning settings
Although informal learning settings consider the provision of learning
experiences a part of their mission, visitors often have primary motivations
or goals other than learning. Entertainment and social interaction goals, for
example, take precedence over learning for many visitors (Schauble et al.,
1996). Uzzell (1993) suggests that museum visitors are not highly motivated
to learn and cites research indicating that many do not read guidebooks,
interpretive panels or labels, pay little attention to guides, and do not look at
all the exhibits. Moscardo (1996; 1999) uses the term “mindlessness”, and
Treinen (1993) “active dozing”, to describe visitor behaviour that is
characterised by lack of attention, minimal information processing and
limited learning10. Moscardo explains this behaviour as the enactment of a
previously learnt behaviour pattern or “script” which requires little effort in
a familiar or repetitive situation.
Salomon (1981) provides a similar explanation with his concept of “amount
of invested mental effort” (AIME). He suggests that people selectively
anticipate the task requirements of different sources of communication, such
as television programmes, print materials, schools and museums. These
perceptions then influence the amount and kind of mental effort invested
(i.e., how deeply the presented information is processed). The less effort a
particular medium is perceived to require, the more people will respond to it
10 See Section 2.1.4
45
mindlessly (Salomon, 1983). It is conceivable, therefore, that educational
leisure settings, by taking on the appearance of entertainment, may actually
be predisposing visitors to adopt a mindless approach. Ansbacher (1998)
also warns of the possible negative effects of the use of entertainment to
make learning fun. Although such experiences may achieve the goal of
relatively painless information transfer, they deny visitors the deeper
satisfaction of acquiring understanding through inquiry, and may lead to
visitors pursuing further fun, rather than further learning.
Nurturing the motivation to learn may be just as important, then, in informal
settings as in formal settings. In fact, it can be argued that it is even more
important because learning in schools can be, and usually is, extrinsically
motivated (Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995), whereas learning in
leisure settings must rely on intrinsic motivation. Despite the importance of
motivational factors in this context, however, very little research has
examined the relationships between motivational factors and the experience
of learning in educational leisure settings (Silverman, 1995). The remainder
of this review will focus on theory and research relevant to this specific topic.
46
PART THREE: MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING IN
LEISURE SETTINGS
2.3.1 Introduction to Part Three
The need or desire to escape from a mundane and alienating environment, or
to alleviate boredom, has been recognised as a major motivating force in
tourism (Hall, 1992; Lee & Crompton, 1992). Stated more positively, this
need may also be expressed as a search for novelty or change, for new
sources of stimulation and adventure, or as a need to explore and understand
the unknown (Lee & Crompton, 1992; Mayo & Jarvis, 1981; Snepenger, 1987).
Increasingly, leisure is seen as an opportunity for self-fulfillment (Stebbins,
1982), self-development (Moscardo, 1999), education (Goodale & Cooper,
1991) or a source of meaning in life (Roberts, 1997).
While such views highlight the compatibility of learning and leisure, a
competing view is implied by the recent observation that people are
beginning to suffer the effects of information overload and need time to
“switch off” the constant stream of data with which they are bombarded, a
condition that has been termed “information fatigue syndrome” (Walsh,
2000). The need to escape from stress, mental effort and fatigue is just as
important in our fast-paced modern society as the need for stimulation and
self-development. Research by Hood (1993), for example, indicates that
those whose professional work allows them to satisfy their needs for
intellectual stimulation are more likely to seek compensatory activities which
offer rest and relaxation in their leisure time. A recent Australian study
(Scott, 2000a) suggests that people may increasingly be seeking leisure that is
fun, pleasurable, enjoyable and relaxing as an antidote to increased work
pressure and the increased pace of life.
47
Kaplan and his colleagues (Kaplan, 1995; Kaplan, Bardwell, & Slakter, 1993)
have explored the need for restorative environments or experiences which
create a sense of peace and calm. Interestingly, they suggest that an
environment or experience does not need to be devoid of mental stimulation
to be restorative. The important factor is that the environment or experience
captures the attention without the need for deliberate mental effort to be
devoted to the task. Thus both a nature experience and a museum
experience may be restorative (Hein, 1998). This idea has important
implications for educational leisure settings, however, which are often
designed to stimulate mental effort and a mindful approach to learning. It
raises the possibility of a goal conflict when learning and leisure are
combined, between a mindful approach and the need for a restorative
experience. Is it possible, that for some people at least, “educational leisure”
is merely a contradiction in terms?
Although much has been written about leisure motivations, most research
has lacked a strong theoretical basis, using empirical methods to generate
lists of leisure motivations and reasons for visiting leisure settings. The vast
literature on theories of motivation has rarely been enlisted in understanding
motivation in this context. In the following sections, the influence of
motivational factors on the experience of learning in leisure settings will be
considered using the framework developed in Section 2.2.4. The literature
will be reviewed in terms of personal goals for visiting, situational incentives
for learning, visitors’ beliefs about themselves as learners and visitors’ beliefs
about the opportunities and support for learning afforded by the setting. In
so doing, the tensions between learning and leisure will be explored and
questions in need of further research will be highlighted. Finally, the
relationship between learning and leisure, and in particular the
complementarity of education and entertainment, will be analysed from
different theoretical perspectives.
48
2.3.2 Personal Goals as Motivational Factors for Learning in
Leisure Settings
What are people’s goals in visiting leisure settings? Many researchers in
tourism and leisure have attempted to address this question. Crandall
(1980), for example, lists 17 types of motivations for leisure. Driver, Brown
and Peterson (1991) list 21 types of leisure benefits, including physiological,
psychological, sociological, economic and environmental categories.
Crompton (1979) identifies 9 motives for undertaking pleasure travel. All of
these lists cover the same basic ground, with items falling into four major
categories:
• social contact (being with family and friends);
• restoration (rest and relaxation, escape from everyday stress);
• entertainment (stimulation, novelty, escape from boredom); and
• personal development (learning, creativity, self-actualisation).
Ford (1992) contends that the most motivating activities and experiences in
life are those that involve the simultaneous pursuit and attainment of many
different kinds of goals. The advantage of educational leisure settings is that
they allow learning goals to be combined with and strengthened by a variety
of other goals such as entertainment and social contact. Ford refers to this as
goal alignment.
Clearly, different people have different goals for participating in different
leisure activities at different times (Crompton, 1979). Hood (1983; 1988), for
example, found that frequent visitors to museums value having an
opportunity to learn, having a challenge of new experiences and doing
something worthwhile in their leisure time, while those who rarely or never
visit museums value being with people, participating actively and feeling
comfortable and at ease in their surroundings. Thus, while people often have
multiple goals for visiting a leisure setting, there are discernible patterns in
49
the types of goals that motivate different types of leisure activities. Falk,
Moussouri and Coulson (1998) provide some evidence that personal goals or
pre-visit agendas influence visitors’ behaviour and learning in museums.
Our understanding of exactly what it is that people are seeking from an
educational leisure experience remains vague ( Mitchell, 1997a). Some
evidence suggests that leisure motivations are shifting more and more
towards a search for novel, authentic and quality experiences which
incorporate a learning component (Hall, 1991; Lavery & Stevens, 1990;
Mitchell, 1998; Moscardo, 1998; Moscardo, 1999; Paris, 1997a; Weiler & Hall,
1992). Cultural tourism, heritage tourism and ecotourism, for example, all
aim to promote learning and personal growth. Other evidence suggests,
however, that many people are looking for a social rather than a learning
experience (Litwak, 1993; Uzzell, 1992; Wood, 1995), and those who are
interested in learning may not be looking for an intensive or scholarly
experience (Miles, 1986), but rather for a restorative experience which is
engaging or mentally stimulating without requiring a great deal of mental
effort (see Section 2.3.1 above).
Summary of research aims in relation to Personal Goals
The present research investigates the importance of different types of
learning goals (including information acquisition, understanding, intellectual
stimulation and exploration) in relation to other goals in the social contact,
restoration, entertainment and personal development categories. It also
explores the relationships between visitors’ goals and their experience of
learning.
50
2.3.3 Capability Beliefs as Motivational Factors for Learning in
Leisure Settings
Very little work has been done to investigate the influence of visitors’ beliefs
or thoughts about themselves on their experience of learning in leisure
settings. One line of research that might be fruitfully applied in the context
of educational leisure settings, however, is the impact of individual
differences in the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking, i.e., “the need
for cognition” (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982; Cohen et al., 1955)11.
Need for cognition is thought to reflect a cognitive motivation associated
with the sense of competence and personal satisfaction resulting from
repeated episodes of effortful problem-solving (Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, &
Jarvis, 1996). Individuals high in the need for cognition are characterised by
active, exploring minds and are more likely to expend effort on information
acquisition, reasoning, and problem-solving. The Need for Cognition Scale
(Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) has been extensively tested and found to be related
to a range of cognitive outcomes such as learning and recall. Its possible
relevance to the area of learning in educational leisure settings is noted by
Loomis (1996).
Summary of research aims in relation to Capability Beliefs
This research explores the relationships between visitors’ beliefs regarding
their own competence to learn, their willingness to invest mental effort and
their experience of learning.
11 See Section 2.2.5
51
2.3.4 Context Beliefs as Motivational Factors for Learning in
Leisure Settings
Salomon’s research, discussed briefly in Section 2.2.5, supports the
theoretical reasoning that visitors’ beliefs about the opportunities for
learning available in a setting have a significant influence on their pursuit
and achievement of learning goals. According to Salomon (1981), people
choose how deeply they will process the information they receive through a
communication event, and the amount of mental effort they will invest,
based on their perceptions of the task requirements and the value that will
result. Different sources (such as museums, television or school) can be
taken as more or less valid, demanding of effort and informative. People
thus use characteristics of both the message and the medium to selectively
anticipate the amount of mental effort required. If the message is perceived
as highly familiar, or if the medium is perceived as not requiring or
deserving effort, people will respond to it mindlessly (Salomon, 1981; 1983).
The mindset with which visitors approach a setting will determine how they
interpret and respond to that setting (Langer, 1989).
Koran, Koran and Foster (1988), building on this idea, suggest that “visitors
can be influenced by written or visual materials to perceive learning from
museum or zoo exhibits as being easy or hard, educational or entertaining,
thus influencing the effectiveness of a given exhibit” (p. 68). If visitors
perceive learning to be easy, or if they perceive an exhibit to be purely
entertaining, they will not devote mental effort to the task. On the other
hand, if they perceive learning to be too difficult, they may avoid the task.
Thus, learning in leisure settings depends to a certain extent on the way
visitors perceive the setting itself. The setting may stimulate the anticipation
of learning or may suggest that too little or too much mental effort is
required.
52
Summary of research aims in relation to Context Beliefs
This research explores the relationships between visitors’ perceptions of the
leisure setting, their willingness to invest mental effort and their experience
of learning.
2.3.5 Situational Incentives as Motivational Factors for
Learning in Leisure Settings
According to Maehr and Braskamp (1986), situational incentives include both
social expectations and task characteristics. Both of these factors are relevant
to learning in leisure settings. Emotional incentives are also included here as
they involve an individual’s response to events or changes in the
environment.
Social incentives for learning
A visit to an educational leisure setting is usually perceived by visitors as a
social occasion (Hooper-Greenhill, 1999a; Uzzell, 1992), and most visitors
attend in couples or groups, with family members or friends. These
companions become a major part of the social context of the visit, and this
context can have a considerable motivational influence on the ways in which
visitors engage in learning experiences (Deci, 1992). Social incentives for
learning may arise from conversational aspects of the visit, as companions
test and exchange ideas, information and opinions, or assist younger
members of the group by explaining or asking and answering questions
(Wood, 1995). Companions may introduce different perspectives that
stimulate further exploration, offer social support for learning, or provide
benchmarks for monitoring learning achievements (Paris & Turner, 1994;
Paris, 1997b). Leisure settings provide unique opportunities for conversation
and discussion, often leading to a “shared interpretive experience” whereby
visitors actively negotiate the meaning of exhibits through talk with their
companions (Litwak, 1993).
53
Task incentives for learning
Characteristics of the task or learning experience can arouse visitors’
curiosity and interest, thus motivating learning (Krapp et al., 1992). For
example, features such as novelty, surprisingness, complexity, irregularity
and ambiguity lead to motivational states marked by uncertainty and
conflict, which result in curiosity and exploratory behaviour
(Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995; Krapp et al., 1992). Interest differs
from curiosity in that it is not necessarily associated with conflict and
uncertainty and is not necessarily reduced when the answer is known (Hidi
& Anderson, 1992). However, both curiosity and interest encourage a person
to interact with the environment in order to acquire new information (Krapp
et al., 1992). The psychological state of interest is characterised by increased
attention, greater concentration, pleasant feelings of applied effort, and an
increased willingness to learn (Krapp et al., 1992), and thus is clearly of great
importance to both formal and informal learning.
Activities that involve exploring and understanding the world provide
opportunities to test and to exercise personal skills and competencies. When
the outcome of such tests is positive and competence is confirmed, the
activity is enjoyed and is likely to be continued or repeated (Reeve, 1989).
Curiosity, exploration and attempts at mastery can all be considered
expressions of the need to deal competently with one’s environment (Snow &
Jackson, 1994). Further, when an individual’s level of skill is closely
matched to the difficulty or challenge of a task, a sensation of being fully
involved to the point of forgetting time, fatigue, and everything but the
activity itself may be experienced. This sensation has been labelled “flow”
because it has been described by those who have experienced it using the
metaphor of a “current that carried them along” (Csikszentmihalyi &
Hermanson, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993, p. 58). The
experience of flow is so enjoyable that people go to great lengths to attain it.
54
It may be found in almost any activity – work, play, study, sport or religion –
provided the conditions are conducive.
The concepts of interest, curiosity, striving for mastery, and flow are all
encompassed by the term “intrinsic motivation” (Deci et al., 1996). A task is
intrinsically motivating when it is worth doing for its own sake, and not
because of any anticipated rewards from outside the activity itself
(Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995; Deci, 1992; Deci et al., 1996). In
leisure settings, where there are few external rewards for engaging in
learning behaviour, the task incentives that make learning an intrinsically
motivated experience must be considered an important motivational factor.
Emotional incentives for learning
According to Ford (1992) and other theorists, emotions play an important
role in motivation. Indeed, the two words share a common Latin root -
movere, to move (Parkinson & Colman, 1995). The relationship between
emotion and motivation has been variously described by different theorists.
Emotion may be seen as a precursor or initiator of motivated behaviour (Ford,
1992; Parkinson & Colman, 1995), as a monitoring system which modulates
ongoing motivation, manages multiple goals, triggers new motivations, or
replaces one goal with another (Ford, 1992; Oatley, 1988; Toates, 1988), as an
energiser which supports and maintains behaviour (Ford, 1992) and as a
reward or punishment for motivated behaviour (Parkinson & Colman, 1995).
Regardless of the particular role ascribed to emotion, it is clear that it is a
factor that must be considered in understanding motivation to learn in
leisure settings. Ford’s claim that “emotions, once activated, may contribute
to the development and elaboration of new goals around previously
uninteresting or unfamiliar things” (1992, p. 140) is clearly relevant to the
motivation of learning in leisure settings. If, as suggested above, many
visitors to leisure settings do not hold learning as a primary goal, the arousal
55
of an emotional response may in fact hold the key to motivating learning in
such circumstances. This has not gone unnoticed by interpretation theorists,
particularly as many popular sites for tourism and recreation are associated
with emotionally charged topics such as war, natural disasters and cultural
conflict (Moscardo, 1999). Controversial topics such as these present an
opportunity to generate an emotional response from visitors that can result
in greater mindfulness or intrinsic motivation to learn (Ballantyne & Uzzell,
1993; Moscardo, 1999; Uzzell, 1989a).
The impact of emotional arousal is by no means straightforward, however.
Museums, for example, have traditionally sought to present exhibits in an
atmosphere of neutrality and objectivity (Greenhalgh, 1989). However, some
form of “emotional overlay” needs to be placed on such impersonal exhibits
in order to transform them into “objects of meaning” (Gurian, 1996, p. 4).
Thus, the role of interpretation could be considered as one of providing this
emotional overlay or sense of meaning. Although the deliberate introduction
of emotional interest into educational leisure settings may contribute to
visitor engagement, there is also a risk that evoking strong emotions such as
anger or fear may be counterproductive to learning goals (Pekrun, 1992;
Wade, 1992). Substantial research into the relationship between interest and
learning, for example, has revealed that so-called “seductive details”, which
are interesting and emotionally engaging to the reader but not important to
the content of a piece of text, actually reduce the reader’s ability to focus on
and remember the important information contained in the text (Garner,
Brown, Sanders, & Menke, 1992). However, an appropriate element of
emotional arousal can in fact contribute to the selection, storage and recall of
information (Warburton, 1988). It is clear then that the role of emotional
incentives as a motivating factor for learning in leisure settings is in need of
further investigation.
56
Summary of research aims in relation to Situational Incentives
This research explores the relationships between social, task and emotional
incentives and the visitors’ experience of learning.
2.3.6 Educational Leisure: A Contradiction in Terms?
From the theoretical arguments presented in the preceding sections, it is clear
that the relationship between learning and leisure is complex. It would
appear, for example, that visitors to educational leisure settings often seek
pleasant but purposeless mental stimulation, whereas mindful learning is
effort demanding and purposeful (Section 2.1.4). Further, the recent
observation that many people in our fast-paced and high-stimulation society
are being overwhelmed by information overload suggests that, for some
people at least, leisure experiences may need to be information-free (Section
2.3.1). On the other hand, however, is evidence that people have a natural
motivation to learn, that learning can be enjoyable, satisfying and provide
the mental stimulation necessary to personal well-being and growth, that
intrinsically motivated learning may actually occur relatively automatically,
without effort and without the need for conscious control (Section 2.2.5), and
that mental stimulation can, in fact, be restorative (Section 2.3.1).
One aspect of the relationship between learning and leisure that is
particularly problematic is the interface between education and
entertainment. From the perspective of theories of informal learning and
interpretation, entertainment is a vital component of the learning experience
(Section 2.1.4). From the perspective of AIME12 and perceptions of task
requirements, however, the appearance of entertainment may predispose
visitors to adopt a mindless approach and invest little mental effort in
12 Amount of Invested Mental Effort (Salomon, 1983)
57
learning (Section 2.2.5). Similarly, the use of entertainment as a technique to
create interest and attract attention may actually distract visitors from the
educational pursuits they were designed to facilitate (Section 2.3.5). The
possible negative outcomes of the use of entertainment to popularise an
educational experience has not been widely studied, however (Ansbacher,
1998).
In the following sections, the terms education and entertainment are defined
and the relationship between education and entertainment is considered,
firstly focusing on the possible conflicts and secondly the potential
complementarity of education and entertainment. Finally the concept of
“experience” is introduced as a way of drawing together the many facets of
these two concepts.
Education and entertainment defined
The term “education” is derived from the Latin educare to bring up, or rear
and educere to lead out. The term is often used to signify the extent of a
person’s formal schooling, but can also be understood to include informal
learning experiences such as travel, reading and conversation (Ellis & Fouts,
1996). The Oxford English Reference Dictionary (1996) includes the concept
of “development of character or mental powers” in its definition of the term,
along with the more common meaning of “systematic instruction”. In the
following discussion, the terms education or educational are used to refer to
those aspects of an experience that cognitively engage the visitor, regardless
of the learning outcomes that may or may not result, and the level of
structure that may or may not be inherent in the experience.
The terms “entertainment” and “entertain” include the ideas of “a public
performance or show”, “diversions or amusements for guests”, and to
“occupy agreeably” (Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 1996). In this
58
discussion, the term is used to refer to those aspects of an experience that are
perceived by visitors to be enjoyable or pleasant.
Falk, Moussouri and Coulson (1998) shed further light on the commonly held
understanding of these terms in their observation that “the words ‘education’
and ‘entertainment’ are laden with a great deal of baggage. To the academic,
‘education’ connotes importance and quality, while ‘entertainment’ suggests
vacuousness and frivolity” (p. 117). These understandings are not
necessarily shared by the visiting public, however.
Education and entertainment: Possible conflicts
Within the museum literature in particular, debate has arisen regarding the
conflict between entertainment and education (McManus, 1993), or as those
with a particular viewpoint might refer to it, “showmanship versus
scholarship” (Boyd, 1992). Some museums have been accused of becoming
“too glitzy to be taken seriously” (Bown, 1995). Museums which engage in
“frivolous entertainment” are criticised as “vulgar sideshows”, while those
which emphasise “serious education” are criticised as “elitist institutions”
(Roberts, 1997).
Greenhalgh (1989) suggests that this conflict between education and
entertainment is a result of the perceived division between work and leisure
in Westernised thinking. Education is seen to be bound up with work and
entertainment with pleasure, and the two are assumed to be incompatible.
Work, in other words, cannot be enjoyable, and leisure cannot be serious
(Csikszentmihalyi & Kleiber, 1991). Traditionally, museums have placed
themselves at the “serious education” rather than the “fun entertainment”
end of the continuum and departures from this tradition are disparaged
(Bown, 1995). As much as they wish to retain their image of scholarship and
seriousness, however, museums must compete for their audiences with
money-making amusement organisations, such as Epcot (at Disneyworld,
59
Florida), which have now entered the field of object interpretation (Roberts,
1997). Hedge (1995) refers to these as “entertainment museums”. These
competitors to museums have been characterised as focusing purely on
profitability, while museums endeavour to maintain a responsibility to their
product (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998).
Miles (1986) suggests that although museum staff often take a scholarly view
of the museum, their visitors view the museum more as a place of
entertainment. It is therefore imperative that, in considering motivation for
learning in leisure settings, the relationships between education and
entertainment be explored.
Education and entertainment: Potential complementarities
In educational leisure settings, entertainment may be seen as a legitimate end
in itself, with no more redeeming outcome than pure and simple amusement;
or it may be seen as a means to an end, an attempt to reach visitors in a way
that is comfortable to them (Roberts, 1997). Similarly, education may be seen
as an end in itself; or it may be seen as a means to an end, a way of “adding
value” to the entertainment experience. This complementary relationship
between education and entertainment has been referred to using neologisms
such as “edutainment” and “infotainment” (Lepper & Chabay, 1985; Lucas,
1991).
The traditional separations between work and leisure, education and
entertainment are beginning to blur. Education is becoming more
experience-based and leisure experiences are becoming more constructive
and fulfilling (Hall, 1992). Productive work is not necessarily unpleasant,
nor is unproductive leisure always enjoyable. In fact, what people enjoy the
most in their lives is almost never something passive, like watching
television or being entertained (Csikszentmihalyi & Kleiber, 1991). Rather,
the most intensely enjoyable experiences often come from the least expected
60
sources, such as a job well done or a stimulating conversation
(Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 1993).
Learning can be pleasurable, satisfying, stimulating and enjoyable
(McCombs, 1991; Tough, 1979). In the context of museum learning,
Meadows (1997) quotes Falk as suggesting that “fun” is a code word for
being involved and interested, and Falk, Moussouri, & Coulson (1998) report
that most museum visitors see no apparent conflict between fun and
learning. Learning can also be challenging, adventurous, competitive and
risky, thus providing opportunities for satisfaction through mastery (Paris &
Cross, 1983). Thus, for at least some of the people, some of the time, learning
is entertainment (Houle, 1961). This is aptly illustrated by the adoption of
education by the tourism industry as an attraction in its own right. Odyssey
Travel, for example, uses the term “ed-venture travel” which is defined as
“travel for the over-50s looking for mental and physical stimulation rather
than just a sightseeing experience” (Sunday Mail, 2000, p. 20). Figure 2.2 has
been reproduced from this company’s web-site.
Figure 2.2. Advertisement for “ed-venture tourism” (retrieved 13th August,
2000 from http://www.odysseytravel.com.au).
61
Just as education can be entertaining, so entertainment can be educative.
Roberts (1997) suggests that the very nature of entertainment evokes optimal
conditions for learning, such as openness and loss of self. Adults as much as
children need an environment that allows them to explore, question and
challenge and so gain an understanding of themselves and the world
(Anderson, 1997a; Mitchell, 1998). Such learning can be likened to children’s
play, with surprise, adventure and discovery being key ingredients
(Melamed, 1987). Educational leisure settings are well suited to such a
playful approach to learning.
What then is the desired outcome of an educational leisure experience? Is it
education or is it entertainment? Which should be considered the end and
which should be considered the means to the end? What is the product
being marketed? Moscardo and Pearce (1986), citing the large Countryside
Commission study of visitor centres in Britain, suggest that the true product
is “experience”. Tourists visiting a heritage attraction “buy” an experience
(Prentice, 1993b). This experience may include both being informed and
being excited.
The importance of experience
Pine and Gilmore (Pine & Gilmore, 1999b), in their book The experience
economy: Work is theatre and every business a stage, suggest that experiences are
a new economic offering, as distinct from services as services are from goods.
In support of their argument, they cite many instances of businesses
increasing their profitability by moving beyond the provision of services to
the staging of experiences, Disney being a prime example.
When a person buys a service, he purchases a set of intangible
activities carried out on his behalf. But when he buys an
experience, he pays to spend time enjoying a series of memorable
62
events that a company stages – as in a theatrical play – to engage
him in a personal way.
(Pine & Gilmore, 1999b, p2)
In relation to museums and other educational leisure settings, Pine and
Gilmore argue that it is not just the presentation of information that is
important to visitors, it is the experience that surrounds this presentation.
Similarly, providing experiences is not just about entertaining visitors, it is
about engaging them in a personal, memorable way. Thus the experience
transcends both the educational and the entertainment aspects of it. Falk and
Dierking (2000) recognise the relevance of the experience construct in the
context of museums and suggest that it may provide “an excellent way to get
out of the learning-versus-entertainment bind” (p. 75).
Summary of research aims in relation to Education and Entertainment
This research explores, from the visitors’ perspective, possible conflicts and
complementarities between education and entertainment in educational
leisure settings.
63
SUMMARY OF REVIEW AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Figure 2.3 provides a graphical summary of the three parts of the literature
review contained in this chapter. In Section 2.1, theoretical approaches to
learning in leisure settings were discussed, including perspectives from
general theories of learning, museum learning and interpretation. This
discussion identified the need to stimulate visitors’ motivation to learn as an
important challenge facing educational leisure settings, and established the
need for research into motivational factors.
In Section 2.2, theoretical approaches to the study of motivation were
reviewed, and the importance of motivation in the direction, energisation
and regulation of human behaviour was demonstrated. A theoretical model
containing four motivational factors - personal goals, capability beliefs,
context beliefs and situational incentives - was developed as a framework to
support and guide the present research.
In Section 2.3, previous research was examined in the light of insights from
the theoretical analysis of learning in leisure settings undertaken in Section
2.1 and the theoretical model of motivational factors developed in Section
2.2. A number of research questions were generated regarding the
relationships between motivational factors and the experience of learning in
leisure settings.
64
Figure 2.3. Summary of literature review.
Section 2.3
Review of previous research
Research questions
informed applied to
generated
Need for research into motivational factors
Theoretical model for research
Section 2.2
Theoretical approaches to
motivation
established developed
Section 2.1
Theoretical approaches to
learning in leisure settings
65
This research has been designed to address the following questions which
have arisen from this review:
• How important is learning to visitors? How important are learning
goals in relation to entertainment, social and restoration goals? To
what extent does a learning experience contribute to visitors’ overall
satisfaction with their visit?
• To what extent do motivations for learning vary across sites and
visitor groups? How do visitors in different leisure settings differ in
their motivation to learn? Can variations in motivation be identified
according to visitor characteristics such as age, gender, group
composition, and previous visits?
• What are the relationships between the educational, entertainment,
social and restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience? How does
the experience of learning impact on visitors’ satisfaction with other
aspects of their visit? How do entertainment, social and restorative
experiences impact on the experience of learning? Is the relationship
between the education and entertainment elements of the experience
one of conflict or complementarity?
• How, and to what extent, do different motivational factors impact
on the experience of learning? How do personal goals, capability
beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives impact on the
experience of learning? What is the relative importance of personal
and situational factors in contributing to the visitor’s experience of
learning?
By investigating these issues across a range of leisure settings, including both
museum and non-museum sites, this research also contributes to establishing
66
a theoretical foundation that allows the fields of museum learning and
interpretation to be more closely integrated.
67
CHAPTER 3: METHOD
3.1 Introduction to Method
The general aim of this study is to investigate the impact of motivational
factors on the experience of learning in leisure settings, using a theoretical
framework drawn from the study of motivation. Specifically, the objectives
are to:
1. ascertain the importance of different types of learning experiences to
visitors in a range of educational leisure settings;
2. identify the extent to which motivations for learning vary across sites
and visitor groups;
3. investigate the relationships between the educational, entertainment,
social and restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience; and
4. examine the impact of motivational factors (personal goals, capability
beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives) on visitors’
experience of learning in leisure settings.
3.2 Philosophical Underpinning
This study is situated within a postpositivist research paradigm. The
postpositivist position rejects the positivist view that science can only be
concerned with what is observable and empirically verifiable. It accepts that
there are no absolutely authoritative foundations upon which scientific
knowledge can be based, and that no claim can be made that is absolutely
unchallengeable. The postpositivist position, however, does consider that
the business of science is to provide reasonable justifications for its assertions,
and that some claims are more adequately justified than others (Phillips,
1990).
68
Guba (1990), in his review of alternative inquiry paradigms, characterises the
postpositivist position as follows13:
• In terms of ontology (the nature of reality), the postpositivist position
is one of critical realism, i.e., although a real world driven by real
natural causes exists, it can never be completely understood due to the
limitations of human sensory and intellective mechanisms.
• In terms of epistemology (the nature of knowledge), a position of
modified objectivity is taken, where the objectivity of inquiry is
considered an ideal that can only be approximated.
• In terms of methodology, the use of a variety of data sources is
supported, in order to compensate for the distorted interpretations
inherent in each. A balance is sought between rigour and relevance;
precision and richness; elegance and applicability; discovery and
verification. Thus qualitative inquiries in natural settings, where
grounded theory emerges from the process are embraced, along with
more traditional quantitative inquiries in controlled settings, where a
priori theories are tested and verified.
This study has attempted to achieve this balance through the complementary
use of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
3.3 Overview of Research Approach
Survey methods have been used to collect both quantitative and qualitative
data in order to address the research aims to the fullest extent possible.
Quantitative and qualitative research methods offer different ways of
exploring human phenomena. Quantitative methods allow theoretical
13 What is cited here is a summary/paraphrase of Guba's description (Guba, 1990, pp. 20-23).
69
propositions to be tested and results generalised while qualitative methods
attempt to capture and understand individual descriptions and meanings of
events and generate new theoretical inferences. Burns (2000) suggests that
survey methods are in the middle ground, capable of adoption, modification
and translation into both qualitative and quantitative strategies. The need to
use both qualitative and quantitative research methods in educational leisure
settings is emphasised by Hooper-Greenhill (1999a), the former being
necessary for in-depth study of visitors’ meaning-making processes and the
latter being needed to describe and examine overall patterns. Volet (2001)
and Turner (2001) also support the use of a mixed methods approach in
motivation research.
As noted in Section 1.2, the focus of the study is on visitors’ perceptions of
the experience of learning, rather than objective measures of learning
outcomes such as knowledge gains or attitude and behaviour changes. As it
is not possible to directly observe visitors’ thoughts, feelings and motivations
regarding learning, a survey method was used to obtain visitors’ self-reports
in this regard. The survey method enables information on beliefs, attitudes
and motives to be collected (Burns, 2000), however, in using a survey
approach, it is assumed that individuals possess the ability to accurately
introspect and report their own thoughts and feelings (Conner & Waterman,
1996). This may present some difficulties in the present research as motives
can be unconscious or implicit and people may have difficulty expressing
their reasons for involvement in particular activities (Mayo & Jarvis, 1981;
Pintrich, 2003).
In the present study, careful attention has been given to the processes of
instrumentation and validation, and previously developed measures have
been borrowed or adapted where appropriate. The design of both
quantitative (written questionnaire) and qualitative (semi-structured
interview) procedures has been driven by and embedded in the theoretical
70
framework established in Chapter 2. The quantitative measures used in the
questionnaire were pilot tested and refined prior to their implementation in
the main study.
The research was conducted in two stages, Stage 1 being predominantly
quantitative and Stage 2 predominantly qualitative. The use of both methods
is consistent with, and encouraged by, the postpositivist paradigm adopted
in this research. The results of the quantitative study (Stage 1) informed the
design of the qualitative study (Stage 2) and the results of the qualitative
study extend, elaborate, enhance and illustrate the findings of the
quantitative study. Convergent results from Stage 1 and Stage 2 contribute
to strengthening the validity of the research findings, and divergent results
generate fresh insights which enrich the interpretation of findings. This
mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods is consistent with Greene,
Caracelli and Graham’s (1989) conceptualisation of the purposes of mixed-
method designs.
3.4 Research Sites
The research was conducted in six different educational leisure settings in
South-East Queensland14: a museum, an art gallery, a wildlife centre, an
aquarium, a guided tour of an historical site, and a guided walk in a National
Park area. These sites have in common a concern for public education, but
are likely to be viewed differently by visitors and so might evoke different
expectations and experiences. The six sites were chosen to represent three
different types of educational leisure settings – museum sites (museum and
art gallery), interpretive sites (wildlife centre and aquarium) and guided
tours (guided history tour, guided forest walk). However, preliminary
14 For practical reasons, research sites needed to be within two hours’ traveling time from Brisbane.
71
analyses of data15 indicated that visitors were responding to the guided
history tour very differently from the guided forest walk and so the sites
were re-classified as follows:
• Museum sites (museum, art gallery). Museum sites were defined as
constructed environments with a focus on preservation, collection and
interpretation of artefacts and exhibits with a variety of origins. The
museum and art gallery participating in this study are located close to
the inner city. The museum contains a range of exhibits, in themed
areas, covering both the natural environment and cultural heritage.
The art gallery displays a permanent collection of Australian and
international paintings, sculptures, prints, drawings, photographs,
decorative arts and crafts, as well as a wide range of visiting
exhibitions. There is no charge for admission to these sites.
• Interpretive sites (wildlife centre, aquarium, guided history tour).
Interpretive sites were defined as constructed and/or natural
environments with a focus on display and interpretation of the natural
or cultural heritage associated with the site. The wildlife centre and
the aquarium participating in this study are both located close to
seaside resort areas and the guided history tour is on an island
reached by boat from the city. The wildlife centre contains a large
collection of Australian native animals in an outdoor bushland setting.
Wildlife shows, feedings and live animal presentations are scheduled
at various times of the day. The aquarium contains a range of live
aquatic displays including sharks, whales, crocodiles, stingrays,
corals, fish, sea jellies and seals. The historical site contains the ruins
of a former colonial prison which is now a national park. There is no
15 See Section 4.2.1 for example.
72
public visitation to this site apart from the commercially-led guided
tours. There is a charge for admission to all of these facilities.
• Natural site (guided forest walk). Natural sites were defined as
natural environments that are interpreted, but with a focus on
appreciation of the site. The guided forest walks in this study are
conducted in National Park and State Forest areas on the outskirts of
the city. Groups of approximately 15-20 are led by park rangers and
volunteer guides on trails throughout the park area. There is a charge
for these activities.
In Stage 2, one site from each category was selected in order to maximise the
variation between sites, while maintaining sufficient numbers within sites to
allow meaningful comparisons given the smaller sample size necessary for
qualitative research. Thus the Stage 2 interviews were conducted at the
museum, the aquarium and the guided forest walk.
3.5 Procedure and Participants
3.5.1 Stage 1 Study
Due to the large number of variables to be measured in this study, a
relatively large sample size was considered necessary in order to allow
appropriate statistical analyses to be performed. (For example, Francis 1988
suggests that n > 300 is necessary for structural equation modelling.) Thus a
target of approximately 50-70 participants per site was set for the Stage 1
study. This sample size was found to be achievable within a three-day data
collection period at each of the research sites.
73
All independent adults who visited sites during the data collection periods
were invited to participate in the research. Only adult visitors were targeted
because of the introspective nature of the questions. Visitors in organised
tour groups were not included in the study because they typically have
limited time at the site and are not always free to encounter the exhibits in a
self-directed fashion. Adults accompanied by young children were also
excluded for similar reasons – the difficulty of taking time to complete the
questionnaire, and the likelihood that the nature of their learning experience
would be determined by the child’s needs and interests rather than their
own16. In order to further direct the focus to independent adult visitors, the
research was conducted on school days, when the proportion of families
visiting would be minimised. Visitors whose English comprehension was
limited to the extent that they had difficulty responding to the invitation to
participate were not included. Although these sampling considerations limit
the generalisability of the findings, they contribute to maintaining the study’s
focus on free-choice learning experiences.
Visitors were approached as they entered the site and invited to participate
in the study by completing a questionnaire. The approximate time
commitment (10 minutes before and 10 minutes after the visit) was
explained, and those who were willing to participate were offered a small
incentive, such as a cup of tea or coffee or a free pass to an associated
attraction, to encourage and thank them for their time. Questionnaire
responses were collected from a total of 499 visitors, with at least 70 visitors
from each site. Although a quota sampling procedure was not strictly
adhered to, checks were made during the process of questionnaire
distribution to ensure that adequate numbers of males/females and different
age groups were represented. Other personal characteristics, such as place of
16 For example, in the museum context, Falk and Dierking (1992; 2002) report some evidence that adults in family groups behave and learn differently from those in all-adult groups.
74
residence, previous visits and type of companions (with the exclusions noted
above) were allowed to vary naturally according to the visiting population
on the days sampled, although the effect of seasonal variations cannot be
discounted.
Participation rates varied markedly between sites (see Table 3.1). At the four
self-guided sites (museum, art gallery, wildlife centre and aquarium), visitors
had to be willing to take 10 minutes at the beginning of their visit to
complete a questionnaire, and again at the end of the visit to reflect on their
experience. The response rates show that museum visitors were more willing
to take, complete and return a questionnaire than visitors to other self-
guided sites (χ23 = 113.28, p < .01). This is interpreted as one indication of
differences in visitors’ attitudes to cognitive engagement during their visit, as
a common response when refusing was “I’m here to relax, I don’t feel like
thinking”17. The acceptance and return rates were very high for the two
guided tours because these visitors were a more captive audience – the forest
walk participants had a waiting period at the beginning while everyone
arrived and gathered; the history tour participants had a 1½ hour boat trip to
and from their destination.
Table 3.1
Participation rates at each site (Stage 1)
MU
AG
WC
AQ
GH
GF
Accepted questionnaire 48% 32% 21% 27% 73% 93%
Returned questionnairea 43% 29% 11% 22% 59% 78%
Number completed 81 88 82 81 93 74
Note. MU = museum; AG = art gallery; WC = wildlife centre; AQ = aquarium; GH = guided history walk; GF = guided forest walk. a Values are calculated as a percentage of total number of visitors approached.
17 The threat to internal validity posed by this systematic bias in participation rates is discussed in Section 6.3.1 (Limitations due to Sampling Issues).
75
Participants were asked to provide the following demographic or descriptive
data:
• age group;
• gender;
• usual place of residence;
• previous visits;
• companion visitors (e.g., single, couple, family, group);
• occupation - status (e.g., employed, unemployed, student, retired,
home duties);
• occupation - cognitive involvement (respondents were asked to
estimate the extent to which their daily occupation involved working
with their minds); and
• length of visit18.
Descriptive data on participants are summarised for each site in Table 3.2.
18 In the pilot study, visitors were asked in the post-visit section of the questionnaire to estimate the length of their visit. This was found to be quite inaccurate. In the main study, visitors were asked to record the time at the end of the pre-visit component, and again at the beginning of the post-visit component. Length of visit was then calculated to the nearest half hour.
76
Table 3.2
Descriptive data by site (Stage 1)
MU (n=81)
AG (n=88)
WC (n=82)
AQ (n=81)
GH (n=93)
GF (n=74)
Total (n=499)
Age groupa
Under 20
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 and over
14%
38%
15%
10%
5%
19%
7%
29%
22%
10%
14%
18%
4%
20%
17%
35%
13%
11%
9%
19%
15%
23%
19%
15%
10%
8%
19%
14%
9%
41%
0%
7%
18%
32%
28%
15%
7%
20%
18%
20%
14%
20%
Gender
Male
Female
44%
56%
43%
57%
53%
47%
40%
60%
37%
63%
32%
68%
42%
58%
Residenceb
Local residents
Day trippers
Aust tourists
Overseas tourists
17%
10%
23%
51%
37%
12%
21%
30%
9%
6%
34%
51%
8%
24%
37%
21%
69%
20%
9%
2%
99%
1%
0
0
40%
14%
21%
26%
Previous visits
First visit
Second visit
2-5 previous
More than 5
72%
7%
12%
9%
44%
13%
14%
30%
68%
15%
9%
9%
68%
18%
10%
4%
88%
9%
2%
1%
22%
10%
26%
43%
61%
12%
12%
15%
77
MU AG WC AQ GH GF Total
Companionsc
Single
Couple
Small group (2-5)
Family group
Large group
31%
53%
9%
6%
1%
38%
44%
15%
3%
0%
1%
46%
12%
39%
1%
6%
48%
19%
25%
1%
3%
30%
14%
15%
37%
25%
58%
15%
1%
1%
17%
46%
14%
15%
8%
Occupation - status
Employed
Retired
Unemployed
Home duties
Student
Other
48%
12%
7%
6%
21%
5%
54%
16%
1%
5%
21%
3%
66%
12%
0%
9%
13%
0%
63%
16%
0%
10%
11%
0%
41%
39%
0%
10%
10%
0%
80%
12%
1%
4%
1%
1%
57%
19%
2%
7%
13%
2%
Occupation – cognitive involvement
Hardly ever
Some of the time
Half the time
Most of the time
All of the time
4%
10%
19%
43%
25%
1%
9%
14%
37%
39%
1%
7%
6%
49%
37%
1%
6%
9%
41%
43%
1%
15%
24%
36%
24%
1%
15%
12%
37%
35%
2%
11%
14%
40%
34%
Length of visitd
Up to 1 hour
1.5-2.0 hours
2-5-3.0 hours
3.5-4.0 hours
Over 4 hours
27%
56%
14%
3%
0%
67%
30%
3%
0%
0%
2%
6%
29%
28%
36%
19%
44%
31%
6%
0%
0%
0%
41%
59%
0%
0%
0%
0%
37%
63%
19%
22%
20%
23%
16%
a Only adult visitors (16 and over) were invited to participate in the survey. b Residence was coded as follows: local = within one hour’s drive of site, day trip = 1-2 hour’s drive from site; Australian tourists = more than 2 hour’s drive. c Visitors with young children and visitors in organised tour groups were not approached. d It should be noted that at two of the settings where guided tours were involved the length of the visit was pre-determined (ranging from 3 – 7 hours).
78
One-way ANOVA and chi-square analyses indicated that there were
significant differences between the six sites on all of the participant
descriptor variables except gender and occupation-cognitive involvement.
These differences are summarised below in the form of participant profiles
for each site. This information provides an important context for interpreting
the results, and in particular, the effects of confounding of site and
participant characteristics need to be taken into account. Because sampling
was not carried out on a purely random basis (particularly in relation to
seasonal and weekly variations and the focus on independent adult visitors),
these profiles are not necessarily representative of the visiting population in
general, or of visitors to similar sites at other locations.
Participants at the museum tended to be younger than those at the other sites
(52% under 30, compared to average 27%), and more often students (21% at
the museum and art gallery compared to average of 13%). A large
proportion (74%) was visiting from interstate or overseas. A similar
proportion (72%) was making their first visit to the museum. Museum and
art gallery participants came alone more often than participants at other sites.
Most participants (97%) spent less than 3 hours on site.
Participants at the art gallery were also quite young (36% under 30) and
more likely to be students than those at other sites (21%). Most participants
(56%) had been to the art gallery before and many (30%) had made more
than five previous visits. Art gallery participants more often came alone than
participants at other sites. All participants (100%) spent less than 3 hours on
site.
A large proportion (85%) of participants at the wildlife centre were visiting
from interstate or overseas and most (83%) were on their first or second visit.
79
Most had come with a partner or family group (85%)19. Most participants
(64%) spent more than 3 hours on site.
Most participants at the aquarium (86%) were on their first or second visit,
and most had come with a partner or family group (73%). Most participants
(94%) spent less than 3 hours on site.
Participants on the guided history walk were older than participants at other
sites (41% over 60, compared to average of 20%) and more likely to be retired
(39% compared to average of 19%). They were predominantly local residents
or day trippers (89%) on their first visit (88%). Many had come in large
groups but because of the nature of the tour this did not impose any
constraints on their experience. All participants spent between 3 and 4 hours
on the trip, as this was determined by the tour itself.
Participants on the guided forest walk were largely in the 40-60 age group
(60% compared to average of 34%). They were all local residents (living
within one hour of the site) and most had participated in similar walks
before (43% had been on at least 5 such walks). All participants spent
between 4 and 7 hours on the trip, as this was determined by the tour itself.
3.5.2 Stage 2 Study
Stage 2 was implemented approximately 12 months after Stage 1 with a
different group of participants. Interviews were conducted with 52 visitors
on completion of their visit to the museum (21 visitors), the aquarium (22
19 Adults visiting with family groups were included when children were old enough to be relatively independent during the visit, i.e., at least school age. The relatively large number of such family groups visiting during school time is difficult to explain, although the majority of these were visiting from interstate or overseas where holiday periods may have been different. It is also possible that some husband-wife couples or even adult siblings classified themselves as a family group.
80
visitors) and a guided forest walk (9 visitors)20. Some of the interviews (24)
were conducted one-to-one with single participants and some were
conducted with couples (14 interviews - 28 participants), according to the
participants’ preference. Interviews were kept relatively brief
(approximately 10 minutes) to minimise the intrusion on visitors’ time and
thus maximise the potential participation rate. Again, all independent adult
visitors during the data collection period were approached and invited to
participate, excluding those in organised tour groups and those accompanied
by young children.
Participation rates are reported in Table 3.3. Participation rates at the
aquarium are slightly higher than those reported for the Stage 1 research. It
is presumed that the interview method was more attractive to these visitors
than the questionnaire. Again a small incentive was offered to participants
to encourage and thank them for their participation. Descriptive statistics on
participants are presented in Table 3.4. The only significant differences in
participant characteristics at individual sites between Stage 1 and Stage 2 of
the study were at the aquarium (interpretive site), where there was a
significantly higher proportion of first-time visitors in Stage1 of the study
than in Stage 2 (χ23 = 10.10, p < .05).
Table 3.3
Participation rates at each site (Stage 2)
Museum site
Interpretive site
Natural site
Number of participants
Percentage of all visitors approached
n=21
42%
n=22
37%
n=9
100%
20 It had been planned to collect data at two guided forest walks, but the second was cancelled due to a total fire ban in the Park and there were no subsequent walks that year.
81
Table 3.4
Descriptive data on participants (Stage 2)
Museum site
(n=21)
Interpretive site
(n=22)
Natural site
(n=9)
Age group
Under 20
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 and over
10%
33%
14%
10%
24%
10%
5%
23%
9%
14%
32%
18%
0%
0%
44%
33%
22%
0%
Gender
Male
Female
57%
43%
41%
59%
67%
33%
Residence
Local residents
Day trippers
Aust tourists
Overseas tourists
19%
24%
19%
38%
14%
36%
32%
18%
100%
0
0
0
Previous visits
First visit
Second visit
2-5 previous
More than 5
67%
0%
10%
24%
36%
36%
27%
0%
22%
11%
22%
44%
Companions
Single
Couple
Small group (2-5)
Family group
Large group
29%
62%
5%
5%
0%
9%
73%
9%
9%
0%
56%
22%
22%
0%
0%
82
Museum site
Interpretive site
Natural site
Length of visit
Up to 1 hour
1.5-2.0 hours
2-5-3.0 hours
3.5-4.0 hours
Over 4 hours
29%
62%
10%
0%
0%
10%
52%
29%
10%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
100%
3.6 Stage 1 Instruments
The Stage 1 study was designed to investigate the importance of learning in
visitors’ goals and satisfaction regarding the leisure experience, the extent to
which motivations for learning vary across sites and visitor groups, the
relationships between the educational, entertainment, social and restorative
aspects of the experience, and the impact of motivational factors on visitors’
experience of learning. In order to address these issues, three sets of
variables were considered in the Stage 1 (quantitative) research:
• Motivational Factors (defined in terms of the four components
identified in Section 2.2.4 – personal goals, capability beliefs,
context beliefs and situational incentives);
• Indicators of Motivation (defined in terms of the choice of one
alternative over others, the amount of energy or effort expended,
and the continuation or persistence of an activity over time); and
• Visitor Outcomes (defined in terms of the experience that visitors
‘consume’, including educational, entertainment, social and
restorative aspects, and visitors’ satisfaction with their visit).
83
These variable sets (illustrated in Table 3.5 and portrayed graphically in
Figure 1.1, Section 1.3) were measured by means of a questionnaire.
Table 3.5
Variables addressed in questionnaire survey
Motivational factors Indicators of Learning Motivation
Visitor Outcomes
Personal goals
Capability beliefs
Context beliefs
Situational incentives
• social expectations
• task characteristics
• emotional responses
Selection of learning options
Invested mental effort
Persistence in learning
Experience of/
satisfaction with
• educational aspects
• entertainment aspects
• social aspects
• restorative aspects
Relationships between
learning and other aspects
Overall satisfaction
Note. Shaded items were included in the pre-visit component, the remainder in the post-visit component
The questionnaire was administered in two parts. The pre-visit component
focused on visitors’ goals and capability beliefs, and the post-visit
component addressed the other variables listed above. Basic descriptive data
such as age, gender, residence, previous visits, and companion visitors, were
collected in the pre-visit component of the questionnaire as it was the shorter
of the two. Visitors were asked to complete the pre-visit component as they
arrived at the site and to keep the questionnaire with them until the end of
the visit, when they completed the post-visit component and returned the
questionnaire to a collection point at the exit. Each component took
approximately 10-15 minutes to complete.
The questionnaire and procedure were pilot tested with 48 museum visitors
prior to the main study. These participants were asked to comment on the
pilot questionnaire and administration process, and data from the pilot test
84
were analysed to uncover any anomalies in the questionnaire that may have
inhibited the analysis or the interpretation of findings. As the purpose of the
pilot study was primarily to contribute to the development of the
questionnaire, pilot study results are presented in relation to measurement
issues only, and not in terms of the research questions. No problems were
identified with the procedure by which questionnaires were administered,
but a number of changes were made to the questionnaire itself in the light of
the analysis of pilot study responses.
In the following sections, details are presented regarding the measurement of
each of the variable sets in Table 3.5, and the ways in which measurements
were refined in the light of the pilot study results and respondents’
comments. Factor analyses and tests of internal consistency were used in
developing subscales to measure the major theoretical constructs. These
analyses, as well as other measures of reliability and validity, are based on
the final version of the questionnaire, administered to a total of 499 visitors
across the six sites. These preliminary analyses were designed to simplify
the data in preparation for analyses relating to the major research questions,
which are reported in Chapter Four.
The final version of the questionnaire is reproduced in Appendix A. In the
text that follows, quote marks and underlining are used to refer to items as
they appear in the questionnaire; bold type is used to refer to scales and
subscales constructed from the questionnaire items; and italics are used to
refer to the theoretical constructs represented by measurement items. These
conventions are only used when it is felt that such distinctions enhance
rather than detract from readability.
85
3.6.1 Motivational factors
Personal goals
Although in many cases, people appear to live from moment to moment
without thinking about the goals and purposes of what they are doing,
Maehr (1984) contends that individuals do tend to operate in terms of what a
given situation yields for them. “They have latent knowledge of what they
hope and expect from specific situations and, if properly cued, can state this”
(p. 127). Ford and Ford (1987) suggest that behaviour is often directed by
multiple intentions. When goals conflict, the relative value or importance of
each goal to the person will determine which goal is dominant. This research
was designed to gather data on the relative importance of learning goals, the
impact of personal goals on the learning experience, and the likelihood of
goal conflicts between learning and other goals such as entertainment,
relaxation and social contact.
In the pilot version of the questionnaire, the assessment of visitors’ goals was
based on Ford and Nichol’s (1987) taxonomy of goals. These goals are stated
in terms of desired outcomes of behaviour rather than in terms of the
behaviours themselves, thus avoiding the tautological character of many
motivation scales21. This is similar to Prentice’s (1993a; 1993b) and Beeho’s
(1997) approach which uses the Manning-Haas hierarchy (Haas, Driver, &
Brown, 1980; Manning, 1986) to separate motivational levels focusing on the
activities, sites and experiences themselves (e.g., wilderness hiking) from the
psychological and social benefits or outcomes gained (e.g., enhanced self-
esteem, self-actualisation, recognition).
21 For example, listing “to see the animals” or “to go bushwalking” as visitor goals would be seen in this context as inappropriate. These are activities which may have desired consequences such as “to experience excitement”, “to feel relaxed”, “to satisfy curiosity”, or “to build or maintain friendships”. It is the desired consequence, rather than the activity, which is considered the goal.
86
Ford and Nichol’s taxonomy consists of 24 goals, organised into five
categories (affective goals, cognitive goals, subjective organisation goals,
social relationship goals and task goals). Because it had not been generated
from the specific perspective of leisure motivation, it was considered that
Ford and Nichol’s taxonomy would provide a broader context within which
the relative importance of different leisure and learning goals could be
assessed. Forty-eight goal statements (2 for each goal) were devised to reflect
the content of each goal in a way that was relevant to educational leisure
settings. Items from other leisure motivation scales, such as those developed
by Beard and Ragheb (1983) and Crandall (1980), were also adapted for this
purpose. An initial review of these 48 statements (before pilot testing)
indicated that at least 11 were of marginal relevance to the research context
(e.g., to be better off financially; to be physically safe; to help others). While
these might be important life or even leisure goals for many people, they
were not considered salient in the context of a visit to an educational leisure
setting. The remaining 37 goal statements were included in the pilot
questionnaire and participants were asked to rate each statement on a 7-point
scale according to how important it was as a reason for their visit.
Pilot testing revealed a number of difficulties with the 37 goal statements:
• Factor analysis indicated that the items did not fall naturally into the
five categories specified by Ford and Nichols22;
• Many of the items received quite low ratings of importance (10 items
were rated as “not important” by at least 20% of participants);
• The category labelled “social relationship goals” by Ford and Nichols
included a wide range of goals relating to aspects such as
individuality, self-determination, social responsibility, and equity,
22 Results of the pilot study factor analysis and interpretation of the factors extracted are presented in Appendix E.
87
• with the result that goals relating to social interaction were under-
represented.
The findings suggested, however, that the categories of leisure motivations
identified in the literature review (entertainment, social contact, restoration
and personal development/learning) may provide a more appropriate way
of conceptualising personal goals in this context than Ford and Nichol’s
taxonomy. The assessment of personal goals was thus revised to reflect the
theoretically-derived categories identified in the literature review, resulting
in the 40 statements that were included in the main study23. Care was taken
to ensure that the new goal statements were expressed in terms of desired
outcomes of behaviour in order to maintain the distinction between goals
and activities.
The 40 goal statements in the final version of the questionnaire were
designed to represent desired consequences in the areas of entertainment (7
items), social contact (7 items), restoration (7 items), cognitive engagement
(12 items) and other aspects of personal self-fulfillment (7 items). As one of
the aims of this study was to ascertain the importance of different types of
learning experience, it was considered necessary to separate the learning or
cognitive engagement items from other aspects of personal development
(such as self-confidence, self-awareness, and self-fulfillment) and to include a
wider range of cognitive items (12 in total) than any of the other categories (7
in each).
Visitors were asked to rate each of the 40 goal statements on a 7 point scale
from 0 (not important) to 6 (extremely important), with a mid-point of 3
(moderately important). A principal axis factor analysis with oblique
23 Personal goal statements are included as “1. What do you hope to get out of your visit?” in the pre-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A.
88
rotation24 was performed on the data and 5 factors were extracted. Cases
with missing values were excluded, leaving 424 cases in the analysis. The
five factors together accounted for 62% of the common variance.
Items representing the five categories identified in the literature (see Figure
3.1) were found to load respectively on the five rotated factors with some
minor exceptions. Two of the factors were given new labels to reflect these
exceptions. As illustrated in Figure 3.1, the seven items originally included
under entertainment split into the Passive Enjoyment factor25 (4 items) and
the Learning and Discovery factor (2 items), with one item (“to alleviate
boredom”) being eliminated due to low loadings (< 0.50) on all factors. Two
of the items originally included under cognitive engagement loaded on the
Personal Self-Fulfillment factor. The rotated factor matrix is displayed in
Appendix B (Table B1).
The results of the factor analysis provide general support for the validity of
the visitor goal categories identified in the literature. The exceptions noted
above, however, are even more instructive in terms of the way visitors view
the learning experience. The results suggest that visitors perceive aspects
such as new experiences and excitement, which have previously been
considered to represent the entertainment dimension, to be highly related
with educational aspects such as discovery and exploration. This new factor
is distinct, on the one hand from the deeper experiences involved in thinking
about personal values and making meaning (which loaded on the personal
self-fulfillment factor), and on the other from more passive experiences of
simple enjoyment and pleasantry (which loaded on the passive enjoyment
24 An oblique rotation was used to allow the possibility of correlation between the factors. 25 This factor has been labeled ‘passive’ enjoyment to distinguish it from the concept of entertainment, which often includes ideas of discovery and exploration. For example, the desire to see something new and interesting was considered an entertainment motive by Falk, Moussouri and Coulson (1998) but in this study, such items were found to load on the learning and discovery factor. This finding, and its implications for our understanding of the relationship between education and entertainment, is discussed in Section 6.1.3.
89
ORIGINAL CATEGORIES NEW FACTORS Entertainment to enjoy myself to feel happy and satisfied to be pleasantly occupied to be entertained
Passive Enjoyment to enjoy myself to feel happy and satisfied to be pleasantly occupied to be entertained
to experience something new or unusual (L&D) to do something exciting to alleviate boredom
(L&D) excluded
Learning and Discovery to experience something new or unusual
to do something exciting Cognitive Engagement to be better informed to be mentally stimulated to discover new things to explore the unknown to expand my knowledge to use my mind to expand my interests to explore new ideas to satisfy my curiosity to use my imagination
to be better informed to be mentally stimulated to discover new things to explore the unknown to expand my knowledge to use my mind to expand my interests to explore new ideas to satisfy my curiosity to use my imagination
to think about my personal values (PSF) to make things more meaningful for me
(PSF)
Personal Self-Fulfillment to think about my personal values to make things more meaningful for me
Personal Self-Fulfillment to feel confident about my own abilities to discover more about myself to feel good about myself to feel I am functioning at my peak to challenge my abilities to get a feeling of achievement to develop my spirituality
to feel confident about my own abilities to discover more about myself to feel good about myself to feel I am functioning at my peak to challenge my abilities to get a feeling of achievement to develop my spirituality
Restoration to recover from the stress and tension of everyday life to relax mentally to relax physically to get away from the responsibilities of everyday life to find peace and tranquillity to let my mind slow down for a while to have a change from my daily routine
Restoration to recover from the stress and tension of everyday life to relax mentally to relax physically to get away from the responsibilities of everyday life to find peace and tranquillity to let my mind slow down for a while to have a change from my daily routine
Social Contact to spend quality time with family/friends to do things with my companions to interact with others to develop close friendships to meet new people to build friendships with new people to bring the family together more
Social Contact to spend quality time with family/friends to do things with my companions to interact with others to develop close friendships to meet new people to build friendships with new people to bring the family together more
Figure 3.1. Loading of items onto the five factors.
90
factor). The label learning and discovery has been applied to characterise this
construct, which is the main focus of this research, and represents the essence
of free-choice learning.
In subsequent analyses, average scores on these five subscales (see Figure
3.1) are used to characterise visitors’ personal goals: Learning and Discovery
(12 items, alpha = .92); Passive Enjoyment (4 items, alpha = .77); Personal
Self-Fulfillment (9 items, alpha = .91); Restoration (7 items, alpha = .90);
and Social Contact (7 items, alpha = .88).
Capability beliefs
Visitors’ beliefs regarding their own capability of achieving a goal, in this
case, learning in a leisure setting, are considered an important motivational
factor in their decision to pursue that goal26. In this study, capability beliefs
were assessed using the short form of the Need for Cognition Scale
(Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984), which is designed to measure individual
differences in “the tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive
endeavors” (rated on a 9-point Likert-type scale). This scale has been
thoroughly tested for reliability and validity and its use has been reported
extensively in the psychology literature (Cacioppo et al., 1996). The scale
consists of 18 items27, 9 of which are reverse scored. Scores for each item
range from –4 to +4, yielding a possible scale score range of –72 to +72. It
was included unaltered in both the pilot and final versions of the
questionnaire. The internal consistency of the scale as measured in the
present study was acceptable (alpha = .87).
Previous studies (Cacioppo and Petty, 1982) have found that Need For
Cognition varies according to occupation (e.g., university academics score
26 See Sections 2.2.4 and 2.3.3. 27 This scale is included as "2. How do you feel about thinking?" in the pre-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A.
91
more highly than factory workers). Actual occupation was not recorded in
the present study, but respondents were asked to indicate, on a five-point
scale, the extent to which their daily occupation involved working with their
mind. It was found that scores on the Need For Cognition scale were
significantly higher for those who reported that their daily occupation
involved working with their mind most or all of the time than for those who
reported working with their minds about half the time or less (t451 = 3.24, p <
.001; see Table 3.6).
Table 3.6
Need for cognition by daily occupation
Daily occupation involves working with mind N Mean Score on Need for Cognition Scale
Hardly ever/some of the time/half the time 115 15.57
Most/all of the time 338 23.07
As a further measure of construct validity, Need For Cognition scores were
correlated with scores on the five personal goal factor subscales. It was
found that Need For Cognition was not correlated with Learning And
Discovery (r435 = 0.09, p = .07) but was negatively correlated with all of the
other subscales (Social Contact r444 = -0.25, p < .001; Restoration r442 = -0.24, p <
.001; Passive Enjoyment r446 = -0.13, p < .01; Personal Self-Fulfillment r430 = -
0.11, p < .05). Thus, people who enjoy and seek out cognitive endeavours are
less likely to hold social or restoration goals in particular.
The lack of correlation between Need for Cognition and Learning and
Discovery Goals casts some doubt on the usefulness of the Need for Cognition
construct in this context28. For this reason, capability beliefs will be
considered as a “broad-brush” binary variable in most analyses, with
respondents being classified as having either a high or low need for
28 This is discussed in greater detail in Section 6.1.4.
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cognition, splitting at the median. This approach has been common in Need
for Cognition research (Cacioppo et al., 1996).
Context beliefs
People’s perceptions of the requirements and value of a task have been
shown to influence how deeply they will process information and the
amount of mental effort they will invest. Different contexts are perceived as
more or less valid, familiar, informative, demanding or deserving of effort
(Salomon, 1981; 1983). This is particularly important in educational leisure
settings where the use of entertainment media may predispose visitors to
adopt a mindless approach29.
In the present study, the post-visit component of the questionnaire
incorporated eight items designed to measure participants’ perceptions of
the demand characteristics of the sites, and the extent to which they
perceived that the sites support learning. These items were all rated on a
bipolar six-point scale from –3 (strongly disagree) to +3 (strongly agree)30.
For analytic purposes, this scale was recoded to a six-point 1-6 scale.
A principal axis factor analysis revealed that the eight items used in the final
version of the questionnaire could be represented by 2 factors, together
accounting for 62% of the common variance. These factors were interpreted
as a belief that Learning is Enjoyable (6 items, all loadings > .59, subscale
alpha = .85) and a belief that Learning is Effortful (2 items, loadings > .64,
subscale alpha = .68) in the context of the specific educational leisure setting.
The two items “the visit or tour was educational” and “the visit or tour was
entertaining” both loaded on the Learning is Enjoyable factor. This suggests
that visitors perceive learning in leisure settings to be part of the enjoyment
29 See Sections 2.2.5, 2.3.4 and 2.3.6. 30 The resulting eight items are included as "3. What did you think of this as a learning place?" in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A.
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of the experience. It also suggests that learning does not need to be effortful
in order for the visit to be perceived as educational. Indeed, the mean
response to the Learning is Effortful subscale was in the “disagreement”
range at all six sites31, indicating that learning in leisure settings is not
generally perceived as involving effort.
In subsequent analyses, a participant’s average scores on each of these two
subscales32 are used to characterise their context beliefs.
Situational incentives
Situational incentives refer to the physical, social and emotional aspects of
the setting or visit that trigger new motivations that were not necessarily
previously evident. These may include interesting, exciting or intrinsically
motivating tasks, social expectations or interactions, and events that arouse
an emotional response. In particular, the arousal of curiosity and interest
facilitates the initiation of exploratory and investigatory behaviours33.
In this study, situational incentives were measured in two ways:
a) the extent to which visitors reported having experienced an arousal of
interest34,
and
b) the extent to which the setting itself incorporated various
characteristics identified as interest-arousing.
In relation to a) above, three items were used to measure the extent to which
visitors experienced arousal of interest during their visit, each rated on a 6
31 See Appendix B (Table B8). 32 Average scores are used rather than totals to aid interpretation and comparison of scores. 33 See Sections 2.2.4 and 2.3.5. 34 It could be argued that this measure should be considered a measure of Visitor Outcomes (3.6.3) rather than a measure of Motivational Factors. It is included here to help establish the validity of the Setting Characteristics subscales. In Chapter 4 (Results and Discussion) it is considered an outcome variable.
94
point scale from –3 (strongly disagree) to +3 (strongly agree)35. This scale
was recoded to a 1-6 scale for analysis purposes. The internal consistency of
this subscale was acceptable (alpha = .70).
In relation to b) above (visitors’ perceptions of Setting Characteristics), an
open ended question was included in the pilot study regarding aspects of the
setting that aroused visitors’ interest. Visitors’ responses were incorporated
in the final version of the questionnaire as 13 items, each rated on a 6 point
scale from –3 (strongly disagree) to +3 (strongly agree)36, and recoded for
analysis as a 1-6 scale. The 13 items covered a range of potential situational
incentives, including task characteristics, social interaction and emotional
responses. In order to confirm the validity of these items as aspects
contributing to interest-arousal, visitors were asked to tick those that were
most important in arousing their interest during their visit. Results indicated
that each of the 13 items was selected by at least 10% of respondents as an
aspect that was important in arousing their interest during the visit. The
correlation between the Arousal of Interest subscale and the Setting
Characteristics subscale (r410 = .55, p < .001) further supported the validity of
the 13 item subscale as a measure of the extent to which the setting provided
situational incentives. The internal consistency of the 13-item subscale was
acceptable (alpha = .83).
Factor analysis37 of the 13 Setting Characteristics items revealed that the
three aspects which had been suggested in the literature as being important
situational incentives (task characteristics, social interaction and emotional
responses), did not emerge as identifiable factors in this study. Three factors
that did emerge were interpreted as: personal relevance; task characteristics;
35 These items are included as the first section of "5. How was your interest aroused?" in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A. 36 These items are included as the second section of "5. How was your interest aroused?" in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A. 37 Principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation.
95
and novelty. Three subscales were derived consisting of items that loaded
onto each of these factors: the Personal Relevance subscale (6 items, alpha =
.84); the Task Characteristics subscale (4 items, alpha = .70) and the Novelty
subscale (2 items, alpha = .72). One item with low loadings (<0.40) on all
factors (“I was able to discuss the information with a companion”) was
retained as a fourth subscale (Social Interaction) as it was both theoretically
important as a representative of the social aspects of the visit, and had been
selected by 23% of respondents as an aspect that was important in
contributing to interest-arousal38.
Context beliefs, especially the Learning is Enjoyable subscale, correlated
strongly with the situational incentives Setting Characteristics subscale (r405 =
.67, p < .001), which is not surprising as both of these variables represented
visitors’ perceptions of the learning environment. Including all the context
belief and situational incentive items in a factor analysis, however,
demonstrated that these two variables are conceptually distinct. The
situational incentives items loaded onto the same three factors noted above
(Personal Relevance, Task Characteristics, Novelty) while the context belief
items loaded onto two separate factors, also as described above (Learning is
Enjoyable, Learning is Effortful). There was only one exception to this, in
that the item “The information was presented in an interesting way” loaded
on the context belief that Learning is Enjoyable, rather than the situational
incentives factor, Task Characteristics. For the purpose of analysis, therefore,
context beliefs and situational incentives will be considered as separate
constructs. However, it is possible to combine selected items from each to
form a composite measure of Situational Factors with a reasonable degree of
internal consistency (alpha = .88 using the six Learning is Enjoyable items
and thirteen Setting Characteristics items, and increased to alpha = .89 when
38 Similar results were obtained when the factor analysis was repeated excluding 85 visitors who had come alone.
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eight situational incentives items with item-total correlations < .50 were
removed39). The resulting 11-item scale will be used when a composite
measure of Situational Factors is required40.
3.6.2 Indicators of learning motivation
In Section 2.2.2, motivation was seen to impact on the selective direction,
regulation and energisation of behaviour, (i.e., the choice of one alternative
over others, the continuation or persistence of an activity over time, and the
amount of energy or effort expended). In particular, the investment of mental
effort in a learning task appears to be the feature that most clearly
distinguishes between mindless or shallow processing on the one hand, and
mindful or deep processing, on the other (Salomon, 1983). In this study, these
three indicators were used to provide a measure of the presence and level of
motivated learning behaviour.
Selection of Learning Options
In the pilot study, selection of learning options was measured using three items
presented in a paired comparison format, with respondents forced to choose
between one statement representing intentional selection of learning options
and another statement representing a more casual or mindless approach to
the visit. However, comments from pilot study respondents indicated that
the paired statements were not necessarily opposite ends of a continuum, but
rather separate dimensions. In the main study, the paired comparison
format was abandoned. Four items were used, three representing intentional
selection of learning options and one representing a more casual or mindless
39 The 5 items remaining were 4 from the Personal Relevance subscale (“the topic ‘clicked’ with some of my personal interests”; “it provided ‘food for thought’”; “the information appealed to my emotions”; and “the information appealed to my imagination”) and 1 from the Task Characteristics subscale (“the information was presented in an interesting way”). 40 No such composite measure of personal factors – Learning and Discovery Goals and Need for Cognition – was possible because of the very different nature of the scales and the low level of association between them (r435 = .09, p = .07).
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approach, each rated on a 6-point scale from –3 (strongly disagree) to +3
(strongly agree)41, and recoded to a 1-6 scale for analysis. Factor analysis
confirmed that the item representing a casual approach was conceptually
distinct from the other three items. Thus, two subscales were formed:
Selection of Learning Options (alpha = .76) and Adoption of a Casual
Approach (1-item subscale). The two subscales were not highly correlated
(r452 = -.10, p < .05).
Persistence in Learning
As for selection of learning options, persistence in learning was measured
using two paired comparison items in the pilot study and three items in the
main study, one representing Persistence in Learning and two representing
non-persistence or Evasion of Learning opportunities42. No clear-cut pattern
could be found in the way visitors responded to these items.
Intercorrelations among the three items were low (< .3) as were correlations
between these items and the Selection of Learning Options items (only the
one item representing persistence correlated (r > .3) with selection of learning
options items). Internal consistency was also therefore quite low (alpha = .39
for Evasion of Learning subscale). These difficulties need to be taken into
consideration in interpreting any results using these particular subscales.
Invested Mental Effort
Salomon (1983) claims, with some empirical support in terms of predictive
validity, that a self-report method of measuring amount of invested mental
effort is relatively satisfactory and robust. This study used two items from
Salomon (1983), together with an additional five items, all rated on a 7-point
scale from 0 (not at all) to 6 (a great deal), to measure amount of invested
41 These items are included as the first four items of “6. To what extent did you seek out learning experiences?” in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A. 42 These items are included as the last three items of "6. To what extent did you seek out learning experiences?" in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A.
98
mental effort 43. The same items were used in the pilot and the main study.
One item ("How much did you discuss the information presented with
others?") was excluded from the Mental Effort subscale as the item-total
correlation was lower than for the other items (.43 compared with a range
of.52 - .68). This can be attributed to the fact that visitors who come alone do
not have the opportunity for discussion with others and so this is not an
appropriate measure of mental effort for that visitor group (item-total
correlation = .54 when these visitors are excluded). The internal consistency
of the six-item Mental Effort subscale was acceptable (alpha = .83).
When the three items of the Selection of Learning Options subscale, the one
item of the Persistence in Learning subscale and the six items of the Mental
Effort subscale were all combined, the resulting 10-item scale had an
acceptable level of internal consistency (alpha = .85). Thus this combined
scale will be used to provide an aggregate measure of Motivated Learning
Behaviour.
3.6.3 Visitor outcomes
Visitor experience and satisfaction with aspects of the visit
In leisure settings, the “experience” is the commodity which visitors
“consume”. In section 2.3.2, four different experiences that visitors to leisure
settings seek were identified: entertainment; social contact; restoration; and
personal development. The measurement of personal goals in the pre-visit
section of the questionnaire was based on these four aspects, with cognitive
engagement being separated from other aspects of personal development
because of the special focus of this study on the cognitive element, thus
yielding five categories. The measurement of visitors’ experience was also
based on these five categories.
43 These items are included as "7. How much effort did it take?" in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A.
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In the pilot study, participants were asked to complete two 7-point scales for
each item, one recording the extent to which they felt they had experienced
that aspect during their visit, and the other recording the extent to which
they would like to have experienced it. The difference between the two
responses was taken as a measure of visitors’ satisfaction with each aspect of
their experience. Respondents’ comments on, and response rates to this
question indicated that they found the format difficult. (Only 87% of
respondents attempted this question, and of these, 69% completed all items
on both subscales.) The format was revised for the main study by asking
respondents to record their actual experience with an X and their desired
experience with an O, at any point on a line anchored at one end by “not at
all”, and “a great deal” at the other. Unfortunately however, response rates
indicated that this was not much easier for respondents (85% attempted the
question and, of these, 73% completed all items). The items included in this
question were also changed slightly from the pilot to the main study in
accordance with changes to the structure underlying the personal goals
question44. The correlations between matching items from the personal goals
section (measured pre-visit on a 7-point scale) and the desired outcomes
section (measured post-visit on a ‘mark-the-line’ scale converted to a score
out of 21) ranged from r344 = .22, p < .001 for “feeling relaxed and at ease” to
r337 = .59, p < .001 for “spending quality time with family and friends”, and
averaged r = .37, thus providing some support for the reliability of this
measure45.
44 These items are included as “9. What did you get out of the visit?” in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A. 45 It should be noted that the focus of these two questions was slightly different, with the emphasis on the perceived importance of the item in the measurement of personal goals, and the emphasis on the perceived desirability of the item in the measurement of desired outcomes. It was thus considered that correlation coefficients greater than 0.3 were sufficient to confirm the reliability of the data.
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The 12 items were reduced to 5 subscales, consistent with the five personal
goals subscales derived in Section 3.6.1 above: Learning and Discovery (3
items, alpha = .81); Passive Enjoyment (2 items, alpha = .72); Personal Self-
Fulfillment (3 items, alpha = .73); Restoration (2 items, alpha = .64); and
Social Contact (2 items, alpha = .67)46. The Learning and Discovery
Experience subscale is an important dependent variable in this study as it
measures the extent to which visitors felt they had experienced learning and
discovery during their visit. Specifically, Learning and Discovery
Experience is defined as “the visitor’s self-report of engagement in learning
and making sense of things; discovering new and different things; and being
mentally stimulated”.
Difference scores between actual and desired experiences were also
calculated for each item and subscale, with a positive difference indicating
that the respondent experienced less of the aspect than they would have
liked. Negative differences (the respondent experienced more of an aspect
than they would have been happy with) were recoded as a nil difference for
the purpose of measuring visitor satisfaction47. Correlations between
difference scores recoded in this way (hereafter referred to as gap scores) and
other more direct measures of visitor satisfaction (described below) confirm
that this provided a more valid measure of satisfaction (e.g., for the item
46 It is acknowledged that 2 items do not constitute a reliable scale, but it was considered important that the five goal categories be reflected here without unnecessarily overloading respondents. For the purposes of this thesis, most of the analyses will focus on the Learning and Discovery Experience (3 items), rather than the other subscales. It was originally intended to have 4 items in this category and 2 items in the personal self-fulfillment category, but factor analysis of both the personal goal statements and the experience items revealed that the item “to think about my personal values” belonged in the latter rather than former category. 47 There is some ambiguity as to whether experiencing more than they would have been happy with (expressed as a negative difference) would be considered by respondents to add to or detract from their satisfaction. Even if it were to add to their satisfaction, the negative difference is unlikely to be proportional to a positive difference of the same size.
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“being entertained”, r343 = .43 using difference scores and r343 = .49 using gap
scores)48.
Relationships between learning and other aspects of the visit
Because of the possible conflicts between learning and other important
aspects of the leisure experience49, visitors were specifically asked to reflect
upon these relationships. Six items were used (the same items were used in
both the pilot study and the main study). Three items asked respondents to
indicate on a five point bipolar scale with 0 (no influence) as the midpoint,
the extent to which “learning and exploring new ideas” had helped (positive
score) or made it harder (negative score) to experience restoration,
entertainment and social aspects of the visit. The other three items assessed
the extent to which restoration, entertainment and social aspects had helped
or made it harder to “learn and explore new ideas”50.
Visitor satisfaction
Six items were used to measure visitors’ satisfaction with their visit, each
rated on a 6-point scale from –3 (strongly disagree) to +3 (strongly agree)51,
and recoded to a 1-6 scale for analysis. Only one item was modified in
response to the pilot study findings, this being the statement “I would like to
come back here again some time”. Respondents’ comments indicated that
overseas and interstate visitors in particular had difficulty with this item
because they would have no opportunity to return to the site. In the main
study, this item was changed to “If I had the opportunity, I would like to
come back here again”. However, this did not solve the problem
48 It was also confirmed that, on all items, there were no statistically significant differences in visitor satisfaction between those with negative difference scores and those with zero difference scores. 49 See Sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.6 50 These items are included as “8. How did learning fit in with other aspects of the visit?” in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A. 51 These items are included as 10. How satisfied were you with your visit?” in the post-visit section of the questionnaire – see Appendix A.
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satisfactorily. Interstate/overseas visitors gave significantly lower responses
on this item (t446 = 2.21, p < .05), the item-total correlation was marginally
lower than for other items (.70 compared with .80 and higher); and a number
of respondents commented that they did not need to come back as they had
“seen it all”. Although this was a valuable item from the organisations’
perspective, it was concluded that it was not a valid measure of visitors’
satisfaction with their visit and was excluded from the Visitor Satisfaction
subscale. The internal consistency of the five-item Visitor Satisfaction
subscale was acceptable (alpha = .94).
3.7 Stage 2 Instruments
Stage 2 consisted of an interview and supplementary questionnaire.
Interviews were semi-structured, following a pre-determined guide but
allowing the freedom to probe certain aspects more deeply and to reorder
questions in response to visitors' comments. The interview commenced with
an ice-breaker question, followed by 10 major questions covering the nature,
value and limits of learning in educational leisure settings and the
relationship between education and entertainment. These questions were
designed to investigate a number of unresolved issues arising from the Stage
1 findings. Possible probe questions were recorded in the Interview Guide
and used when necessary to draw out participants’ responses. The Interview
Guide is reproduced in Figure 3.2.
All interviews were audio-recorded, with the participants’ permission, and
later transcribed. As most couples consisted of a male and female partner, it
was possible to identify individual respondents on the audio-tape even when
interviews were conducted with couples.
A brief questionnaire was administered immediately after the interview, to
collect details of participants' personal characteristics and to assess their
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Figure 3.2. Interview Guide
Ice-breaker
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The nature of learning
1. Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
• If no, were there any times when you felt engaged or interested?
• Can you describe that experience?
• How did you know you were learning?
2. Did you come with the intention of learning about that or did it just happen?
• What do you think made it happen?
3. What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
• Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
• What was it about the experience that you found attractive or enjoyable?
4. Did you talk about things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
The value of learning
5. How important was the learning experience as part of your visit?
• What did it add to your enjoyment of the visit?
• Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
6. How will you use the information you gained?
• Why is the information important to you?
• Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the
future?
The limits of learning
7. Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
• In what ways?
8. Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal
values or actions, or see things in a different way?
• Can you describe what happened and how you felt?
Relationship between education and entertainment
9. Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
10. How do those two things fit together in the visit?
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agreement with 10 conceptions of learning items in relation to the specific
setting. All questionnaires were completed individually. Eight of the ten
items were taken from the Conceptions of Learning Inventory (Purdie and
Hattie, 2002) and covered the conceptions: "Learning as gaining information"
(1 item); "Learning as remembering, using and understanding information"
(3 items); "Learning as duty" (1 item); "Learning as personal change" (2
items); and "Learning as a process not bound by time or place" (1 item). The
additional two items were designed to assess the importance of "Learning as
enjoyment" (1 item) and "Learning as socially interactive" (1 item), as the
literature suggests that these are likely to be particularly important in
educational leisure settings. The ten items were randomly ordered on the
questionnaire and were each rated on a 6 point scale, from strongly disagree
to strongly agree. Participants were then asked to select one item that best
represented their view of learning at the particular site they had just visited.
The Stage 2 questionnaire is included in Appendix C.
3.8 Overview of Data Analysis
3.8.1 Stage 1
Table 3.5, which summarises the variables addressed in the study, is
reproduced below in order to facilitate the discussion of data analysis
techniques. Each variable set has been labelled for ease of identification.
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Motivational factors
A
Indicators of Learning Motivation
B
Visitor Outcomes
C A1 Personal Goals
A2 Capability beliefs
A3 Context beliefs
A4 Situational
incentives
B1 Selection of learning
options
B2 Invested mental
effort
B3 Persistence in
learning
C1 Experience of
learning and other
aspects
C2 Satisfaction with
learning and other
aspects
C3 Relationships
between learning and
other aspects
C4 Overall satisfaction
The following data analyses were undertaken to address the objectives of the
study. In most cases, analyses were performed on aggregated data in the first
instance, and then separately for each site, in order to assess the
generalisability of the findings and to rule out the possibility that the results
may be due to the confounding effect of differences in participant
characteristics. Parametric statistics have been used in most cases, although it
is acknowledged that rating scales such as those used here cannot strictly be
considered to produce interval data. Because of the extensive and complex
nature of the measures undertaken in this study, it was considered that the
use of parametric statistics such as means, t-tests and ANOVAs would enable
the findings to be presented more clearly than comparisons based on rank.
Objective 1: to ascertain the importance of different types of learning experiences to
visitors in a range of educational leisure settings.
The importance of learning and discovery goals in relation to other goal
subscales, and the relative importance of individual learning and discovery
goals [A1] were examined using ANOVA within-subjects comparisons and
paired comparison t-tests. The extent to which visitors engaged in cognitive
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activities during their visit [B1-3; C1] and visitors’ satisfaction with the
learning experience [C2] were assessed using descriptive statistics
(frequencies, standard deviations and means). As an additional measure of
the importance of the experience of learning, correlation analyses were used
to determine the relationship between learning and discovery experience
[C1] and overall visitor satisfaction [C4].
Objective 2: to identify the extent to which motivations for learning vary across sites
and visitor groups
Comparisons between sites and visitor groups were made using ANOVA
techniques with post-hoc (Scheffe) tests to identify variations in visitors’
goals [A1], capability beliefs [A2], context beliefs [A3] and perceptions of
situational incentives [A4]. Where appropriate, sites were grouped into the
three categories (museum, interpretive and natural) as discussed in Section
3.4.
Objective 3: to investigate the relationships between the educational, entertainment,
social and restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience.
Participants’ responses to direct questions about the relationships between
learning and other aspects of their visit were analysed descriptively and
compared using paired-comparison t-tests. Correlation analyses were used
to examine the extent to which the reported occurrence of learning and
discovery, entertainment, social, restorative and personal self-fulfillment
experiences [C1] are positively inter-related (tend to occur concurrently) or
negatively inter-related (tend to occur more in the other’s absence). The
relationships between personal goals [A1], indicators of learning motivation
[B1-3] and the experience of learning and discovery, entertainment, social
contact, restoration and personal self-fulfillment [C1] were also investigated.
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Objective 4: to examine the impact of personal goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs
and situational incentives on visitors’ experience of learning in leisure settings.
Bivariate correlation analyses were used to investigate relationships between
personal goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives
[A1-4] and learning and discovery experience [C1]. The extent to which
these relationships were mediated by engagement in motivated learning
behaviours [B1-3] was examined using partial correlations. Regression
analyses and ANOVA were used to investigate the relative influence of
personal and situational characteristics. Finally, a model showing the
relationships between motivational factors, motivated learning behaviours
and the experience of learning was proposed. The goodness of fit of this
model was tested with structural equation modelling (SEM) using AMOS 4.
The findings of the Stage 1 study are presented and discussed in Chapter 4.
3.8.2 Stage 2
Both qualitative (interview) and quantitative (questionnaire) data were
collected in Stage 2. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive
and non-parametric analyses to investigate the extent to which the
conception of learning as the acquisition of information predominates in
educational leisure settings, to the detriment of higher order, transformative
conceptions of learning such as abstracting meaning, interpreting reality, and
changing as a person.
The qualitative data were analysed using procedures similar to those
suggested by Patton (1990) and Silverman (2001). Responses to each
question were pooled for cross-case analysis. Within each question,
responses were grouped according to common ideas or themes using an
iterative process of reading and re-reading the transcripts. The common
themes were described, analysed and interpreted, and connections made
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across the full body of data and with relevant literature. No systematic
attempt was made to investigate differences between sites, although tentative
observations are reported where relevant.
The findings are presented in Chapter 5 and are illustrated using excerpts
from participants’ interview responses. The full interview transcripts are
presented in Appendix D to enable the excerpts to be contextualised, and to
support the credibility and confirmability of the analysis.
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - STAGE 1
STUDY
The aims of this study were to investigate the importance of different types
of learning experiences to visitors in a range of educational leisure settings;
the extent to which motivations for learning vary across sites and visitor
groups; the relationships between the educational, entertainment, social and
restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience; and the impact of motivational
factors on visitors’ experience of learning in leisure settings. The research
findings from the Stage 1 (quantitative) study are presented and discussed
below in terms of these four objectives. Descriptive statistics (means,
standard deviations and frequencies) for all of the subscales described in
Section 3.6 and some individual items are reported in Appendix B (Tables B2
– B30). The importance of learning in educational leisure settings is
addressed in Section 4.1, variations across sites and visitor groups in Section
4.2, the relationships between educational and other aspects of the visitor
experience in Section 4.3, and the impact of motivational factors on the
experience of learning in Section 4.4.
4.1 The Importance of Learning in Educational Leisure
Settings
Public education is seen as an important reason for the existence of
educational leisure settings, and is a major component of the experience
offered to visitors (see Section 2.1.2). Yet our understanding of exactly what
visitors seek from an educational leisure experience remains vague. In this
section, visitors’ perceptions of the importance of different aspects of
learning or cognitive engagement (including information acquisition,
understanding, intellectual stimulation and exploration) are examined in
relation to other goals and experiences in the social contact, restoration,
entertainment and personal development categories.
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The importance to visitors of the learning or cognitive aspects of a visit to an
educational leisure setting is explored from two perspectives. The
importance of learning as a personal goal for the visit, expressed before the
commencement of the visit, is discussed in Section 4.1.1 and the extent to
which visitors report having engaged in and experienced learning or
cognitive activities during their visit is discussed in Section 4.1.2. The
strength of the relationship between visitors’ reported learning and
discovery experience and their satisfaction with the visit is used as an
indicator of the importance of learning. Results are summarised in Section
4.1.3.
4.1.1 The importance of learning and discovery goals: Pre-visit
Participants’ average scores on each factor-derived set of items were
calculated, yielding a score (out of 6) for each of the five subscales (Table 4.1).
Analysis of variance within-subjects comparisons indicated that there were
significant differences in the way visitors responded to the five subscales,
with the most importance being placed on Passive Enjoyment goals (F4, 422 =
251.04, p < .001; paired comparison t-tests t > 4.99, p < .001 for all
comparisons). The data indicate that Learning and Discovery Goals were
second only to Passive Enjoyment Goals and were considered more
important than Restoration, Social Contact and Personal Self-Fulfillment
Goals (t = 7.24; 19.32; 27.02 respectively, p < .001). These results confirm the
importance of learning and discovery as a major reason for visitation to
educational leisure settings.
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Table 4.1
Descriptive statistics for the Personal Goals subscales
Personal Goals Subscale
N
Mean
S.D.
% 0-1
% 2-4
% 5-6
Passive enjoyment 477 4.45 1.07 2% 60% 38%
Learning and discovery 479 4.21 1.08 4% 70% 26%
Restoration 483 3.71 1.45 13% 66% 22%
Social Contact 486 2.88 1.47 27% 65% 8%
Personal self-fulfillment 472 2.73 1.45 31% 61% 8%
Note. 0-1 = not important; 2-4 = moderately important; 5-6 = extremely important. Subscales are listed in decreasing order of importance.
Scores on individual items are reported in Appendix B (Table B5). Overall,
62% of visitors across the six sites considered the item “to expand my
knowledge” to be an extremely important reason for their visit. This was
second only to the item “to enjoy myself” (endorsed as extremely important
by 69% of visitors) as a reason for their visit. Among the top ten reasons for
visiting, six related to learning and discovery, including the items “to
discover new things”; “to experience something new and unusual”; “to be
better informed”; “to expand my interests”; and “to satisfy my curiosity”.
The other items were the four passive enjoyment items. Each of the top ten
items was considered extremely important by at least 47% of visitors overall.
These results provide further confirmation that personal goals relating to
learning and discovery are very important as reasons for visiting educational
leisure settings.
It is noteworthy that other items that were originally considered cognitive in
nature, but that loaded on the personal self-fulfillment factor, were seen as
much less important by visitors. Thus the items “to think about my personal
values” and “to make things more meaningful for me” were endorsed as
extremely important by only 16% and 27% of visitors respectively. One
interpretation of these findings might be that visitors are more interested in
increasing the quantity of information they are aware of, and acquiring facts,
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than engaging in deeper levels of thought and meaning-making. In other
words, in the context of educational leisure settings, it is possible that visitors
display a preference for lower level conceptions of learning (Marton & Säljö,
1997). Although this is suggested by the data, it cannot be verified as the
data were not collected with this purpose in mind. It is, however, an
hypothesis that is worthy of further research52. Interestingly, a recent study
of tour guides’ perceptions of their role in ecotourism settings (Ballantyne &
Hughes, 2001) also highlighted the perceived importance of the provision of
information. Although 77% of practising guides considered their most
important functions to include providing correct and interesting information,
fewer than 12% mentioned changing visitors’ attitudes or encouraging
understanding, appreciation and protection of the natural environment, even
though these values are strongly espoused in the ecotourism context.
Falk and Dierking’s (2000, p. 153) observation that museum learning
typically involves either the learning of global ideas (e.g., “Science is fun”) or
the learning of very specific, idiosyncratic facts and concepts (e.g., “George
Washington had funny teeth”) is also consistent with the hypothesis that
visitors prefer an information acquisition approach to learning. Such a
preference among visitors could pose a problem for educational leisure
settings. Ansbacher (1998) suggests that if visitors acquire information
mindlessly, without engaging their own thinking, the “appearance of
knowledge” may be gained without achieving understanding (see Section
2.2.5). Falk and Dierking (2000) suggest that learning of concepts and
overarching principles does occur in museums, but less frequently than the
acquisition of facts.
52 This issue is further explored in Stage 2 of this research and reported in Section 5.3.3.
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4.1.2 The importance of learning in the visitor experience
The extent to which visitors reported having engaged in and experienced
learning or cognitive activities during their visit was considered from a
number of perspectives: the extent to which they engaged in motivated
learning behaviours, the extent to which they reported having experienced
learning and discovery during their visit, their level of satisfaction with the
learning experience, and the extent to which their experience of learning
contributed to their overall satisfaction with their visit.
Engagement in motivated learning behaviours
Three indicators were used to ascertain the extent to which visitors showed
evidence of learning motivation during their visit: Selection of Learning
Options (2 subscales); Persistence in Learning (2 subscales); and amount of
invested Mental Effort. An aggregate measure of Motivated Learning
Behaviour was also constructed which combined measures of these three
indicators. Descriptive statistics on these subscales are provided in
Appendix B (Tables B16 – B19).
Most visitors reported having engaged in motivated learning behaviours
such as deliberate selection of learning options (68%), persistence in learning
(57%) and at least a moderate investment of mental effort (80%). However,
respondents were more likely to adopt a casual approach to learning (letting
it happen naturally) than a deliberate approach (deliberately seeking
learning opportunities), (paired comparison t 451 = 5.73, p < .001). This finding
adds further support to the notion that visitors value the discovery aspects of
learning in leisure settings, and highlights the importance of arousing
visitors’ interest. However, it does not necessarily mean that they are
unwilling to devote mental effort to learning once their interest is aroused.
Respondents reported being more willing to keep thinking about
information or issues until they understood it, than to avoid or dismiss
114
difficult topics (t 450 = 7.38, p < .001). The direction of these differences was
consistent across all six sites.
Experience of learning and discovery
Visitors’ scores on the five Experience subscales are presented in Appendix
B, Tables B21-23 and the extent to which they experienced Arousal of
Interest in Tables B25-26.
Overall, visitors experienced greater Enjoyment than any other aspect (t 479 >
4.19, p < .001), followed by Restoration, Learning and Discovery, Social
Contact and Personal Self-Fulfillment. Analysis of individual items
confirmed this pattern (Table B24), with over 50% of respondents reporting
high levels of “enjoying myself” and “feeling relaxed and at ease”, 30-40% of
respondents reporting high levels of most other items, including all three in
the Learning and Discovery subscale, and fewer than 20% of respondents
reporting high levels of “rethinking my personal values” and “interacting
with others”.
The figures regarding Arousal of Interest are consistent with the above, 31%
of respondents reporting high levels on this variable (scores of 5 or 6 on the
recoded scale). Arousal of Interest correlated positively with Learning and
Discovery Experience (r401 = .51, p < .001).
Satisfaction with the learning experience
Most visitors were very satisfied with their visit, 67% giving a strongly
positive response on the Satisfaction subscale (Appendix B, Table B29).
Visitor satisfaction was also measured specifically for each of the five aspects
of experience, using the gap between ideal and actual experience.
Descriptive statistics for gap scores on each of the five subscales are reported
in Table B27. Only half of all visitors (54%) reported that the level of learning
115
and discovery they actually experienced during their visit matched or
exceeded their ideal. By comparison, 66% of visitors reported that their
expectations with regard to enjoyment aspects had been met and 68% with
regard to restorative aspects. Learning and discovery was the aspect that
visitors appeared to be least satisfied with overall (i.e., they would have liked
more than they actually experienced). Within-subjects analysis of variance
indicated that there were significant differences in the way visitors
responded to the five subscales, with the least satisfaction (greatest gap)
being experienced in relation to Learning and Discovery aspects of the visit
(F4, 309 = 6.26, p < .001; paired comparison t-tests t > 2.24, p < .05 for all
comparisons). This gap did not appear to be consistently due either to the
actual experience of learning being lower than other subscales or the desired
experience being higher. However, the finding does indicate that the
learning and discovery aspects of a visit could potentially be increased.
The importance of learning in the visitor experience
Results are presented above regarding the extent to which visitors reported
having experienced learning and discovery during their visit and their
satisfaction with the experience they had received. In this section, a third
perspective will be explored – the extent to which the learning and discovery
experience contributed to visitors’ overall satisfaction. It is contended that
the strength of the relationship between the learning and discovery
experience and general satisfaction provides an indication of the importance
of learning to visitors, although it cannot be used as an individual measure.
The extent to which each of the five Experience subscales correlated with the
Satisfaction subscale is reported in Table 4.2. The fact that this relationship
varies between sites in much the same way as the importance of learning
goals gives some credibility to the use of the correlation coefficient in this
way53. As for Personal Goals (reported in Table 4.1), the importance of the
53 Further confirmation is provided by results reported in Section 4.2.1.
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Learning and Discovery Experience was second only to that of the Passive
Enjoyment Experience.
Table 4.2
Correlations between the five Experience subscales and Satisfaction
Experience subscale r N
Passive enjoyment .61 410
Learning and discovery .50 412
Restoration .45 412
Personal self-fulfillment .47 405
Social Contacta .24 408
Note. All correlations are significant at p < .001 level. Subscales are listed in descending order. a When those who came alone are excluded, r 337 = .33
Selection of Learning Options and the aggregate Motivated Learning
Behaviour scale also correlated positively with Visitor Satisfaction (r438 = .29;
r426 = .29, p < .001 respectively), indicating that engagement in motivated
learning behaviour during the visit is associated with visitors’ overall
satisfaction with the visit. The belief that Learning is Enjoyable correlated
positively with overall satisfaction (r438 = .59, p < .001) and with satisfaction
with the learning aspects of the experience (negative correlation with Gap
scores: r322 = - .20, p < .001). Thus the more visitors perceived learning at the
particular site they were visiting to be enjoyable, the more likely they were to
be satisfied with both the experience in general and the learning aspects of it.
This provides further confirmation of the importance of learning and
discovery for visitors to educational leisure settings.
4.1.3 Summary of findings
These findings, using a number of different measures, consistently indicate
that Learning and Discovery is an important aspect of a visit to an
educational leisure setting, which is associated with visitor satisfaction, and
117
which visitors would like to experience to a greater extent than is presently
available. It is evident, however, that visitors prefer to engage in casual
learning experiences, rather than activities requiring major or deliberate
mental effort. It is also suggested that visitors’ conceptions of learning in
educational leisure settings may be limited to the lower level conceptions
which focus on the acquisition of information rather than deeper levels of
thought and meaning-making.
4.2 Variations in Motivational Factors across Sites and
Visitor Groups
Two fields of research and practice have contributed to our understanding of
learning in educational leisure settings – museum studies and interpretation.
These two fields have different histories and different emphases. Museums,
for example, have traditionally valued a more serious approach to education,
while interpretation, with its roots in tourism and recreation, places greater
emphasis on the entertainment function. The two fields share much common
ground, however, including a common emphasis on the need to stimulate
visitors’ motivation to learn. By investigating variations in motivations for
learning across a range of educational leisure settings, including both
museum and non-museum sites, this research contributes to establishing a
theoretical foundation that allows the fields of museum learning and
interpretation to be more closely integrated. Greater understanding of
variations among visitor groups will also contribute to the development and
application of theoretical principles for learning in educational leisure
settings.
In this section, the ways in which motivational factors, including personal
goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives, vary across
different sites (Section 4.2.1) and visitor groups (Section 4.2.2) are discussed.
The results are summarised in Section 4.2.3.
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4.2.1 Variations by site
Variations in personal goals by site
Descriptive statistics for the five personal goal subscales are reported by site
in Appendix B, Table B3. Analysis of variance techniques indicated that
there were significant between-group differences (i.e., differences between
the six sites) for all five subscales. Scheffe post-hoc comparisons confirmed
that there were no significant differences between the museum and the art
gallery (museum sites) on any of the five Goal subscales; nor between any of
the pairs within the interpretive site categories (wildlife centre, aquarium,
guided history walk). It was for this reason that the sites were reclassified in
this way, as discussed in Section 3.4. A summary of mean scores by site and
by site type is provided in Table 4.3 below.
For ease of interpretation, subsequent analyses of variations by site will use
the three site categories - museum sites, interpretive sites, and natural site.
More detailed descriptive statistics for the five personal goal subscales are
reported by site type in Appendix B, Table B4. Significant differences were
found between site types on all five personal goal subscales as follows:
Learning and Discovery Goals: Visitors to museum sites placed greater
importance on Learning and Discovery Goals than visitors to interpretive
sites, who in turn placed greater importance on these goals than visitors to
the natural site (F 2, 476 = 12.39, p < .001; all Scheffe post-hoc comparisons were
significant, p < .05).
Passive Enjoyment Goals: Visitors to interpretive sites placed greater
importance on Passive Enjoyment Goals than visitors to museum and natural
sites (F 2, 474 = 5.44, p < .01; Scheffe post-hoc comparisons between interpretive
and museum sites, and between interpretive and natural sites were
significant, p < .05).
119
Restoration Goals: Visitors to the natural site and interpretive sites placed
greater importance on Restoration Goals than visitors to the museum sites (F
2, 480 = 13.90, p < .001; Scheffe post-hoc comparisons between natural site and
museum sites, and between interpretive sites and museum sites were
significant, p < .001).
Social Contact Goals: Visitors to the interpretive sites and natural site
placed greater importance on Social Contact Goals than visitors to the
museum sites (F 2, 483 = 42.30, p < .001; Scheffe post-hoc comparisons between
natural site and museum sites, and between interpretive sites and museum
sites were significant, p < .001).
Personal Self-Fulfillment Goals: Visitors to the natural site placed the
greatest importance on Personal Self-Fulfillment Goals and visitors to
interpretive sites, the least (F 2, 469 = 7.16, p < .001); only Scheffe post-hoc
comparison between natural and interpretive sites was significant, p < .001).
The differences between sites in the importance placed on learning are
reflected also in variations on the correlational measure of learning
importance introduced in Section 4.1.254. Correlation coefficients were
converted to z scores in order to test for differences between groups. As
indicated in Table 4.3, the Learning and Discovery Experience was more
important to visitors at the museum sites than visitors at interpretive sites (z
= 2.41, p < .05) and visitors at the natural site (z = 3.14, p < .01). The
difference between interpretive sites and the natural site was not statistically
significant (z = 1.48, p > .05).
54 The correlation between the reported extent of learning and general satisfaction with the visit is used as an indicator of the importance of the learning experience for each group.
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Table 4.3
Importance of learning by site, as indicated by personal goals and the learning-
satisfaction relationship
MU AG GH WC AQ GF Importance of learning – indicated by mean score on Learning and Discovery Goals subscale
4.54 4.35 4.26 4.18 4.17 3.69
Importance of learning – indicated by learning-satisfaction relationship (r)
.62 .69 .56 .51 .40 .30
Museum
sites
Interpretive
sites
Natural
site Importance of learning – indicated by mean score on Learning and Discovery Goals subscale
4.44
4.21
3.69
Importance of learning – indicated by learning-satisfaction relationship (r)
.66 .48 .30
Note. Sites are listed in descending order of the importance of learning. MU = museum; AG = art gallery; GH = guided history walk; WC = wildlife centre; AQ = aquarium; GF = guided forest walk.
There were also differences within sites on the five personal goals subscales.
As reported in Section 4.1.1, visitors generally considered Passive Enjoyment
Goals to be most important, followed by Learning and Discovery Goals, then
Restoration, Social Contact and Personal Self-Fulfillment Goals. The only
deviations in this pattern within individual sites were:
• Visitors to the museum sites (museum and art gallery) placed greater
importance on learning and discovery than on any other subscale (t 155
> 10.61, p < .001), with the exception of passive enjoyment (t 156 = 1.33,
p = .18), and less importance on social contact than any other subscale
(t 158 > 5.86, p < .001).
• Visitors to the natural site placed greater importance on restoration
than on learning and discovery (t 68 = 3.35, p < .01).
The variations between and within sites are displayed graphically in Figure
4.1.
121
Figure 4.1. Variations in personal goals by site.
Note. MU = museum; AG = art gallery [museum sites]; WC = wildlife centre; AQ = aquarium; GH = guided history walk [interpretive sites]; GF = guided forest walk [natural site]
Similar patterns are evident also in terms of visitors’ responses to the
individual items in the personal goal subscales. Table 4.4 indicates the
distribution of individual items within the top ten reasons for visiting each
site. In the museum sites, learning and discovery goals predominate, even at
the expense of enjoyment goals. In the interpretive sites, enjoyment goals
predominate, learning and discovery goals are also important, and some
restoration and social contact goals are also within the top ten. In the natural
site, restoration goals are more important than learning and discovery goals.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
MU AG WC AQ GH GF
Passive enjoymentLearning and discoveryRestorationSocial contactPersonal self-fulfillment
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Table 4.4
Number of items from each subscale among the ten most popular reasons for visiting
Site LDG of 12a
ENG of 4
REG of 7
PSG of 9
SOG of 7
Museum 9 1
Art gallery 8 2
Wildlife centre 4 4 2
Aquarium 4 3 1 2
Guided history tour 5 3 2
Guided forest walk 3 3 4
a There were 12 items in the learning and discovery goals (LDG) subscale, 4 items in the passive enjoyment goals (ENG) subscale, 7 in the restoration goals (REG) subscale, 9 in the personal self-fulfillment goals (PSG) subscale, and 7 in the social contact goals (SOG) subscale.
In summary, visitors to the museum sites (museum and art gallery) could be
characterised as placing greatest importance on learning and discovery;
visitors to the interpretive sites (wildlife centre, aquarium and guided history
tour) could be characterised as placing greatest importance on enjoyment,
followed by learning and discovery; and visitors to the natural site (guided
forest walk) could be characterised as placing greatest importance on
enjoyment, followed by restoration. Aspects of enjoyment were, in general,
of greater importance to non-museum visitors than aspects of learning and
discovery. Individual item analyses support these general findings in
relation to differences between sites. Visitors to museum sites included nine
learning and discovery goals in their top ten reasons for visiting, compared
with five in interpretive settings and three in the natural setting. The
variations among sites in participation rates55 also suggest that museum
visitors came with a greater willingness to use their mind and to reflect than
visitors to other sites. The consistency of this finding across a range of
different measures provides considerable support in terms of internal
validity. The extent to which the finding is generalisable to other sites is
supported to some extent by the consistency within setting categories in this
55 See Section 3.5.1.
123
study (museum, interpretive and natural sites)56, although the fact that there
was only one site in the natural category is a limitation.
Variations in capability beliefs by site
Descriptive statistics for the Need for Cognition scale57 are reported in
Appendix B Table B6, and by site in Table B7. Capability beliefs were higher
among museum site visitors than interpretive site or natural site visitors (F 2,
450 = 12.33, p < .001; Scheffe post-hoc comparisons between museum sites and
interpretive sites, and between museum sites and the natural site were
significant, p < .001). This is consistent with the finding reported above in
relation to the importance of learning and discovery goals.
Variations in context beliefs by site
There was no significant difference among sites on the Learning is Enjoyable
subscale (F 2, 459 = 1.53, p > .05). However, there were differences on some
individual items (see Appendix B Table B11). Interpretive sites scored
highest in terms of “opportunities to learn” (F2, 474 = 5.29, p < .01) and the visit
or tour being considered “educational” (F 2, 472 = 3.50, p < .05). Museum sites
scored highest in terms of “understanding the information presented here is
important to me” (F 2, 469 = 3.67, p < .05). There were significant differences
among sites on the Learning is Effortful subscale (F 2, 470 = 3.28, p < .05),
museum sites scoring the highest on this subscale and on the individual item
“learning here is difficult” (F 2, 471 = 5.17, p < .01).
56 It should be noted, of course, that the categorization of sites was revised in response to these patterns. 57 As indicated in Section 3.6.1 and discussed in Section 6.1.4, there are some doubts about the value of the Need for Cognition Scale as a measure of capability beliefs in the context of educational leisure settings. The findings reported here thus need to be interpreted in relation to the original intent of the scale as a measure of “the tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors” rather than a measure of visitors’ confidence regarding their ability to learn in the site being visited.
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Variations in situational incentives by site
Situational incentives were measured in terms of the extent to which visitors
perceived that the site incorporated four different aspects identified as
interest-arousing (Personal Relevance, Task Characteristics, Novelty and
Social Interaction). Descriptive statistics by site and site type are presented
in Appendix B, Tables B13-14. There were significant differences between
sites in the extent to which they were seen to incorporate Personal Relevance
(F 2, 442 = 5.36, p = .01), interest-arousing Task Characteristics (F 2, 448 = 37.98, p
< .001), Novelty (F 2, 453 = 6.34, p < .01) and opportunity for Social Interaction
(F 2, 455 = 17.42, p < .001). Museum sites were seen as having the most
personally relevant information, as well as the most new and surprising
information; the interpretive sites were seen as having the most
opportunities for social interaction and the natural site was seen as having
the most interest-arousing task characteristics, e.g., the opportunity to
participate actively, to ask questions and to see the real things or places to
which the information referred.
There were no overall differences between the sites in terms of the combined
Situational Factors subscale58 (see Appendix B, Table B15), indicating that
while each of the sites had different strengths and weaknesses, no one site
could be said to be either superior or inferior to the others in a general sense.
4.2.2 Variations by visitor group
Variations in personal goals by visitor group
There was a significant effect of place of residence on the importance of
Learning and Discovery Goals (F3, 458 = 3.95, p < .01), with significant post
hoc differences found between overseas visitors and locals. Collapsing this
58 This included both Context Beliefs items and Setting Characteristics items, as described in Section 3.6.1.
125
variable into binary form (local residents vs tourists, including day trippers)
confirmed a significant difference
between locals and tourists (t460 = 3.27, p < .001), tourists placing greater
importance on learning and discovery goals than local residents.
There was a significant effect of number of previous visits (F3, 471 = 5.78, p <
.01), with significant post hoc differences found between first and second-
time visitors. Collapsing this variable into binary form confirmed a
significant difference between first time and repeat visitors (t473 = 3.48, p <
.001), first time visitors placing greater importance on learning and discovery
goals. This is consistent with Ballantyne, Packer and Beckmann’s (1998)
finding of a greater motivation for exploration on the part of first-time
visitors to a wilderness area. Because of the confounding between place of
residence and previous visits (local residents being more likely than tourists
to be repeat visitors), a two-way ANOVA was conducted with the binary
form of these as the independent variables. This confirmed significant main
effects for both place of residence (F1, 457 = 5.25, p < .05) and previous visits (F1,
457 = 5.52, p < .05) but no interaction effects (F1, 457 = 0.15).
The significant differences reported above were tested separately for each
site to ensure that these effects were not an artifact resulting from the
confounding between participant descriptive data and site (see Table 3.2,
Section 3.5.1). Although not reported here in detail, these tests did confirm
the direction of the effect in each case, in at least five of the six sites59.
In relation to personal goals other than Learning and Discovery Goals, it was
found that Restoration Goals were considered more important by older
59 Test results are not reported for individual sites as in many cases the sample sizes are too small to demonstrate significant differences. The only purpose for testing individual sites was to eliminate the effect of site differences on the dependent variable (in this case Learning and Discovery Goals) as an alternative explanation for the reported findings.
126
visitors (F 5, 473 = 4.36, p < .001), local residents (F 3, 460 = 10.14, p < .001), those
with lower need for cognition (t 440 = 3.11, p < .01), those in paid employment
or home duties (F5, 477 = 6.76, p < .001 ), and those whose daily occupation
involved working with their minds “all of the time” (F 4, 475 = 4.35, p < .01)60.
This finding provides some support for the suggestion that information
overload may lead people to seek a restorative experience in their leisure
time. However there is no evidence that this led to a decrease in the desire
for a learning and discovery experience61.
Social Contact Goals were more important to those visiting with friends or
family (F4, 476 = 34.85, p < .001), local residents (F 3, 463 = 6.79, p < .001), those
with low need for cognition (t 442 = 3.50, p < .001), and those whose daily
occupation centred on home duties (F5, 477 = 6.76, p < .001).
Personal Self-Fulfillment Goals were more important to local residents (F 3,
448 = 2.94, p < .05) and repeat visitors (F 3, 464 = 9.61, p < .001). As this subscale
incorporates aspects of deeper learning such as thinking about personal
values and meaning-making, this finding suggests the possibility that it may
take more than one visit to an educational leisure setting to begin to focus on
the potentially deeper learning experiences offered.
Variations in capability beliefs by visitor group
Tourists, especially overseas tourists, scored higher than local residents on
Need for Cognition (t437 = 3.16, p < .01) and visitors who came alone scored
higher than those who came with others (t450 = 2.84, p < .01). Again, the
direction of these effects was confirmed in at least five of the six sites.
60 Variations in the degrees of freedom reported here reflect the different number of categories in each variable – see “3. Questions about yourself” in the pre-visit section of the questionnaire (Appendix A). 61 See also Section 4.3.2.
127
Variations in context beliefs by visitor group
There were no significant differences between visitor groups on the two
context belief subscales.
Variations in situational incentives by visitor group
There were some significant differences in the extent to which different
groups perceived the presence of interest-arousing aspects. Older visitors
tended to perceive the presence of Task Characteristics, such as the
information being presented in an interesting way, having the opportunity to
participate actively and ask questions, being able to see real things/places) to
a greater extent than younger people (F5, 444 = 7.74, p < .001). Females tended
to perceive the presence of both Task Characteristics and Personal
Relevance to a greater extent than males (t 442 = 4.02, p < .001; t436 = 3.75, p <
.001 respectively). Not surprisingly, those visiting in company perceived
opportunities for Social Interaction to a greater extent than those visiting
alone (t 455 = 15.48, p < .001). The direction of these effects was confirmed in at
least four of the six sites.
4.2.3 Summary of findings
Some consistent patterns were found in terms of the ways in which visitors
approached, and perceived the different sites. In particular, visitors to the
museum sites were more likely to value the learning and discovery aspects of
the visit, visitors to the interpretive sites were more likely to value the
enjoyment aspects, although learning and discovery was still very important
to them, and visitors to the natural site were more likely to value the
enjoyment and restorative aspects of the experience.
Examination of visitors’ beliefs about the learning opportunities available at
each site sheds some light on the ways in which different sites elicit or
reinforce different perceptions of the importance of learning. For example,
the beliefs that discriminated between the three categories of sites (museum,
128
interpretive and natural sites), in the order expected according to the
perceived importance of learning (i.e., museum sites highest and natural site
lowest) were that “learning here is difficult” and “understanding the
information presented here is important to me”. Learning at the museum
sites was also considered less fun, less relaxing and more effortful than
learning at the interpretive sites, although these differences did not reach
statistical significance (see Table B11). This finding suggests that one of the
reasons museum sites attract visitors who value learning goals and have a
higher need for cognition is that they are perceived as places where learning
is more serious and effortful. The other side of this “coin”, of course, is that
those who place less value on learning goals and have a lower need for
cognition may avoid museums. This interpretation is consistent with Hood’s
(1983) finding that museum visitors differ significantly from non-visitors in
terms of the value they place on certain attributes and their perception that
these attributes are present in museums.
Although some of the variations by visitor group are difficult to interpret,
there were some consistent trends that emerged from the data. For example,
tourists, including day trippers, placed greater importance on learning and
discovery than local visitors. One interpretation of this finding is that
tourists visit educational leisure settings for the purpose of finding out about
the area they are visiting, while local residents are more likely to visit for
other reasons such as to rest and relax, or to spend time with friends and
family. Another interpretation is that people who choose to visit locations
away from their familiar home territory have a greater need or desire than
others for learning and discovery experiences. This is supported to some
extent by the finding in this study that tourists tended to have a higher need
for cognition than local residents.
Another related finding was that first-time visitors placed greater importance
on learning and discovery than repeat visitors. This is understandable as
129
there is less novelty and less opportunity for discovery for repeat visitors.
However, it is noteworthy that both local residents and repeat visitors were
more interested in the self-fulfillment aspects of the visit, which include
aspects of deeper learning such as thinking about personal values and
making meaning. The novelty of a new experience may predispose first-time
visitors and tourists to focus on more basic aspects of learning, including
orientation and way-finding. Repeat visitors and locals, being more familiar
with their surroundings, are more able to focus on deeper learning
experiences. Similar findings reported by Falk and Dierking (2000) in
relation to first-time vs. repeat visitors and Moscardo (1992) in relation to
tourists vs. residents, have been interpreted in this way. An alternative
explanation might be that repeat visitors and local residents feel they already
know the basic information and visit in order to deepen their knowledge and
understanding.
4.3 Relationships between the Educational, Entertainment,
Social and Restorative Aspects of the Visitors’ Experience
From the theoretical arguments presented in Chapter Two, it is clear that the
relationship between learning and leisure is complex. One of the advantages
of educational leisure settings is that they allow learning goals and
experiences to be combined with a variety of other goals and experiences
such as entertainment, restoration and social contact. However, the extent to
which these different goals and experiences align or conflict is unclear. For
example, the use of entertainment may predispose visitors to adopt a
mindless approach and invest little mental effort in learning or may even
distract visitors from educational pursuits. The desire for a restorative
experience may also be incompatible with a mindful approach to learning.
This research explores possible conflicts and complementarities between the
educational, entertainment, social and restorative aspects of the visitors’
experience, and asks whether “educational leisure” is a contradiction in
terms.
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The relationships between the educational, entertainment, social and
restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience are examined in this section
from two different perspectives: visitors’ responses to direct questions in the
questionnaire (reported in Section 4.3.1); and the statistical relationships
between different aspects of experience (Section 4.3.2). The latter analysis is
based on the premise that different aspects can be considered more or less
compatible according to the extent to which they are positively inter-related
(tend to occur concurrently) rather than negatively inter-related (tend to
occur in each other’s absence). Results are summarised in Section 4.3.3.
4.3.1 Visitors’ responses to direct questions
Participants were asked directly whether ‘learning and exploring new ideas’
had helped or made it harder to enjoy other aspects of their visit and whether
other aspects had helped or made it harder to ‘learn and explore new ideas’.
Visitors’ responses to these items are presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
Reciprocal influences between learning and other aspects of the visitor experience
N Mean S.D. % ≤ 0
% 1-2
Impact of learning and discovery on restoration
465 0.86 0.91 39% 61%
Impact of learning and discovery on entertainment
465 0.87 0.94 35% 65%
Impact of learning and discovery on social interaction
455 0.60 0.95 52% 48%
Impact of restoration on learning and discovery
460 0.92 0.93 34% 66%
Impact of entertainment on learning and discovery
451 1.08 0.92 27% 73%
Impact of social interaction on learning and discovery
449 0.59 0.95 53% 47%
Note. ≤ 0 = “made it harder” or “had no influence”; 1-2 = “helped a little” or “helped a lot”
Paired comparison t-tests indicated that the item receiving the strongest
support was the positive effect of entertainment on learning and discovery
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(t448 > 3.56, p < .001); and the items receiving the least support were the
reciprocal effects between social interaction and learning and discovery (t447 >
4.97, p < .001). When those who visited alone were removed from the
analysis, the mean scores for the impact of learning and discovery on social
interaction, and the impact of social interaction on learning and discovery
increased to .68 and .67 (from .60 and .59) respectively, but these were still
significantly lower than all other items (t378 > 3.28, p < .001).
The finding that social interaction and learning and discovery were among
the least compatible pairs of aspects is surprising in the light of previous
research and theory that highlights the important contribution of social
interaction to learning in educational leisure settings62. Further to this, there
was no evidence that visitors who came in company reported more of a
learning and discovery experience than those who came alone (t414 = 0.34, p >
.05)63. The finding by Falk, Moussouri and Coulson (1998) that those visiting
alone actually showed more learning, together with the finding in this study
that solitary visitors had a higher need for cognition (see Section 4.2.2)
suggest that the relationship between the educational and the social aspects
of the visitor experience are complex, and are worthy of further
investigation64. It should also be noted that the social contact dimension is
likely to be much more important to families with young children, who were
mostly excluded from this study.
4.3.2 Statistical relationships between aspects of experience
Relationships within aspects of experience
The correlations between Learning and Discovery and the other four aspects
of experience were all positive and were strongest between Learning and
62 See Section 2.1.4. 63 It is possible, of course, that social interaction contributes to learning in ways that were not able to be measured in the present study. 64 The implications of this finding are discussed further in Section 6.1.3.
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Discovery and Passive Enjoyment (Table 4.6). This is consistent with the
results of visitors’ responses to direct questions (Section 4.3.1) and suggests
that these two concepts – education and entertainment – are closely linked in
visitors’ understanding.
There were no negative intercorrelations among the experience variables (i.e.,
no two experiences were incompatible). It had been speculated65 that in our
information-rich society, people may seek relief from information overload
in leisure experiences that are information-free, leading to a conflict between
the educational and restorative aspects of learning. While there was some
support for the suggestion that those whose daily occupation involves
working with their mind are more likely to seek restorative experiences66,
there was no evidence that restoration goals were incompatible with learning
and discovery.
Table 4.6
Correlations between Learning and Discovery Experience and other aspects of visitor
experience
Passive Enjoyment
Self-Fulfillment
Restoration Social Contact
Experience of Learning and Discovery
r410 = .62 r404 = .46 r414 = .38 r408 = .35
Note. All correlations are significant at the p < .001 level
Relationships between goal orientations and aspects of experience
Further evidence of the compatibility of different aspects of the visit lies in
the positive correlations found between visitor goals and different aspects of
visitor experience. If there were a conflict between the educational and
entertainment aspects, for example, it would be expected that those who
65 See Section 2.3.1. 66 See Section 4.2.2.
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valued enjoyment goals would report less of a learning and discovery
experience. No such negative correlations were found. Learning and
Discovery goals, Personal Self-Fulfillment goals, Enjoyment goals, Social
Contact goals, and Restoration goals all correlated positively with the
Learning and Discovery experience (r = .40, .19, .14, .13, .11 respectively, p <
.001, .001, .01, .01, .05 respectively); Learning and Discovery goals also
correlated positively with Self-fulfillment, Enjoyment, Social and Restorative
experiences (r = .32, .30, .16, .14 respectively, p < .01).
Relationships between indicators of learning motivation and aspects of experience
There were weak positive relationships between the indicators of learning
motivation and most aspects of visitor experience (Table 4.7). Selection of
Learning Options and invested Mental Effort, in particular, were associated
with a more positive experience of all aspects of the visit. This further
supports the compatibility of the different aspects of visitor experience. The
finding that the indicators of learning motivation are positively correlated
with the learning and discovery experience is to be expected, and contributes
to establishing the validity of the Selection of Learning Options and the
Mental Effort subscales in particular67. It is noteworthy that while Selection
of Learning Options correlated significantly with the Learning and Discovery
Experience, the Adoption of a Casual Approach did not (r417 = .09). Thus,
although most visitors prefer to let learning happen naturally, those who
deliberately seek out learning experiences are more likely to report having
experienced learning and discovery.
Indicators of learning motivation were also related quite strongly to the
experience of Personal Self-Fulfillment (see Table 4.7). This provides some
support for the construal of this subscale as containing elements of a deep
learning experience. The finding that Selection of Learning Options,
67 As discussed in Section 3.6.2, reliability estimates for the Persistence in Learning subscales
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investment of Mental Effort and the aggregate Motivated Learning
Behaviour scale were also related to Personal Self-Fulfillment Goals (r419-435 =
.35, .28, .35 respectively, p < .001) supports this suggestion.
Table 4.7
Correlations between indicators of learning motivation and aspects of visitor
experience
Aspects of visitor experience
Indicators of learning motivation LDE ENE SOE REE PSE
Selection of Learning Options .46** .29** .18** .16* .38**
Adoption of Casual Approach .09 .16* .01 .18** .11*
Persistence in Learning .25** .12* .11* .07 .23**
Evasion of Learning -.04 -.13* .06 -.10 .10
Invested Mental Effort .42** .24** .20** .18** .32**
Motivated Learning Behaviour .49** .29** .23** .22** .39**
Note. LDE = Learning and Discovery Experience; ENE = Passive Enjoyment Experience; SOE = Social Contact Experience; REE = Restoration Experience; PSE = Personal Self-Fulfillment Experience; ** = p < .001; * = p < .05.
4.3.3 Summary of findings
In general, across a range of measures, no conflicts were found between the
learning aspects of the visit and the enjoyment, restorative, social and self-
fulfillment aspects. The most compatible of these experiences were learning
and enjoyment and the least compatible were learning, restoration and social
contact. However, there was no evidence that engagement in motivated
learning behaviours or the learning experience had compromised the
restorative or social aspects of the experience in any way. There was some
evidence to support the interpretation of personal self-fulfillment, as defined
in this study, as an aspect incorporating deep learning.
were also lower than for the other indicators of learning motivation.
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4.4 The Impact of Motivational Factors on Visitors’
Experience of Learning
One of the challenges inherent in educational leisure settings is that although
education is seen as a major component of the experience offered to visitors,
the nature of the setting implies that education may not be the visitor’s
primary motive for the visit, and the motivation to learn must be elicited by
aspects of the situation itself. Sections 4.1 and 4.2 have examined some of the
motivational factors that have been hypothesised to support learning in
educational leisure settings, and the ways in which these vary among
different sites and visitor groups. It was found that, in general, visitors do
place a high priority on learning and discovery, although this does vary to
some extent among the different types of sites. In this section, the
relationships between motivational factors (defined in terms of both personal
and situational components), indicators of motivation (defined in terms of
the selective direction, energisation and regulation of behaviour) and visitor
outcomes (defined in terms of the visitors’ reported learning and discovery
experience and arousal of interest) are examined. In particular, the relative
importance of personal and situational factors as predictors of visitors’
learning and discovery experience is explored.
Section 4.4.1 examines the direct relationships between motivational factors
and the learning and discovery experience using bivariate correlations, and
the extent to which these relationships are mediated by engagement in
motivated learning behaviour using partial correlations. Preliminary
regression analyses and ANOVA techniques are used to explore the relative
impact of personal and situational factors and possible interactions between
them. In Section 4.4.2, the results of a structural equation modelling analysis
are presented. The findings are summarised in Section 4.4.3. A summary of
Figure 1.1, the theoretical framework for this research, is presented below
(Figure 4.2) as a guide to these analyses.
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Personal goals Selection of learning options Capability beliefs Visitors’ experience Persistence in learning Visitors’ satisfaction Context beliefs Investment of mental effort Situational incentives Figure 4.2. Summary of theoretical framework
4.4.1 Relationships between motivational factors, indicators of
motivation and the learning and discovery experience
Indicators of learning motivation were measured in this study to ascertain
the extent to which relationships between motivational factors (personal
goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives) and
outcome variables (visitors’ experience of and satisfaction with learning) are
dependent on an increase in motivated learning behaviour. As indicated in
Section 4.3.2 above, the relationships between indicators of learning
motivation and the learning and discovery experience were statistically
significant. Therefore, when the relationships between motivational factors
and the learning and discovery experience are evaluated in the following
sections, the extent to which significant relationships are mediated by
engagement in motivated learning behaviours is also explored.
Because of the possible confounding effects of site, all significant
relationships have been tested separately for each site. Although only results
on aggregated data are reported, unless otherwise noted, all reported
relationships hold for the majority of individual sites as well as for the
aggregated data. In evaluating bivariate correlations, only significant
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
INDICATORS OF MOTIVATION
VISITOR OUTCOMES
Situ
atio
nal
Pe
rson
al
137
correlation coefficients greater than .2568 will be considered meaningful, even
though weaker correlations are statistically significant.
Personal goals and learning and discovery experience
Learning and Discovery Goals correlated positively with the Learning and
Discovery Experience (r408 = .40, p < .001), and Arousal of Interest (r453 = .37, p
< .001). No other relationships between personal goals and learning
outcomes reached the criterion of r ≥ .25. Visitors with higher Learning and
Discovery Goals also displayed higher learning motivation scores (r 422-444 =
.43, .29, .37, .44, p < .001 for selection, persistence69, effort and the aggregate
scale). The relationships between Learning and Discovery goals and the
Learning and Discovery Experience and Arousal of Interest remained
significant when Motivated Learning Behaviour was controlled using partial
correlation (r = .25, .19 respectively, p < .001). Thus it is concluded that the
relationship between learning and discovery goals and the learning and
discovery experience is only partly due to engagement in motivated learning
behaviours. In other words, visitors with learning and discovery goals are
more likely than other visitors to deliberately seek out learning experiences,
and those who deliberately seek out learning experiences are more likely to
experience learning, but there is also a link between learning and discovery
goals and learning and discovery experience that does not appear to be
dependent on visitors engaging in motivated learning behaviours.
These findings are consistent with Falk, Moussouri and Coulson’s (1998)
conclusions that visitors’ pre-visit agendas influence their behaviour and
learning during a museum visit. In the Falk, Moussouri and Coulson study,
both education and entertainment goals were associated with greater
68 According to Cohen (1988), correlations of .1 are considered small; .24 medium; and .37 large in the social sciences. 69 It should be noted that the reliability and validity of this subscale have been questioned (see Section 3.6.2).
138
learning. However, they classified items such as the desire to see something
new and interesting as an entertainment motive, while in this study, such
items were classified as part of the construct learning and discovery. Both
studies, therefore, support the relationship between learning and discovery
goals and the learning and discovery experience.
Capability beliefs and learning and discovery experience
Need for cognition (perceived competence and comfort with cognitive
activity) was not highly correlated with any of the learning outcomes.
Context beliefs and learning and discovery experience
Context beliefs (perceptions of the learning aspects of the site) were
characterised by respondents’ scores on two subscales: the belief that
Learning is Enjoyable and the belief that Learning is Effortful in the context
of the specific educational leisure setting.
The belief that Learning is Enjoyable correlated positively with Learning
and Discovery Experience (r396 = .50, p < .001) and Arousal of Interest (r453 =
.49, p < .001). These relationships remained significant when Motivated
Learning Behaviour was controlled (r = .36, .34, respectively), even though
the relationships between the belief that learning is enjoyable and indicators
of motivation were significant (r419-441 = .41,.41, .33, .49, p < .001), i.e., visitors
who believed that learning at the site is enjoyable were more likely to engage
in motivated learning behaviours.
The belief that Learning is Effortful did not correlate significantly with any
of the learning outcomes, but did correlate positively with the Evasion of
Learning subscale (r444 = .30, p < .001), i.e., visitors who agreed that “learning
here is difficult” and “it takes a lot of effort to learn things here” were more
likely to avoid or bypass learning activities. Salomon (1981) argues that
greater mental effort is devoted to tasks that are perceived as more
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demanding. In this study, no direct relationship was found between the
belief that learning is effortful and the amount of mental effort invested in
learning (r 448 = -.04, p > .05). Indeed, it would appear that when learning is
perceived as effortful, visitors are more likely to avoid learning experiences.
This brings into question the extent to which Salomon’s theory can be
applied in the context of educational leisure settings. Here, rather, it would
appear that greater mental effort is devoted when the learning environment
is perceived as one where there are lots of opportunities to learn, and
learning is both fun and relaxing.
Situational incentives and learning and discovery experience
Situational incentives (setting characteristics) were measured using four
subscales (Personal Relevance, Task Characteristics, Novelty, Social
Interaction) and an aggregate Setting Characteristics scale. The extent to
which the setting was seen to include a range of possible incentives (Setting
Characteristics) was correlated positively with Learning and Discovery
Experience (r364 = .55, p < .001). This relationship remained significant when
Motivated Learning Behaviour was controlled (r = .37). Setting
characteristics also correlated positively with all of the indicators of
motivation (r390-403 = .46, .45, .35, .54, p < .001).
Of the four subscales, the Personal Relevance subscale showed the highest
correlations with Learning and Discovery Experience (r387 =.51, p < .001) and
the Social Interaction subscale showed the lowest (r395 =.21, p < .001). This
provides another indication that the relationship between the social
interaction aspects of the visit and the learning and discovery experience is
not clear-cut.
Personal (pre-visit) vs situational motivational patterns and desired outcomes
Regression analyses indicated that perceived situational factors (context beliefs
and situational incentives) accounted for a greater percentage of the variance
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than personal motivational factors (goals and capability beliefs) in the
perceived Learning and Discovery Experience (38% vs 14%). Learning and
Discovery Goals and Situational Factors (the composite measure of context
beliefs and situational incentives70) were converted into independent
variables with two discrete levels (high vs low), and ANOVA techniques
were used to determine whether these two factors interacted. Both Learning
and Discovery Goals and perceived Situational Factors had significant main
effects (F1, 363 = 13.74, F1, 363 = 48.83 respectively, p < .001) and no interaction
effects (F1, 363 = 0.19, p = .66) on the Learning and Discovery Experience (see
Table 4.8). The effect size was much larger for situational factors (eta
squared = .12) than learning and discovery goals (.04). Similar results were
found using Motivated Learning Behaviour as the dependent variable.
Table 4.8
The effects of personal goals and situational factors on learning and discovery
experience
Mean LDE Standard deviation Sample size
Learning and Situational factors Situational factors Situational factors
discovery goals Low High Low High Low High
Low 11.99 14.82 3.47 3.32 184 87
High 13.41 16.61 3.58 3.34 32 64
Note. Learning and Discovery Experience (LDE) is measured on a scale with range 1 – 21.
4.4.2 Results of structural equation modelling analysis
Structural equation modelling techniques are used to demonstrate the extent
to which “the causal assumptions embedded in a model match a sample of
data” (Bollen, 1989, p. 4). They include models that operate strictly at the
level of the variables as observed (manifest variable models), as well as
structural models with latent or unobserved variables. The latter have the
70 This composite measure is described in Section 3.5.1. A composite measure for personal factors was not created because of the very different nature of the goals and capability beliefs scales and the low level of association between them.
141
advantage of combining both a measurement model (the relationships
between the observed variables and the underlying factors they purport to
measure) and a structural model (the causal or other relationships among the
factors) (Francis, 1988).
In this study, both manifest variable models and latent variable models have
been considered, the former allowing a more simplified approach to
understanding the overall structure of relationships among the variables of
interest and the latter allowing a more comprehensive analysis of
measurement and structural models. Procedures were performed using
AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures; Arbuckle 1999).
Results of modelling with observed variables only are presented in Figure 4.3.
The variables used in this model are as follows:
• Personal goals are represented by the Learning and Discovery Goals
subscale (LDGOALS);
• Capability beliefs are represented by the Need for Cognition scale
(NEEDCOG);
• Context beliefs are represented by the Learning is Enjoyable subscale
(LDENJOY);
• Situational incentives are represented by the Setting Characteristics
aggregate scale (SETCHAR);
• Indicators of motivation are represented by the aggregate Motivated
Learning Behaviours scale (MLB); and
• The experience of learning is represented by the Learning and Discovery
Experience subscale (LDEXPER).
The overall goodness of fit of the model in Figure 4.3 cannot be assessed
statistically as it is exactly identified and has no degrees of freedom.
However, most regression weights and covariances are at least twice their
standard errors, with the exception of the direct relationship between
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Figure 4.3. Causal model of the experience of learning using observed
variables.
Note. Single headed arrows represent regression paths and are notated with standardised regression weights; double-headed arrows represent covariances and are notated with correlation coefficients; rectangular boxes represent observed variables and are notated with squared multiple correlations.
NEEDCOG and LDEXPER and the covariances between NEEDCOG and
LDGOALS, LDENJOY and SETCHAR. Overall, 41% of the variance in
LDEXPER is accounted for by the model and 39% of the variance in MLB.
This is considered a reasonable amount (Bollen 1989 suggests that R2 values
between .20 - .26 are “moderate in size compared to the squared multiple
correlation coefficients typical in cross-sectional survey research”, p. 118).
Removing the covariance between NEEDCOG and SETCHAR in Figure 4.371
allowed the model to be tested. The chi-square test for goodness of fit
confirmed that the model in Figure 4.3 is an adequate representation of the
data (χ21 = 2.10, p = .15), i.e., the probability that the model is a good match
71 It was considered that this link was, conceptually, the weakest.
143
for the observed data is acceptable. Other indicators are also within
acceptable ranges: Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .996; Root Mean Square Error
of Approximation (RMSEA) = .05.
The analysis indicates a strong relationship between context beliefs
(LDENJOY) and situational incentives (SETCHAR)72 and a moderate
relationship between learning goals (LDGOALS) and both context beliefs
and situational incentives. Situational incentives and learning goals both
impacted significantly on motivated learning behaviour (MLB), as well as
directly on the learning and discovery experience (LDEXPER). Capability
beliefs (as measured in this study by the Need for Cognition scale
NEEDCOG) had little impact on any other variables.
The model in Figure 4.4 includes latent variables and allows an assessment of
the measurement models as well as the structural model. In this model,
capability beliefs have been excluded due to their low impact as
demonstrated in Figure 4.3. Context beliefs and situational incentives have
been replaced by the Situational Factors scale because of their high
covariance. The variables in this model are:
• Learning goals as measured by the 12 items loading on the Learning
and Discovery subscale (LD1 – LD12);
• Situational factors as measured by the 6 context belief items (CB1 –
CB6) and the 5 situational incentives items (SIT1 – SIT5) included in
the Situational Factors composite scale (as described in Section 3.5.1);
• Motivation as measured by Selection of Learning Options (SL),
Persistence in Learning (PL) and Mental Effort (ME);
72 This is not surprising as situational incentives were measured by visitor self-report (see Section 3.5.1).
144
• Learning Experience as measured by the 3 items of the Learning and
Discovery Experience subscale (LDEX1 – LDEX3);
• Although not illustrated in Figure 4.4, an error variable is associated
with each measured variable and a combined error/other variable is
associated with each latent variable.
Incorporating measurement error in the model allowed a greater proportion
of the variance to be explained (52% of the variance in learning and
discovery experience and 50% of the variance in motivated learning
behaviour). Reliability estimates (squared multiple correlations) for the
observed variables ranged from .25 to .62, which is considered acceptable73.
Figure 4.4 indicates that situational factors have a greater impact on the
learning and discovery experience than personal factors, both directly and
via engagement in motivated learning behaviour. The chi-square test for
goodness of fit does not confirm that the model in Figure 4.4 is an adequate
representation of the data (χ2319 = 1447.91, p <.001), i.e., the probability that
the model is a good match for the observed data is less than acceptable.
However, such statistical results are common when this technique is used
with a large sample (Gulliksen and Tukey, 1958), and do not necessarily
Note to Figure 4.4. Ellipses represent unobserved or latent variables; rectangular boxes represent observed or indicator variables presumed to measure the latent variables; one-way arrows from the latent variables to the observed variables signify the presumed influence of the latent variable on the associated observed variables and thus constitute the measurement model; the values above the observed variables are reliability estimates; the arrows between the latent variables constitute the structural model and are notated with standardised regression weights; the values above the latent variables “motivation” and “learning experience” are squared multiple correlations and indicate the percentage of variance accounted for.
73 Internal consistency for these scales was also calculated using Cronbach’s alpha and found to be acceptable (α= .92 for learning and discovery goals; α = .89 for situational factors subscale – see Section 3.6.1).
145
Figu
re 4
.4.
Cau
sal m
odel
of t
he e
xper
ienc
e of
lear
ning
usi
ng la
tent
..va
riab
les.
146
indicate that the model has no explanatory value. Marsh and Hocevar (1985)
suggest that a χ2/df ratio of between 2 and 5 may indicate a reasonable fit,
with values at the lower end of this range being more acceptable. The model
in Figure 4.4 yielded a χ2/df ratio of 3.89, which is within the acceptable
range. Other goodness-of-fit indices also confirm that Figure 4.4 is a
reasonable model. Values over .90 on the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) and the
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) indicate a good model (Hoyle & Paynter, 1995)
and in Figure 4.4, these values were each .96. The Root Mean Square Error
of Approximation (RMSEA) is acceptable when it falls under .08 and in
Figure 4.4 this value was .076. Thus the causal assumptions embedded in the
model in Figure 4.4 are accepted as being a reasonable approximation of the
relationships evident in the data.
These analyses indicate that the model of motivational effects proposed in
this study has some validity in terms of explaining the learning and
discovery experience reported by visitors. In particular, visitors’ perceptions
of the nature and extent of learning opportunities available at the site
(situational factors) are a major factor influencing the extent to which they
experience aspects of learning and discovery during their visit. These
perceptions not only led to a higher incidence of motivated learning
behaviour, but also contributed directly to visitors’ perceptions of having
participated in a learning experience. Personal factors (e.g., learning goals
and capability beliefs) had less influence on visitors’ learning and discovery
experience. This finding is of great significance to educational leisure
settings as it implies that sites have a greater degree of control than might
have been expected over the motivational factors that influence visitor
engagement in learning. It is also consistent with recent approaches to
motivation theory that prioritise the situational aspects of the learning
activity (Volet, 2001).
147
4.4.3 Summary of findings
In summary, the findings of this study support the importance of situational
factors in motivating visitors to engage in and experience learning. The
evidence suggests that when information is presented in an interesting way,
has personal relevance to the visitor, is new and surprising, and conveys the
impression that learning is fun, visitors will be more motivated to learn and
will feel they have experienced learning, regardless of their own personal
goals and capabilities.
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CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - STAGE 2
STUDY
5.1 Summary of Research Aims
The findings of the Stage 1 research indicate that learning in educational
leisure settings is characterised by a sense of discovery and is a major part of
the attraction of visiting both museum and interpretive sites. The findings
suggest that visitors’ understanding of learning in such settings may be
dominated by a conception of learning as “increasing the quantity of
information of which the individual is aware” (Marton & Säljö, 1997), to the
exclusion of higher order, transformative conceptions of learning. The Stage
2 research was designed primarily to qualitatively explore visitors'
understanding of the nature, value and limits of learning in educational
leisure settings, to further investigate the relationship between education and
entertainment, and to collect additional quantitative data regarding visitors’
conceptions of learning.
5.2 Results of Quantitative Analysis
As well as engaging in an interview, participants in the Stage 2 study were
asked to complete a brief questionnaire in which they were asked to rate the
extent of their agreement with 10 conceptions of learning items in relation to
the specific setting. Analysis of these data indicate that the conceptions of
learning as the acquisition of information (“finding out something that I
didn’t know about before”) and learning as enjoyment (“an enjoyable way of
spending time”) were predominant among the visitors surveyed, each being
moderately or strongly endorsed by 92% of respondents (Table 5.1). When
asked which item best described what learning meant to them, these two
149
items were again the most frequently selected (72% of respondents citing one
of these two items).
Table 5.1
Percentage of respondents indicating moderate or strong agreement with conceptions
of learning items
Conception of learning
% agreement
% selected as best
description of learning
Learning as gaining information
Learning in [site] is finding out something that I didn’t know about before.
92
32
Learning as remembering, using and understanding
Learning in [site] means that I can remember that information whenever I want to.
37
4
When I have learned something in [site], I know how to use it in other situations.
37 4
Learning in [site] is making sense out of new information and ways of doing things.
65 2
Learning as personal change
Learning in [site] helps me become a better person.
35
0
Learning in [site] means finding new ways to look at things. 60 8
Learning as a process not bound by time or place
Learning in [site] is like gaining knowledge through daily experiences.
64
8
Learning as duty
When learning is difficult in [site], I concentrate harder and keep trying.
22
0
Learning as enjoyment
Learning in [site] is an enjoyable way of spending time.
92
40
Learning as socially interactive
I learn a lot from talking to other people in [site].
42
2
Although there are limits to these data in terms of the range of items that
were able to be included (due to the need for brevity) and the small sample
size (n=52), they do shed some light on the way in which visitors to
150
educational leisure settings understand learning. The predominant views of
learning were that learning is enjoyable and that learning is the acquisition of
information, thus supporting the findings of Stage 1. Comparison of data
from this study with those of Purdie and Hattie (2002) for Australian high
school students in a formal school setting indicate that the rank ordering of
the five conceptions common to both studies differed most markedly in
relation to the importance of gaining information. This conception received
the highest endorsement from visitors to educational leisure settings (rank =
1; M = 5.5; SD = 0.64) and the lowest endorsement from school students in
classroom settings (rank = 5; M = 4.1; SD = 0.85).
Despite the predominance of the conception of learning as acquiring
information, however, more transformative understandings of learning,
including “remembering, using and understanding” and “personal change”,
were also quite frequently expressed in the educational leisure settings.
These conceptions received moderate endorsement from visitors to
educational leisure settings and were ranked similarly (2-4 out of 5) by both
visitors and school students. The view of learning as socially interactive did
not receive strong endorsement, even among those who visited in the
company of others (44% agreement). This is consistent with Stage 1 findings
that social interaction is not strongly linked with learning from the visitors’
perspective. The results of the qualitative analysis (Section 5.3) sheds further
light on these issues.
5.3 Results of Qualitative Analysis
In the presentation of results below, excerpts from interview transcripts are
identified with a code number that refers back to the complete interview
transcript (see Appendix D), thus allowing the comment to be seen in its
original context. The codes M, A and FW are used for the museum (museum
site), the aquarium (interpretive site) and the forest walk (natural site)
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respectively. In most cases, when excerpts have been selected, an attempt
has been made to include cases from each of the three sites in order to
demonstrate the commonalities that transcend site-specific responses. Any
observed differences between sites are noted in the presentation of results.
5.3.1 The nature of learning in educational leisure settings
Respondents were asked whether there were times during their visit when
they felt as if they were learning, how the experience of learning felt to them,
whether they had come with the intention of learning about that topic, and
whether they had discussed the information with a companion.
Visitors’ descriptions of the experience of learning
Most visitors responded to the question “Were there any times when you felt
as if you were learning?” with comments such as “all the time” or
“absolutely”. Only a minority of visitors (approximately 10% at each site)
reported that they had not experienced learning. This is consistent with Falk
and Dierking’s (2000) conclusion that museum learning experiences facilitate
some degree of learning in virtually all participants. Those who did not
report learning made comments such as the following:
I just wanted to have a look around really. I didn’t want too much
information. (M-5)
I’ve been here lots of times before so I’d already seen it. So probably not,
nothing new. (M-14)
I’ve been to places like this before so I sort of think I know it all. (I-1)
I do come here just to walk around, I don’t actually read the information.
(A-22)
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In describing the learning experience, visitors commonly referred to
information or experiences that were new or different and which
consequently elicited a sense of discovery. This is consistent with Falk and
Dierking’s (2000) suggestion that the expectation of novelty is a major
motivating force in free-choice learning.
Things we hadn’t seen before, just good to see … a lot of the birdlife – I
didn’t realise we had so many different types of birds, I knew we had a lot
of different parrots and finches and things, but when you start looking
around and see what you’ve got up there. (M-4)
Seeing the otters was a learning experience – I’ve never seen otters
before. Just watching them and listening to the gentleman talking about
them. (A-4)
I didn’t know that female cuttlefish died after they laid eggs and that’s
why they washed up on the beach. And I’ve never seen that gigantic crab
before. (A-13)
In particular, information that was surprising, amazing or fascinating was
most likely to attract their attention.
The bit down the back about Bert Hinkler – he must have had nerves of
steel to be able to fly something like that so fast. (M-9)
The turtles are very amazing how big they were, it was very good to
imagine how big they are, I didn’t know either that they eat jellyfish. (M-
15)
The aboriginal women in the 19th century and the way they looked after
the homes of the white families … and the way they’d often leave their
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own family to travel with the white families across Australia – I found
that fascinating. (M-12)
The lion mane jellyfish – the tentacles are as long as a blue whale. (A-18)
It was very interesting to find out that rays are actually born as fish.
They are not hatched from an egg. (A-21)
I can’t remember any of the names of the plants he told me but he did tell
us a few of the plants, it is quite interesting to listen to. Probably about a
few things like hazards you would want to be aware of, like the lawyer’s
palm you know with the spikes. Pointed out a little bit of wildlife to us
which was interesting and just generally telling us different things about
the environment as we were walking through. (FW-5)
Visitors also were attracted by information that connected with something
they already knew or could remember. In these cases, perhaps, it was a
sense of re-discovery that they found attractive.
I suppose it triggers your memory, things that you think you’ve
forgotten – you see something that reminds you of it. (M-10)
It made me think about how I really enjoyed the older days, with the
vehicles. Now that old taxi down the back there – I can remember the old
cars and the old taxis that were going. See I’m nearly 80 so I can refresh
the memories. I enjoy coming here. (M-18)
I grew up by the beach – it takes me back there, as a child. I mean the
stingrays were the first place we stopped this morning. I’ve never seen
them like that, it was really good. Yeah absolutely, we read most of the
things that were on the wall – what the signs say, how old they are. (A-
20)
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It’s kind of my hobby to bushwalk and stuff, so I might derive a little bit
more knowledge than I had last time and it keeps making my hobby
deeper and deeper, my knowledge of it. (FW-6)
Many visitors referred to aspects of the presentation when describing their
experience of learning. In particular, the multi-sensory nature of the
experience was seen to be important.
It was a great museum – you can touch. If you go in Germany to a
museum, you can have a look and go through it. Here you can touch and
hear sounds – it’s more interesting, I think. The little things like the
tiger moved its ears, or you can see their heads move, and so it’s much
more interesting. (M-16)
The stingrays were brilliant … they were just so close, almost collecting
you as you pass them. What I thought was really good too was at the
beginning there, the kids were allowed to pick up the fish and touch them
and put them back in and there was somebody there to show them what
to do. (A-14)
Yes I think that’s a big part of it, using all your senses, not just your
vision, your hearing … when you do this type of activity I think that you
get all your senses, it’s pretty good. (FW-6)
Finally, a number of people commented on the fact that learning during the
visit had been easy or effortless. This is consistent with the Stage 1 finding
that learning in leisure settings is not generally perceived as involving
effort74.
74 See Section 3.6.1
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It’s impossible not to learn something, you could just walk around
looking at different things or even just stand there and you’d still pick up
something, you can hear other people talking about things. (M-11)
It is very easy to learn here, easy to take something with you … it’s just
very interesting, and something’s touched you. It doesn’t feel like
learning, because learning for me is something I do at home, on a desk
and read stuff or work it out. (M-15)
All the time, even if it was just passively I think that you are learning it
anyway … not even realising you’re learning it, you’re just becoming
aware of it. (M-21)
I think a lot of people wouldn’t realise that they are learning. Like you
read a little plaque or something about a particular species or whatever it
is, and you’re going to learn something from it, aren’t you? No matter
whether you are consciously trying to learn something or you’re just
reading over it, you can always remember it. (A-3)
[The guide] was very good at just imparting bits of information – not too
much so there’s not an overload of stuff just enough to make it
interesting – a little bit about the environment and how to recognise
different things, signs of animal presence and vegetation. So yes I
wouldn’t think you’d want much more education than that in a leisure
activity but yeah, quite acceptable level. (FW-1)
To summarise, these data suggest that three major characteristics distinguish
learning in educational leisure sites: it usually involves a sense of discovery,
re-discovery or fascination; it involves multiple senses; and it occurs
effortlessly. These characteristics are consistent with Pine and Gilmore’s
(1999b) argument that customer surprise and engaging the five senses are
both important ingredients in staging a memorable experience. The findings
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also support Freedman’s (2000) emphasis on the importance of the
“physicality” of the museum experience in an increasingly virtual world.
The finding that perceived effortlessness is an important ingredient does not
necessarily imply that visitors approach the educational leisure experience in
a “mindless” fashion (Moscardo, 1988). While most visitors quite clearly
seek an experience that is effortless, this does not preclude a “mindful”
experience that is characterised by paying attention, reacting to new
information, and creating new ways of seeing the world.
Visitors’ feelings about the experience of learning
Participants were asked how it felt to be engaged in learning, whether they
had enjoyed the experience, and if so, what it was about the experience that
they found attractive or enjoyable. Again, only a small minority of visitors
had not found the experience of learning enjoyable, e.g.:
I wouldn’t say I enjoyed it but I found it very interesting. (M-6)
The Vietnam experience was a bit soul-searching, but worthwhile
having. I’m not sure you’d classify the Vietnam room as enjoyable but
certainly informative. (M-17)
I wouldn’t say necessarily fun, but just satisfying and interesting. (A-
16)
When participants were asked what made the experience attractive or
enjoyable, the same themes as those documented above emerged, reinforcing
the importance of these three characteristics as an integral part of learning in
leisure settings, from the visitors’ perspective:
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• A sense of discovery, re-discovery or fascination
It’s always fun looking at stuffed birds too and all the rest. Seeing things
that you don’t get to see close up. (M-14)
Being able to think about where I used to sit on the back of the motor bike
and also those sulkies and buggies. It brought back when I first started
work in 1936. (M-18)
Fascinating, you just sort of go “Wow, I didn’t know that”. (A-2)
Yes some of the facts were fascinating so yes I did enjoy it. (A-14)
• Involving multiple senses
When you walk around there’s things that catch your eye – you sort of
are drawn around the room and it makes it interesting. There’s things up
high, things down low, things you can touch. So really it’s an all-
encompassing sort of aspect. (M-2)
I mean if you’re sitting down watching a documentary on television, that
doesn’t compare with being able to come to the museum and like get the
feel for it. If you were to see that skeleton on television, you can’t
comprehend the size of it or the magnitude of it, but to come in and
actually stand there and see it - it becomes sort of like real, you know.
You can envision all that sort of stuff – it’s just fascinating. (M-3)
Yes of course it was good … to actually see how people lived a hundred
years ago and how hard it was to do the daily cooking or cleaning, all the
utensils, and again the interactive bits, pressing the button, hearing
people speak and so forth, yeah it was. (M-12)
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Definitely, with all the interactive stuff, and just be able to like see,
instead of being in a classroom. Like if you came here on a school visit
instead of being in a classroom and learning about it, you can come and
actually see what you are learning about. (A-10)
Yeah, [the guide] is great … he’ll come to a stopping point and say “I’d
like to point this out” but at the same time, he’s letting you use all your
senses – touch this, feel this, look at this, check this out. It’s not just like
talk, talk, talk, it’s like touch this. It’s kinda cool. (FW-6)
• Occurring effortlessly
If I can cope with it, yeah. But if it’s a bit beyond me, it’s not enjoyable.
If I went to university, it wouldn’t be enjoyable, I couldn’t cope with it.
Here there were things, because you’re learning at your own pace – when
you’re at school or uni, they tell you what you’ve got to learn – that
makes it very hard. It’s more enjoyable when you’re absorbing at the
level you can cope. (M-10)
It is so easy, you just can go and search for it, it’s not so serious, just
have a look and think “Oh that’s interesting, can you read a bit more
about that?” (M-16)
Yes, very easy to take in. The lady that we started with was very
knowledgeable and gave you an insight into how you can put your hands
down and they’ll come across to you. But I think as we’ve gone around
it’s very knowledgeable, I was quite impressed. (A-20)
Yes, I think it was a fun experience, it’s definitely not a boring dreary
day. Spending 2-3 hours walking around in here is quite easy. We’ve
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been right through everything, nearly read every plaque that’s on the
walls and bits and pieces. (A-21)
If it’s kept in a nice, light, topical form. Pretty easy to pick up a certain
tree, or a certain scout marking, dingo or pig wallow or whatever, yeah if
it’s done in that sort of easy manner, it’s not too heavy not too lengthy.
(FW-1)
He doesn’t do it past the point where you’re, like, having fun. (FW-6)
Intentionality of the experience of learning
Participants were asked whether they had come with the intention of
learning. Responses fell into four main categories:
• Those who expressed no deliberate intention to learn and reported no
experience of learning;
• Those who expressed no deliberate intention to learn, but were drawn
into a learning experience in the course of the visit;
• Those who had come with the intention or desire for an experience
that was seen to incorporate learning; and
• Those who had come with a conscious intention or desire to learn.
The first category (no deliberate intention to learn and no experience of
learning) accounted for approximately 10% of visitors, and illustrative
comments from this group have been cited above.
The second category of responses - visitors who came with no conscious
intention to learn but did report having experienced learning - was the one
most frequently expressed, accounting for approximately 40% of visitors.
Some respondents indicated that they had been drawn into a learning
experience because of the fascinating information, multi-sensory
presentation and/or ease of learning. For example:
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I was only going to be here for 10 minutes and I ended up here for an
hour and a half, so yeah it was very good. It was great to be learning
actually, because I still have in my mind that museums are kind of boring
and that, but this was good, I enjoyed today … the layout and the
diversity that’s in it. Like I can still remember when they were just big
old, there were huge big long lines of stuffed animals and bits of broken
pottery and that, but just the diversity really impressed me today… It
was enjoyable as in it was surprising, and like I spent an hour and a half
here, which I didn’t plan on doing. I learnt quite a bit for that hour and a
half as well. (M-13)
It’s quite a visual place. I just wanted to have a nice stroll around the
place and have a look … I just walked around a bit, the video was there,
just press a button and away you go – just caught my eye. (M-5)
Those who had come with the intention or desire for an experience often
considered the learning aspect to be such an integral part of that experience,
that they did not identify or recognise it as learning. This response was most
common among visitors to the interpretive site (50% of responses at the
aquarium, compared with 13% at the other two sites).
I don’t think we came to learn anything, we came to just experience
something … No we just wanted an experience, and it’s given us that.
We just wanted to find out about the past and see things we haven’t seen
before. (M-17)
No we more or less came just to see the experience. You always learn, it
doesn’t matter what you do – you pick up a book, you learn something
out of a book, it may be only a little thing but it all helps. It’s the same
coming here just to see those jellyfish, then you’d move around into this
area here. It’s all different and it’s great to see. (A-5)
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We didn’t come here to learn, really. We just wanted a good experience.
We just started reading and it was interesting. (A-16)
No just really, my intention was primarily a physical outlet, and
prepared to accept whatever came along. (FW-1)
Those who had come with a conscious intention or desire to learn included
both those who had a specific interest and those who valued learning in
general.
(The spider) was the reason for coming – I rang up yesterday and they
said bring it in to the spiderman at the museum. (M-2)
You know whenever you come here you’re going to go home knowing
something more about the country. (M-10)
Yes, well I’m of the opinion that you’re learning all the time – you learn
something every day of the week, I don’t think you ever give up. (A-7)
I like trees, I like to learn what all the good ones are. I hope you learn
something, I think that’s the idea. Yeah, you never know everything.
(FW-7)
Social interaction and learning
In an attempt to explore the place of social interaction in learning at
educational leisure sites, visitors were asked whether they had talked with
each other about the things they saw (excluding the 25% of visitors who had
come alone). The majority of visitors reported that they had discussed
exhibits, or at least pointed things out to each other. In most cases they felt
that this had helped their learning and/or added to their enjoyment of the
visit. On the other hand, several visitors stated that they preferred to explore
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exhibits on their own, even though they had come with a partner or group,
and still others felt that there was a need for both.
This difference in learning preference may account for the quantitative
findings in both Stage 1 and Stage 2 of this research, which suggest that the
social interaction aspect of educational leisure visits does not contribute to
learning in any consistent fashion. Being able to discuss and share
information may add an extra dimension to the experience for some people,
but is not a necessary condition for the experience of learning as it is
understood by the majority of visitors (i.e., as the acquisition of information).
Social interaction may be a more important factor when higher order
conceptions of learning (learning as understanding or as personal change)
are considered. Another possibility is that much of the learning advantage of
being able to discuss information and issues actually occurs some time after
the visit itself and so was not detected in this study. This is consistent with
Falk and Dierking’s (2000) emphasis on the time dimension in their
Contextual Model of Learning75 and receives some support in the interview
transcripts. The comments below illustrate visitors’ different learning
preferences in relation to shared vs. individual learning and their references
to the possibility of subsequent discussion.
• Preference for shared learning
We did it together and said “Oh have a look there” and discussed about
it. (M-16)
We discussed things I didn’t know. We talked about it, we just read it.
(A-13)
75 See Section 2.1.4.
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We talked a bit – saying “Look at that, look at that”. We didn’t really go
into anything in depth – maybe a couple of things we might have
commented on. (A-16)
We talked, showing each other what we’d found. If I found something
then we’d read about it. (A-19)
• Preference for individual learning
Probably an individual thing, I think. (A-1)
Individual. Like everybody takes an eye to something, and someone will
see it a bit different. (A-5)
• Preference for a mixture of shared and individual learning
Yeah, a bit of both. I was quite interested in the Western Women
exhibition but my husband probably went through that a little bit more
quickly. We just sort of wandered through and looked at things
ourselves. We weren't together all the time. (M-6)
Different for different experiences. (M-7)
It is good to come as a group, but it’s so interactive up there you don’t
really need another person I suppose. Like a lot of video media and that
sort of stuff. (M-21)
No mainly an individual thing – she’d be choofing around and I’d be
saying “Come and have a look at this one”. (A-8)
Yes and no, it depended what interested either of us. (A-14)
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A little bit – it was good to have other people around. I suppose on
another level it would be a nice place to visit by yourself. (FW-9)
• References to the possibility of subsequent discussion
If you speak later on about something, then you remember we talked
about it. (M-16)
Probably when we go back and have lunch we’ll discuss and compare
notes and everything, but we haven’t done that yet. (A-1)
5.3.2 The value of learning in educational leisure settings
Respondents were asked how important the learning experience had been as
part of their visit, what it had added to their visit, and how they would use
the information they had gained. Most visitors agreed that the learning
aspect was important, either as part of the experience or as part of life in
general.
I wouldn't bother coming in and just standing here and looking at it and
saying “Oh that's nice” or “That's horrid”. We read all the literature
and I've got a purse full of pamphlets. (M-3)
You can never go wrong with learning, the more you know the better it
is. (M-11)
It’s great to see what underneath the water is about – it’s tremendous. It
wouldn’t matter how much you see you always learn. (A-5)
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You can never have too much knowledge – I think you take a lot of things
for granted, and as a person growing up by the beach I probably don’t
know enough about what’s underneath it. (A-20)
You get all these little bits of information through all your senses and
you just keep learning and learning until you have a sense of place and
you feel like you’ve learned something. Yeah, I think the kind of learning
about your environment and your world is more real than other kinds of
learning. (FW-6)
Visitors’ perceptions of the value added by the learning experience
Learning was seen by most participants as something that added value to the
experience. A number of different types of “value” were identified, ranging
from the interest value, which was perceived to be of marginal importance,
through to more “life-changing” experiences of self-improvement. It is
worth noting, although the small sample size precludes the drawing of
conclusions, that the “loftier” sentiments regarding the value added through
learning were almost exclusively expressed by museum visitors.
• Learning has value as a means of adding interest
Oh yes, if you didn’t find out about some of the things you saw, it
wouldn’t really be interesting. (A-14)
I don’t feel it (learning) was absolutely necessary for me, I was just there
to see them, but it did increase the enjoyment. (A-16)
I don’t think it’s life-changing but yeah I just think it’s interesting. (FW-
1)
It was part of the experience. It marginally added. It wasn’t for me the
reason that I was there. The information wasn’t earth-shattering bits of
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information, just snippets. I think in the context of the activity, the
information was a sideline. (FW-9)
• Learning has value as a means of enhancing understanding
I think being able to read about it, yeah definitely compared to just
walking around and looking … The reading and the literature that’s
around enhances what you do see. If you see a big fish swimming past
then you read about that fish and you know more about him now, he
doesn’t just swim around in the water, he does something. (A-21)
I think it’s just another dimension. Different people coming from an
urban environment are pretty unaware of natural surroundings and I
think to learn that that hole in the ground is a pig wallow or whatever I
think it adds another dimension to it. (FW-1)
It gives you a context for a lot of the scenery that you’re looking at, I
mean I would have walked past the red cedar and the celery palm without
even a backward glance if he hadn’t stopped and pointed it out. (FW-3)
• Learning has value as a means of increasing appreciation
It just helps you to understand and really appreciate the ocean is for fish
and jellyfish and sharks and things like that it’s not really for people. (A-
5)
I’ve always loved water … I always had a very strong respect for what
was underneath that, but yeah seeing some of them today you just realise
why you have that respect. (A-20)
The more people know about it I think the better off everybody’s going to
be, for everybody, for the whole planet. If everyone had more respect for
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what’s actually under the water, it would improve it for everybody. (A-
21)
I think it was really nice to be able to stop and appreciate. I mean, I’ve
done bushwalks where you go really fast, but it’s good when you can stop
and look at things … I think that’s part of the reason why you come on a
walk like this rather than pounding the pavements in town. It’s a way to
get some exercise but you get to come out and sort of appreciate things
and learn something about the environment. (FW-2)
• Learning has value as a means of self-improvement
I guess it is important - what you can do to help improve things for the
future. (M9)
One of the reasons you come here – you could sit on the side of the road
and just watch cars go by, but this is more time-worthy. You go home
remembering things. I suppose I could have gone home and watched TV
but I thought this would be better. You don’t feel as ashamed of yourself
for wasting time. (M-10)
I love to learn things. It’s always good when you learn new things. Just
to know something more. It makes you more open-minded, you have a
bigger pool where you can take things out of it. (M-15)
Nobody can take it from you, you know. If you know something, if you
learn something, it’s in yourself. You can open your mind to other things
because you know. (M-16)
Visitors’ perceptions of the usefulness of the learning experience
Visitors were asked whether and how they thought they would use the
information they had gained. Only a small number (7 respondents or 13%)
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felt they would not use the information, although even these could still see
value in it.
I think it’s difficult to use it … I think just part of everyday life. (M-17)
Probably not, but I still think it’s good to know. (A-10)
No not really, just general knowledge. (A-13)
Some participants were able to see a practical application for the information
they had gained, either immediately or in the foreseeable future. Typically,
these were visitors to the interpretive site (aquarium) or natural site (guided
forest walk) rather than museum visitors.
Certainly we’d be able to look at poisonous fish if we ever get up to the
Barrier Reef - stonefish and things like that. It gives you an idea what to
watch for. (A-7)
I think when I go fishing, I’ll know what I’m catching, I’ll know the
different species, and then I’ll throw it back. (A-9)
I’ll use the information in that if you go to the seashore or rocky areas,
you watch where you walk. (A-12)
Basically how he explained about going down the slopes, from a safety
point of view, how to tackle them, walking sideways if it’s loose underfoot
… It just made you aware of things, a little bit more aware than what
you were, you know like this is a steep section here, give yourself a bit of
space between the next person, if there’s a loose rock move it off the path,
you know, that sort of stuff. (FW-5)
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We also learnt about the lawyer vine, I mean I’ve come across it before
but I didn’t remember it so it’s nice to learn about that vine, the safety
aspects of it. (FW-7)
I find these guides are very knowledgeable of their area and their
bushcraft and you can always learn something from them. Even though
you think you know everything, I think they know more. I’d probably
take family members out and use the information. (FW-8)
Museum visitors on the other hand were more likely to perceive the
opportunity to tell others as an important use for information gained during
the visit (mentioned by 8 out of 21 or 38% of museum visitors). This use was
mentioned by only one aquarium visitor.
It’s a topic you can sort of share with your friends so that topic gets
passed on and other people have a little bit of knowledge about it as well.
(M-1)
We’re both part of scouts – so it’s always good to talk to Venturers and
Scouts about it, like “We went to the museum and this is what we saw”
… You can pass on to the scouts when you go camping you can say
“That’s a brushtail possum”, or “That’s a brush turkey not a bush
turkey”. So you can clarify things so they learn. So you can teach them
things too. (M-2)
I know for a fact that I'll go home and I'll tell everyone that we came to
the museum and tell them what we saw. (M-3)
Yes, we’ve got a beautiful 2½ year old granddaughter, so these sorts of
things we can pass on … I think all information is important because you
can pass it on. The more you know, the more you can teach somebody
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that does not. I mean kids are always asking questions and at different
times that will come out. (A-20)
Participants at all sites referred to the incremental nature of learning, how
different pieces of information might fit together with something that was
experienced in the past, or may be encountered in the future, again
confirming the importance of the time dimension in Falk and Dierking’s
(2000) model. For these people, all information is potentially useful.
You just relate to what you’ve seen, like the water rats up there – I saw a
water rat probably twice the size of the one they’ve got up there. I really
didn’t have a clue what it was, but it’s a native … so it turns out to be a
water rat, so I remember that. (M-10)
The next time you see something, you’ll have a better understanding of
what - you can try to get something else out of it then. (M-11)
I don’t know – next time I see a turtle, maybe I’ll say, “Whoa that’s a
leatherback turtle.” (M-20)
It could come up in the future, you know “Oh yeah, I read that at [the
aquarium].” (A-14)
I can look at a tree and say, “Yeah he told me something about that tree.”
(FW-2)
5.3.3 The limits of learning in educational leisure settings
The findings of Stage 1 suggest that visitors’ conceptions of learning in
leisure settings may be limited to the acquisition of facts rather than the more
transformative processes of abstracting meaning and questioning personal
values. In an attempt to explore the limits of learning in educational leisure
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settings, respondents were asked whether they felt the experience had
changed them in any way, and whether the information presented had
prompted them to question their previous understanding or attitudes.
Participants’ comments made in response to other questions, which indicate
deep or deliberate thinking activities, are also presented in this section.
Evidence that learning may involve deep or deliberate thinking
There was considerable evidence in the interview transcripts that learning
was not limited to the acquisition of facts. For many people, across all three
sites, learning involved actively thinking and wondering about the exhibits.
You look at the beetles and you try to work out where’s the ones
between? Like in Sydney Museum they’ve got acres of beetles and
butterflies – they’ve got every beetle – but upstairs they’ve only got one
or two. (M-10)
The Vietnam thing - I think everybody created a whole reason for being
involved in it. I think it’s part of a modern problem we have. In fact right
now it’s a big issue as well, with Iraq. (M-17)
Some of the tropical fish, I think that’s what makes you stop and think -
so many different ones, they are so beautiful. And you think when huge
ships hit reefs, and spill out their oil and kill all those beautiful fish! (A-
5)
What’s sort of amazing is in the big tunnel, the amount of fish that’s
there and the sharks there but they never seem to feed off the fish. You
sort of wonder why because if they were in their natural habitat they’d
probably be eating half of them. (A-7)
I don’t know the name of the fish, it was white and black and yellow
striped. I watched it for 10 minutes and it stayed around one piece of
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coral. Now does that coral sting other fish and not that fish? Because no
other fish came near it. It kept going in and out for 10 minutes, it didn’t
go anywhere else and no other fish came through it. (A-11)
I can’t help but wonder do they feel cooped up or do they feel trapped or if
they haven’t got enough room, that sort of thing. But I don’t know if
there’s any scientific evidence that fish have a memory or fish feel things,
I don’t know. But that made me think. (A-14)
I just want to know if they’re looking at us while we’re looking at them. I
stood at one tank and there were no fish when I first stood there. All of a
sudden there’s all these little eyes looking at me and I’m going “Do you
like me like I like you?” (A-21)
Like it made me start thinking about how all the species are adapted to
drought. It made me think about how valuable water is in Australia. It
made me think about the whole ecotourism thing, you know, why are
people out here, like whether they’re here to get a taste of it, because they
can’t have that in the city. And it’s so great, it’s so close! It makes you
kind of think about how that all fits in with living in Brisbane. So yeah, it
kind of puts things into perspective. (FW-6)
Evidence that learning may involve questioning previous understandings
and attitudes
Many participants reported that the learning experience involved
questioning and rethinking their attitudes and behaviour. This was
particularly relevant to environmental issues, and again was reported at all
three sites. In many cases, challenges to personal attitudes were stimulated,
or at least accompanied by some emotional involvement, as reported by
Ballantyne, Fien and Packer (2001a; 2001b) in the context of school
environmental education programmes.
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The thing that impressed me most was the loss of some of our animals
and birds. I didn't realise how many have gone extinct and some that
I've seen around actually in my lifetime are on their way out, and that's
what, fifty years. I think they've got to stop knocking down our trees.
It's alright for them to say willy nilly we've got to have more farmland,
but we've only got a certain amount of timber and stuff left and if they
keep doing it - no fauna, nothing. (M-4)
I was quite upset about the turtles getting caught in trawler nets -
there's another one as well about an animal that gets caught on barbed
wire in the outback - same feeling. (M-5)
I was a bit sad with the exhibition about the mammals and animals that
are actually dying, becoming extinct around not just Queensland but
Australia. I’m not sure there’s a lot we can do about it – it’s called
progress I suppose – but yeah obviously you have to think about it. It’s a
bit sad to see them going, and gone in a lot of cases. (M-9)
Very enlightening, developing awareness of issues. (M-12)
A lot of animals die out… our children will not have the opportunity to
see those animals, which is quite interesting, to know how we can protect
those animals. More sensitive, what you do with rubbish. (M-16)
And to think we’ve got to put up with trawlers that go out … I’d like to
see that stopped. Look what they kill, they destroy, and they ruin the
bottom of the ocean, they must do ... because you see what’s all there and
to think when you see them pull up these big nets and the amount of stuff
that they destroy – I reckon it’s bad. (A-4)
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How beautiful the animals can be in their own environment and how
we’ve got to look after them. Basically taking care of the waterways and
not throwing your rubbish around. (A-9)
Like oh, probably seeing that turtle out the front, how it had that big cut
thing on its back, made me think about boat safety and all that. (A-10)
Being a surf fisherman, you’re walking around in the water and the fact
is that they (stingrays) won’t sting you unless you hurt them. It gives
you a bit better feeling when you are in the water, knowing that just
because you get one brushing up against your leg it’s not going to hurt
you. Because it is an eerie feeling standing there and you feel it brush
past you and you think “Oh-oh”. (A-21)
Evidence that learning may involve personal change
A number of participants agreed that they had changed in some way, beyond
the acquisition of facts, as a result of the learning experience. Their
explanation of that change produced similar themes to those emerging from
participants’ reflections regarding the value added by learning, although
these respondents were a different subset of the sample. Thus, enhanced
understanding and awareness, increased appreciation, and self-
improvement were all areas in which people felt they had changed.
It makes you appreciate how things are today, how easy we have it today
- I wouldn't have been a very good pioneer, I'm sure of it. (M-3)
I think it makes you more aware of what was around - it changes you in
that respect. (M-4)
In a small way I think yes, it always does … knowing a lot more of
what’s going on I think helps you understand why we are what we are
today. (M-17)
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It would probably make you appreciate some things a bit more. (A-7)
Amazed at the uniqueness of so many creatures. (A-11)
I suppose there’s a lot we don’t fully understand about sharks, we just
think of them as being horrible and scary and there’s probably a lot more
to it than that. I still find them scary and I wouldn’t want to be
anywhere near them but a little bit more understanding about them. (A-
16)
In summary, there is substantial evidence that learning in educational leisure
settings goes beyond the acquisition of facts for a substantial number of
visitors. Approximately 40% of visitors to the museum and interpretive
centre made comments which indicated that their experience had been
transformative to some extent. This supports the Stage 2 quantitative finding
that over 60% of visitors endorse transformative conceptions of learning. The
fact that this occurred less frequently during the guided walk may be due to
the different motivations or learning intentions of the visitors, or to the
different content of information presented. There is evidence in the interview
transcripts to support McLoughlin’s (1998) suggestion that as some outdoor
settings (e.g., natural sites) are an experience in themselves, many visitors are
interested only in the experience, not the interpretation of it.
5.3.4 The relationship between education and entertainment in
educational leisure settings
Visitors were asked whether they considered that their experience had been
mostly educational or mostly entertaining. Most visitors considered that it
had been either “mostly entertaining” or “equally entertaining and
educational”. When asked how they saw education and entertainment
fitting together, visitors’ responses reflected three main perspectives:
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• The entertainment element contributes to the education (you learn more
when it’s fun);
• The education element contributes to the entertainment (you enjoy it
more when you learn); and
• Education and entertainment are complementary (the experience
incorporates both).
You learn more when it’s fun
Those who focussed on how the entertainment element contributes to
education tended to see education as potentially “boring” or tedious”.
According to this view, the entertainment aspect was necessary to make
learning palatable. Overall, this was the most prevalent view of the
relationship between education and entertainment.
If you make it fun, people tend to learn a lot more about certain subjects
... the more entertaining or the more dramatic it is, the more it sticks in
your mind, so it’s good to have that entertainment value to educate
people. (M-2)
If you are learning, it can be very tedious, very boring, but if you are
interacting with things, you find that … the more entertainment there is
the easier it is to actually pick up from it. (M-11)
If it wasn’t entertainment, you’d just kind of walk in here and go “Oh
yeah, I’m not here to study”, and walk out. (M21)
If it’s basically like on a news type program or in papers where they’re
trying to shove it down your throat, well you just ignore it. But if they
make it in an entertaining way, you’re going to learn more and respect it
more, if they make it more fun. (A-9)
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You’re not going to learn anything if it’s not entertaining, you just get
bored. (A-10)
Education can be pretty boring, so if you make it enjoyable, it’s better…
And it’s different, because it’s not the sort of thing you see all the time.
(A-16)
If a learning experience is not interesting, it’s obviously not recreational,
is it? If you go out into a bush scenario you’re obviously seeking some of
the recreational aspects, so that helps the learning activity. (FW-8)
You enjoy it more when you learn
By contrast, those who focussed on how the education element contributes to
entertainment saw education as potentially enjoyable. According to this
view, the education aspect helped to make the experience worthwhile.
I came here with the expectation to be just enjoying myself, and you do,
you learn things and I suppose if you do learn things you do enjoy it.
(M-10)
If you came just expecting to see entertainment and not learn anything,
well you’re missing too much of what the place is. (A-4)
It makes it much more enjoyable when you’re learning something. (A-7)
When you’re going away thinking “Oh well gee I didn’t know that
before” (A-6)
I think what he was telling us complemented the entertainment … just
making us more aware of the wildlife, you know, what to expect, it
improved it, it gave a fuller enjoyment to the day. (FW-5)
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The experience incorporates both education and entertainment
A third view was that the education and entertainment elements were
equally valuable, compatible, or even inseparable.
The stick insects entertained me but they also educated me – and the
puzzle was fun but it was also educational to use your brain power. (M-
1)
Part of the entertainment was finding out about them as well – you can
have a bit of both, you know. (A-14)
You’re enjoying yourself to look at something, plus you’re learning facts
as you look at it. (A-15)
But it’s very good the way everything is explained. It’s really well done
because you can see the actual fish swimming and you can read about
him, or whatever it might be. So the educational side of it as well as the
fun side of it, it’s great, it’s well set out the way it is. (A-21)
Aspects that were seen to contribute to the complementarity of education
and entertainment include the three characteristics of free-choice learning
identified above – a sense of discovery, multi-sensory experiences and
effortless learning, plus the defining characteristic of such learning – free
choice.
• Discovery and fascination
I think it’s a good mixture in here. I think the layout of the building is
ideal. I think the exhibits are organised in such a fashion that you’ve got
some stimulant there as well as an actual exhibit which teaches you
something but also mildly entertains. Just the presentation of some of the
things and also some of the surprising events like the tiger lying on the
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rock that moves. I think that all adds to the entertainment part of it, and
could also lead you into an educational part. (M-17)
• Multi-sensory
Yeah they complement each other. I think we can often learn a lot more
by doing – I certainly do – as opposed to sitting in the classroom and
somebody saying this is a picture of a red cedar, or looking at a computer
screen, now that just leaves me dead, whereas being out and having so
many other senses involved, is much better. (FW-2)
• Effortless
Definitely, otherwise it would be too much like schoolwork. It all ties in.
(A-1)
• Free choice
When you are walking around, you don’t have to look at things when
they don’t interest you. You can go to another thing and when it
interests you, you stand there and you read about it. You can choose.
(M-8)
I think as long as people have that option. There might be people who
prefer to just walk along and see everything visual and not read. And
then you have the happy balance I suppose. There’s a lot of people out
there that like to read about it and watch. So I think if you’re looking for
something on either, you’ve got both. You don’t have to sit there and
have someone talk to you all the time, but you can actually walk along,
read and decide for yourself. (A-20)
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5.4 Summary of Findings
Results of the qualitative analysis highlight three important characteristics of
learning in leisure settings:
• it involves a sense of discovery, re-discovery or fascination;
• it is multi-sensory; and
• it is perceived to be effortless.
These three characteristics encapsulate what free-choice learning is, why it is
enjoyable or attractive, and how it combines the educational and
entertainment elements of the experience without conflict.
The findings of the quantitative and qualitative analyses together confirm
that although the conception of learning as the acquisition of information
predominates in educational leisure settings, other more transformative
conceptions are by no means lacking. Indeed, there is considerable evidence
within the interview transcripts of deeper reflection, attitudinal challenge
and personal change. Even those who come with no intention to learn are
often drawn into an engaging and transformative learning experience by the
fascinating, multi-sensory, effortless nature of the experience. The ability to
freely choose how, where and when to participate in learning is a major
factor in allowing this shift from the acquisition of knowledge to deeper
experiences of understanding and personal re-evaluation of attitudes.
Learning in educational leisure settings is seen to have both intrinsic value,
being important for its own sake, and instrumental value, adding greater
interest to the experience, or enabling visitors to gain in understanding,
appreciation or self-improvement. The information itself is also seen as
useful, either in a practical sense or as a form of “cultural currency” which
can be passed on to others. Falk and Dierking’s (2000) view of the
incremental nature of free-choice learning and the importance of experiences
subsequent to the visit, was also confirmed in visitors’ comments.
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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS
The aims of this study were to ascertain the importance of different types of
learning experiences to visitors in a range of educational leisure settings;
identify the extent to which motivations for learning vary across sites and
visitor groups; investigate the relationships between the educational,
entertainment, social and restorative aspects of the visitors’ experience; and
examine the impact of motivational factors on visitors’ experience of learning
in leisure settings. In this chapter, the research findings in relation to these
four objectives are summarised (Section 6.1), the implications of the findings
for the advancement of theory and further research in the area are discussed
(Section 6.2), and the limitations of the study are outlined (Section 6.3). Final
concluding comments are made in Section 6.4.
6.1 Summary of Findings in Relation to Research Questions
6.1.1 The importance of learning
The findings of this study reinforce the important place of learning in
educational leisure settings. In particular, visitors were keen to discover new
things, expand their knowledge and be better informed. These learning
activities were not only reported to be important goals for the visit, but
perceived involvement in them was also found to be associated with greater
visitor satisfaction. Similar findings have been reported by Moscardo (1999).
Learning and discovery is thus an important aspect of a visit to an educational
leisure setting, which contributes to visitor satisfaction, and which visitors
would like to experience to a greater extent than is often available. Learning
was seen by most participants as something that added value to their
experience, by increasing interest, understanding, appreciation and self-
improvement.
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In relation to the type of learning visitors seek in a leisure experience, a
preference for casual learning experiences, rather than activities requiring
major mental effort, was identified. The characteristics of the learning
experience most valued by visitors were the evocation of a sense of
discovery, the involvement of multiple senses, and the perception that
learning is effortless. Although a preference for learning experiences at the
level of acquiring information was evident, deeper experiences of learning
that involved abstracting meaning and re-evaluating personal attitudes were
reported by a substantial number of visitors76. As foreshadowed by Hidi
(1990) and Krapp (1999)77, these deeper learning experiences were also
perceived as effortless in the context of free-choice learning. Even when
visitors came with no conscious intention to learn, most were engaged or
drawn into a learning experience because of the fascinating information,
multi-sensory presentation and/or ease of learning.
6.1.2 Variations in motivational factors
Although learning and discovery goals were important to respondents at all
six sites, they were especially important to museum visitors. Variations in
participation rates also suggest that museum visitors came with a greater
willingness to use their mind and to reflect than visitors to other sites, and
this is also reflected to some extent in terms of need for cognition and
indicators of learning motivation, with museum visitors having the greatest
tendency to engage in and enjoy cognitive activity and investing the greatest
mental effort. These differences highlight the important and unique role of
museums among educational leisure settings. Museums attract visitors who,
at the time of their visit, are motivated to learn, perceive the museum as a
76 At least 40% of visitors to the museum and interpretive site – see Section 5.3.3. 77 See Section 2.2.5.
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place where important information is presented, are willing to devote effort
to learning activities, and find such efforts satisfying.
The findings of this study present a challenge for museum educators as they
raise the question of how to attract visitors who are less motivated to learn.
According to Hood (1983), museum visitors differ significantly from non-
visitors in terms of the value they place on certain attributes and their
perception that these attributes are present in museums. This study supports
the suggestion that museum visitors differ in their perceptions and
expectations from visitors to interpretive and natural sites. On the one hand,
they are more likely to value the learning aspects of their visit. On the other
hand, however, they are less likely to see the learning environment as
entertaining or fun. These perceptions have implications for the way
museum experiences are marketed as it is possible they create barriers to
museum participation among many potential visitors (Prentice, 1994; Scott,
2000b).
Interpretation in natural sites faces a different challenge. It has been
suggested that visitors to such sites tend to seek restorative experiences and
are less likely to engage in learning. As only one natural site was included in
this study, however, this finding cannot be generalised to all natural sites
without further research. The finding that learning experiences which
involve questioning and rethinking previous understandings and attitudes
were most often reported in relation to environmental issues highlights the
potential significance of natural sites as educational leisure settings.
6.1.3 Relationships between aspects of the experience
Education and entertainment
In Section 2.3.6, the relationship between education and entertainment was
examined from different theoretical perspectives, resulting in a number of
possible interpretations of this relationship in the context of educational
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leisure settings. For example, education and entertainment may be seen to
conflict in educational leisure settings because:
• visitors seek pleasant but purposeless mental stimulation, whereas
mindful learning is effort demanding and purposeful (Treinen, 1993);
• the appearance of entertainment may predispose visitors to adopt a
mindless approach and invest little mental effort in learning (Salomon,
1981; 1983); and
• the use of entertainment to create interest and attract attention may
actually distract visitors from educational pursuits (Ansbacher, 1998;
Garner et al., 1992).
On the other hand, education and entertainment may be seen to be
complementary because:
• learning can be pleasurable, satisfying, stimulating and enjoyable
(McCombs, 1991); and
• entertainment evokes optimal conditions for learning, by encouraging
exploration, questioning and challenge much in the same way as
surprise, adventure and discovery are key ingredients in children’s
play (Mitchell, 1998; Roberts, 1997).
The weight of evidence in the present study is strongly in favour of the latter
interpretation, i.e., complementarity rather than conflict. Falk et al. (1998)
suggest that much of the debate regarding the relative importance of
education and entertainment in the museum context, has assumed that the
two variables are mutually exclusive, in other words, an experience is either
educational or entertaining. Falk et al. (1998) disagree with this view,
proposing instead that education and entertainment should be considered as
separate continua, in other words, an experience may be high or low on the
education dimension while also being high or low on the entertainment
dimension. The results of the present study suggest a slightly different
interpretation, that learning in educational leisure settings reflects a synergy
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of education and entertainment. In other words, when education and
entertainment come together, a new experience is produced that differs
qualitatively from the singular notions of each. Indeed, the synergy of
education and entertainment may be regarded as one of the defining features
of educational leisure settings. This interpretation is consistent with Falk and
Dierking’s (2000) emphasis on the complementary nature of education and
entertainment.
The findings of this study imply that what happens in educational leisure
settings, and indeed what people seek, is not a combination of two distinct
experiences – education and entertainment, but rather an experience in
which education is entertainment, discovery is exciting, and learning is an
adventure. Visitors perceive these as elements of the same construct, distinct
from both effortful learning and passive enjoyment. This construct has been
labelled learning and discovery in this study, but could also be referred to
using the neologism edutainment or the notion of learning for fun. The latter
term learning for fun is preferred in this context because it is primarily the
motivational aspects of the experience that distinguish it from more formal
learning experiences, or even other free-choice learning experiences. The
theoretical implications of this construct are explored further in Section 6.2.
In Falk et al.’s (1998) study, entertainment goals were found to be positively
related to some measures of visitor learning, regardless of the extent to which
education goals were also expressed78. They interpreted this unexpected
finding in terms of the museum context in which their research was
undertaken:
78 It should be noted that their definition of entertainment included seeing new and interesting things, which in the present study fell under Learning and Discovery.
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Individuals who go to museums are going for a learning-oriented
experience. The museum-going public's idea of entertainment, at
least for that time when they are at the museum, is not the same as
that of the theme-park-going or shopping-mall-going public…
Most museum visitors see no apparent conflict between fun and
learning… Those people who enjoy learning, particularly the
free-choice learning afforded by a museum, consider learning in a
museum entertaining. (Falk et al., 1998, p. 117)
The results of the present study strongly suggest that although museum and
art gallery visitors do place greater importance on learning than visitors to
interpretive and natural sites, the synergy of education and entertainment
extends beyond the boundaries of the museum. Individuals who go to
interpretive and natural sites also seek a learning-oriented experience and
see no conflict between fun and learning. Indeed, it is quite likely that the
“theme-park-going or shopping-mall-going public” also hold the same
opinion. After all, it was Walt Disney himself who originally capitalised on
the public’s desire for an engaging experience that incorporates both
education and entertainment: “It will be a place for people to find happiness
and knowledge” (quoted in Thomas, 1994, p. 246). Thus learning should not
be regarded as an “added extra” (Hedge, 1995) but rather as a vital and
integral part of the experience sought by visitors.
Education and restoration
There may be a small minority of visitors who seek a purely restorative
experience which is devoid of cognitive engagement. It is difficult to
estimate the size of this group as these people would most likely have
declined the invitation to participate in this research. However, for the
majority of visitors, there was no conflict between the educational and the
restorative aspects of the experience. Indeed, the finding that a sense of
fascination and perception of effortlessness are important ingredients of the
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free-choice learning experience suggests that this type of learning may be
quite compatible with restoration as these have been cited as important
characteristics of a restorative experience (Kaplan et al., 1993).
Education and social interaction
The findings regarding the relationship between the educational and social
aspects of the visitor experience are not clear cut. The literature suggests that
the social dimension is an important aspect of learning in educational leisure
settings and many participants in the Stage 2 study reported having
discussed, or at least shared, information with their companions. However,
there was no evidence that this social interaction contributed to the learning
experience, and indeed, some visitors expressed a preference for individual
learning. Falk and Dierking (2000) also note that some visitors prefer to visit
a museum alone, and some people prefer to learn by themselves.
It is possible, of course, that social interaction contributed to learning in ways
that were not able to be measured in this study, or that occurred some time
after the visit. Social interaction is also likely to be more important to
families with young children, who were mostly excluded from this study.
Regardless of the social interaction that does or does not occur during the
visit, the indirect communication between the exhibit designer and the
visitor provides a sociocultural context for learning, even for those who visit
alone (Falk & Dierking, 2000). It would appear then that further research
regarding the social context of learning in leisure settings is warranted. In
particular, the qualitative differences between shared and individual
learning experiences need to be explored.
Education and personal self-fulfillment
In the present study, a distinction was drawn between learning and
discovery (learning for fun) and more serious types of cognitive endeavour
that were found to be more closely related to self-fulfillment (thinking about
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personal values, making things meaningful). Repeat visitors and local
residents were more likely to seek these latter experiences than first-time
visitors and tourists. The findings of the qualitative study indicate, however,
that a substantial proportion of visitors do report experiences of thought,
wonder, appreciation and personal challenge, even though they were not
consciously seeking these, and may not even have identified them as
learning experiences. Indeed, visitors appear to move easily and effortlessly
between the acquisition of information and more transformative learning
experiences.
6.1.4 Motivational factors and the experience of learning
The findings of this study support the importance of situational factors in
motivating visitors to engage in and experience learning. This is a
heartening result as it is easier to change situational factors than it is to
change people’s personal motivation. Although personal motivational
factors such as goals and capability beliefs were found to have some impact
on the amount of effort visitors were willing to invest in the learning
experience, they had little impact on the experience of that type of learning
that was found to be of greatest importance to visitors in this study –
learning and discovery or learning for fun. An important characteristic of this
type of learning is its apparent effortlessness, and so motivational factors that
impact on learning by encouraging mental effort have little effect.
The three situational incentives identified in the literature review
(intrinsically motivating tasks, positive interpersonal relationships, and
events that arouse an emotional response) were all shown to have an impact
on the learning and discovery experience. The findings suggest, however,
that the most important incentives relate to the nature of free-choice learning
itself - the sense of discovery, involvement of multiple senses, and
effortlessness of learning. These aspects lead to the perception that learning
is fun, and draw visitors into a learning experience even when they have not
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consciously sought it. The importance of the emotional element in free-
choice learning was also supported, especially in relation to experiences of
personal challenge and attitude change.
The idea that greater mental effort is devoted to tasks that are perceived as
more demanding (Salomon, 1981; 1983; 1984) was not found to apply in the
context of educational leisure settings. The findings of this study suggest
that visitors are more likely to engage in learning activities when they are
perceived to be fun and effortless.
Similarly, the value of the “need for cognition” construct (Cacioppo & Petty,
1982) is questionable in this context. Although the use of this variable did
help to characterise the differences between visitor groups, e.g., solitary
visitors, tourists, and museum site visitors all displayed a higher need for
cognition than their counterpart groups, its impact as a motivational variable
was minimal. Previous research using this construct has noted that the
strongest effects are evident when the task is demanding (Cacioppo et al.,
1996), thus limiting its relevance in educational leisure settings where visitors
seek tasks that are perceived to be effortless. It has also been suggested that
the influence of general motivational beliefs, including capability beliefs,
may be mediated by situation-specific self-appraisals (Järvelä, 2001). Thus
individuals who do not typically perceive themselves as seeking or enjoying
cognitive activities may appraise themselves differently in the context of an
educational leisure experience.
6.2 Implications of Findings for the Advancement of Theory
and Further Research
The need for greater attention to theory in both museum learning (which
encompasses learning in science museums, history museums and art
galleries) and interpretation (which encompasses learning in recreational
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settings such as national parks, heritage sites and commercial tourist
attractions) has been noted by scholars in both areas (Ballantyne & Uzzell,
1999; Kelly, 2002; Schauble et al., 1997; Uzzell, 1998). One of the major
contributions of this study is to provide a basis for the development of a
common theoretical foundation that is relevant to both museum and other
interpretation contexts. In particular, the finding that the synergy of
education and entertainment is not limited to the museum context, or to a
minority of “learning-oriented” visitors, opens the way for further research
focussing on the learning for fun construct across a wide variety of
educational leisure settings. The learning for fun construct, it is contended,
provides a possible focus for future research that crosses the boundaries
between museums and other interpretive settings.
The following characteristics of the learning for fun experience are suggested
by the findings of the present study:
• Learning for fun is distinguished from other forms of learning by its
focus on enjoyment of the process or experience of learning itself,
rather than the knowledge or skill gained, although these may be
valued by-products.
• Learning for fun encompasses a mixture of discovery, exploration,
mental stimulation and excitement; it may be enhanced by novelty
and surprise, or by familiarity and connectedness.
• Learning for fun represents a synergy between education and
entertainment, where each enriches the other and their combined
effect is greater than the sum of individual parts.
• Unlike other forms of free-choice learning, learning for fun is not
driven by personal motivational factors (e.g., visitors’ needs,
interests or learning agendas), but rather is elicited by situational
factors relating to the interaction between the person and the
environment (e.g., a sense of discovery, involvement of multiple
senses, the perception of effortlessness, the element of choice).
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• Learning for fun is not only intrinsically motivated (engaged in for
its own sake) but also intrinsically motivating (so enjoyable that
people visit in order to experience it). This challenges the
assumption that educational elements need to be disguised or
embedded within social or entertainment agendas in order to make
them palatable to visitors (Schauble et al., 1996).
It is argued that learning for fun is a distinct phenomenon worthy of further
study, although there are, of course, other motivations which may underlie
learning in leisure settings.79 It is thus considered a major component of, but
not a substitute for, the concept of free-choice learning. Further research is
needed to develop a greater understanding of both the process and outcomes
of learning for fun. For example, is such learning actually without effort, or
does it just appear so? Does such learning incorporate deep transformative
learning experiences, or is it just the starting point towards these? What
features of the learning environment facilitate deeper approaches to
learning? How do the outcomes of a learning for fun experience differ from
the outcomes of formal study? Perhaps the methods that have been recently
developed to identify and study the specific processes through which interest
influences learning (Ainley & Hidi, 2002; Boekaerts, 2002) may be applied in
this context.
The findings of this study also support the application of a number of
existing constructs to the development of a common theoretical foundation
for museum and interpretation research. For example, Pine and Gilmore’s
notion of the experience economy is particularly relevant to educational leisure
settings. “Here the consumer – or ‘guest’ to use a Disneyism – values a
memorable experience over goods and services… when he buys an
79 The search for specific information to meet an immediate life need, for example, would not necessarily be considered learning for fun, but once that need is satisfied, learning for fun may occur – see interview transcript M2 in Appendix D.
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experience, he pays to spend time enjoying a series of memorable events that
a company stages” (Pine and Gilmore, 1999a, p. 45). According to Pine and
Gilmore, an experience goes beyond mere entertainment because of the way
it engages and connects with customers.
The concept of flow (Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi
& Rathunde, 1993) may also be relevant here, as some visitors’ descriptions
of their learning experience suggest that they become fully involved to the
point of forgetting time, fatigue, and everything but the activity itself80.
Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde (1993, p. 85) suggest that flow can be
characterised as “a combination of experiential states that are usually
mutually exclusive: enjoyment and intense concentration”. Intrinsic
motivation or interest has also been conceptualised as combining these two
elements, e.g., being “playful and serious at the same time” (Dewey, 1933,
p.286) and combining emotion and cognition (Shiefele, 1991). These
concepts, together with the concept of learning for fun emerging from the
present study, can all contribute to the development of our theoretical
understanding of the nature of learning in educational leisure settings.
This study supports the principles of interpretation outlined by Ham (1992),
i.e., that it is pleasurable (entertaining and fun); relevant (connecting with
prior knowledge and personal values); organised (easy to follow); and
thematic (communicating a message). These principles are based on the
premise (shared by the majority of visitors in this study) that the
entertainment aspect is necessary to motivate and support the educational
aspect. The shift of focus implied by the conclusion of this study that
entertainment and education are part of a synergistic relationship, could lead
to further development of these principles. In particular, the extent to which
80 For example: “I spent an hour and a half here, which I didn’t plan on doing. I learnt quite a bit for that hour and a half as well” (Participant M-13, cited in Section 5.3.1).
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the principles suggested by Pine and Gilmore (1999b) for staging an
experience, can be applied to extend our understanding of the practice of
interpretation, could be profitably explored through further research.
As signalled in other Sections, there is a need for further research to clarify
and extend our understanding of the place of social interaction in free-choice
learning, visitors’ conceptions of learning in educational leisure settings, the
importance of learning in natural sites, and the situational characteristics that
act to motivate learning. Further research is also needed to explore the
motivational factors underlying the experience of learning for visitors in
family, school or tour groups.
6.3 Limitations of the Study
Limitations of the study are discussed in relation to sampling issues (Section
6.3.1), measurement issues (Section 6.3.2), and research design issues (Section
6.3.3).
6.3.1 Sampling issues
The research was conducted at six educational leisure settings in South-East
Queensland. Although these sites are not necessarily representative of all
educational leisure settings, the extent to which there are commonalities in
the data between sites does suggest some degree of universality.
Selection of participants was limited to adult visitors (over 16 years) who
were competent speakers of English. Those visiting with very young
children were excluded. In the self-directed sites (museum, art gallery,
wildlife centre and aquarium), those in organised tour groups were
excluded. Consequently, the results of this study cannot be generalised
beyond these boundaries. Visitors meeting these selection criteria were
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approached as they entered the site and invited to participate in the research.
Although it was intended to approach all such visitors, practical
considerations made this impossible at the self-directed sites. For example,
visitors who arrived while I was talking with other potential participants
were missed. Such interruptions can mostly be considered random, although
it is likely that visitors arriving at the busiest times of the day had less
likelihood of being approached than those arriving at quieter periods.
Visitors on the guided tours (guided history tour and guided forest walk)
were all able to be approached during the period before the activity
commenced.
Data collection was carried out during two blocks in June-October 2001
(Stage 1) and September – November 2002 (Stage 2). Except for the guided
forest walks, data were collected only on weekdays, and not during school
holiday periods. This was consistent with the focus on adult visitors and
was also more convenient for the site managers. The guided forest walks
were only conducted on weekends but these walks were designed for adults
only. Sampling of data collection days was determined by mutual
convenience. Most of the sites had practical considerations that determined
the most suitable days for me to be present. There is no reason to suppose
that any systematic error was associated with the choice of specific days for
data collection. However, it is possible that there are seasonal variations in
the types of visitors who come at various times of the year.
The greatest threat to the validity of the research findings arises from the
systematic error associated with participation rates (i.e., visitors who agreed
to participate in the survey were more open to engaging in cognitive activity
than those who refused). As the participation rates did not improve greatly
in Stage 2 of the research, using interviews rather than questionnaires, it is
difficult to suggest how this bias might be overcome in future research. The
main implication of the response bias in this study is that the importance of
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learning to visitors may have been overestimated. Some indication of the
extent of this effect may be gained by comparing results at the three
interpretive sites. Participation rates on the guided history tour were much
higher than at the other two interpretive sites (59% compared with 11% and
22% of all visitors approached) because visitors were able to complete the
questionnaire during a 1.5 hour boat trip before and after the tour. The
findings with regard to the importance placed by visitors on the learning
aspects of the visit are comparable at these three sites (importance of learning
and discovery goals: M = 4.26, SD = 1.07 for guided history tour, compared
with M = 4.17, SD = 1.05 for the aquarium and M = 4.18, SD =0.99 for the
wildlife centre) and thus do not support the suggestion that the figures are
an overestimate.
6.3.2 Measurement issues
All measurement subscales were tested for reliability using an internal
consistency method. Most of the major variables were supported by more
than one measurement approach. The consistency of findings across a range
of different measures provides evidence of construct validity. The fact that
some minor variables (e.g., persistence in learning) were consistently found
to be unsatisfactory, provides some confidence in the ability of the statistical
procedures used to detect such inadequacies.
The use of exclusively self-report measures, although obtained using a
mixture of quantitative and qualitative approaches, limits the opportunities
to demonstrate validity through triangulation. The use of self-report
measures in motivation research is supported by Lemos (2001), who argues
the need to identify individuals’ subjective perspectives and interpretations
of events in accounting for motivational functioning. However, it is possible
that social desirability effects and sensitisation to the educational aspects of
the experience through pre-visit questioning may have contributed to an
overestimation of the importance of learning to visitors.
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6.3.3 Design issues
Visitors’ demographic characteristics were allowed to vary naturally and
were not controlled by stratified or quota sampling, although some effort
was made to ensure that both genders and a range of age groups were
adequately represented (these being the only characteristics that can
reasonably be determined prior to approaching a visitor). It is assumed that
the samples are representative of the visiting public at each site for the data
collection period, with the exception of those deliberately excluded as noted
in Section 6.3.1. As a consequence of this sampling strategy, there is some
confounding between sites and visitor groups. These confounding effects
have been dealt with statistically wherever possible, and have been taken
into account in the interpretation of results.
The grouping of sites into three categories – museum sites, interpretive sites
and natural site – has provided some opportunity to demonstrate the
potential generalisability of the results. For example, the finding of
systematic variations between site categories, that is greater than the
variation within the categories, suggests that the beginnings of identifiable
patterns have started to emerge in this study. The fact that there was only
one site in the natural category is a major limitation in this regard, and these
patterns can only be considered tentative at this stage. However, they
provide a basis upon which further research can build.
The absence of a longitudinal component is a limitation in both Stage 1 and
Stage 2 of the study. Recent research indicates that reinforcing events and
experiences that occur outside of, and subsequent to a museum visit often
add an extra dimension to the learning experience (Falk & Dierking, 2000),
which could not be assessed in the present study. In particular, the
investigation of the impact of social interaction on learning requires a
longitudinal approach.
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Finally, the conclusions regarding the impact of motivational factors on the
experience of learning need to be interpreted with care in terms of the
assumption of causality. For example, although situational factors were
found to be statistically associated with a greater experience of learning, it
does not necessarily follow that the former was the cause of the latter.
However, the findings of the qualitative study do provide considerable
support for this interpretation.
6.4 Final Concluding Comments
As the global information society rapidly evolves, the vital importance of
free-choice learning in leisure settings is becoming increasingly evident.
Although free-choice learning provides an important way for people to come
to know about their world, it remains an “historically under-studied and
under-appreciated mode of learning” (Institute for Learning Innovation,
2002). This research has contributed to extending our understanding of this
phenomenon. It has demonstrated the importance of learning for fun in
people’s expectations of, and satisfaction with leisure activities across a
variety of settings. It has shown that the experience of learning in no way
conflicts with the entertainment, social and restorative aspects of the visit,
and in fact, a positive synergy exists between the educational and
entertainment aspects which defines the unique nature of the experience.
Finally, it has identified that environments evoking a sense of discovery,
involving multiple senses, and promoting effortless learning are likely to
engage visitors in a learning for fun experience that is potentially
transformative. Enabling visitors to rediscover the joy of learning may, in
fact, be one of the most important contributions that educational leisure
settings can make to society.
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APPENDIX A
STAGE 1 QUESTIONNAIRE
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201
EDUCATIONAL LEISURE STUDY
Dear Visitor I am conducting research into the educational aspects of leisure settings and activities such as museums, visitor centres and guided tours. It would be greatly appreciated if you would be willing to spend some time to answer some questions about your visit here today. Most of the questions will involve ticking boxes or circling numbers on a rating scale. None of the questions are particularly personal and you will not be asked to give your name. The information you provide will enable educational leisure settings to better cater for visitors’ diverse learning needs and interests. The questionnaire will take approximately 10 minutes at the start of your visit, and another 10-15 minutes at the end. Please return the completed questionnaire to me or to a staff member at the end of your visit. If you have any questions about this research, please feel free to contact me at the following address: Ms. Jan Packer School of Professional Studies Education Faculty Queensland University of Technology Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove 4059 Ph. (07) 3864 3914 Email: [email protected] Thank you VERY MUCH for your help. A large print version of the questionnaire is available if preferred.
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Please complete Sections 1-3 before commencing your visit, and Sections 4-10 at the end of your visit. Space is allowed on the back page if you would like to comment in more detail about any of your responses. Please record the date and time: __ /__ /01 ___ : ___ am/pm 1. WHAT DO YOU HOPE TO GET OUT OF YOUR VISIT? The list below contains many different reasons that people might have for participating in a leisure activity. Some of these reasons may be very important to you in your visit here today. Other reasons may not be at all important in your visit today, although they may be important in other leisure activities. Please indicate how important each of the following is to you as a reason for coming today. (Circle one number for each item.)
Not Moderately Extremely Important important important
To be pleasantly occupied 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To feel good about myself 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To let my mind slow down for a while 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To use my imagination 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To feel happy and satisfied 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To do things with my companions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To build friendships with new people 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To satisfy my curiosity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To challenge my abilities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To help bring the family together more 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To make things more meaningful for me 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To discover more about myself 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To interact with others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To get a feeling of achievement 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To spend quality time with family or friends 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To expand my knowledge 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To alleviate boredom 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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Not Moderately Extremely Important important important
To feel more confident about my own abilities 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To discover new things 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To be entertained 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To recover from the stress and tension of everyday life
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
To think about my personal values 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To enjoy myself 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To relax physically 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To relax mentally 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To have a change from my daily routine 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To develop close friendships 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To experience something new or unusual 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To develop my spirituality 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To feel I am functioning at my peak 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To use my mind 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To meet new people 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To explore new ideas 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To get away from the responsibilities of everyday life 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To do something exciting 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To expand my interests 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To be mentally stimulated 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To find some peace and tranquillity 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To explore the unknown 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 To be better informed 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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2. HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT THINKING? Some people enjoy activities that involve a lot of thinking, while others prefer activities that require little thought. Before commencing your visit, please indicate how you feel in general about activities that require thought. (Circle one number for each item, using the scale below.)
- 4 very strong disagreement + 4 very strong agreement - 3 strong disagreement + 3 strong agreement - 2 moderate disagreement + 2 moderate agreement - 1 slight disagreement + 1 slight agreement
0 neither agreement nor disagreement
I would prefer complex to simple problems. - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I like to have the responsibility of handling a situation that requires a lot of thinking.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
Thinking is not my idea of fun. - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I would rather do something that requires little thought than something that is sure to challenge my thinking abilities.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely chance I will have to think in depth about something.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I only think as hard as I have to. - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I prefer to think about small, daily projects to long-term ones.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I like tasks that require little thought once I’ve learned them.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
The idea of relying on thought to make my way to the top appeals to me.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
Learning new ways to think doesn’t excite me very much.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must solve.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
It’s enough for me that something gets the job done; I don’t care how or why it works.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
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I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important to one that is somewhat important but does not require much thought.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task that required a lot of mental effort.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they do not affect me personally.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
3. SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT YOURSELF
Age group: (tick one) Under 20 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 & over
Gender: Male Female Usual place of residence: ________________________________________
(town/city) (country) How many times have you visited this centre or taken this tour?
This will be the first time 2-5 times before
This will be the second time More than 5 times before Who accompanied you on your visit here today?
Came alone A child or family group
One other adult 6 or more other adults
2-5 other adults Other __________________________ Which of the following best describes your usual daily occupation?
Paid employment Student Home Duties
Unemployed Retired Other ________________ To what extent does your daily occupation involve working with your mind? Some of About half Most of All of Hardly ever the time the time the time the time
PLEASE COMPLETE THE REMAINING QUESTIONS
WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED YOUR VISIT
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PLEASE COMPLETE THESE SECTIONS AFTER YOUR VISIT
Please record the time now: ___ : ___ am/pm 4. WHAT DID YOU THINK OF THIS AS A LEARNING PLACE? Some leisure settings or tourist activities are more conducive to learning than others. Please think about your visit or tour today and indicate how much you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. (For each item, circle one of the numbers from - 3 to + 3.) strongly strongly
disagree agree There are lots of opportunities to learn here. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
It takes a lot of effort to learn things here. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
Understanding the information presented here is important to me.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
Learning here is a relaxing thing to do. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
Learning here is a fun thing to do. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
Learning here is difficult. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The visit or tour was educational. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The visit or tour was entertaining. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
5. HOW WAS YOUR INTEREST AROUSED? Sometimes, things happen during a visit or tour that make you interested in topics, ideas or issues that didn’t particularly interest you before. Please indicate the extent to which each of the following was true of your visit today.
strongly strongly disagree agree
During my visit, the information/displays captured my interest.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
During my visit, I became interested in things that didn't previously interest me.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
During my visit, the information/displays made me want to learn.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
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Please indicate the extent to which each of the following was true of your visit by circling one of the numbers from - 3 to + 3. strongly strongly
disagree agree
The information was presented in an interesting way. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I was reminded of something I already knew or had experienced. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I had the opportunity to participate actively. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The topic ‘clicked’ with some of my personal interests. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The information was relevant to my life. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
It provided ‘food for thought’. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The information was surprising or unexpected. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The information was new to me. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I was able to discuss the information with a companion. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The information appealed to my emotions. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The information appealed to my imagination. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I had the opportunity to ask questions. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I was able to see the real things or places the information referred to. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
In the left-hand column above, please tick those aspects (if any) that were important in arousing your interest during the visit. Please comment briefly on why or how the ticked aspects aroused your interest:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ Please indicate any other aspects that were important in arousing your interest:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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6. TO WHAT EXTENT DID YOU SEEK OUT LEARNING EXPERIENCES? Please indicate the extent to which each of the following was true for you during your visit. strongly strongly
disagree agree
I deliberately set out to learn something or to think about issues.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I looked for opportunities to exercise my mind. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I just let learning happen naturally, without really thinking about it.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I tried to improve myself in some way. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I tried to see as much as I could even if that meant skipping over things quickly.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I kept thinking about information or issues until I understood it.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I avoided or dismissed topics and issues that were difficult to understand.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
7. HOW MUCH EFFORT DID IT TAKE? During your visit, how much did you: Not at A moderate A great All degree deal
Concentrate on the information presented 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Try to understand the information presented 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Try to link the information with what you already knew
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Think about the relevance of the information to yourself and your family
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Question the information presented 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Explore or analyse the information presented 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Discuss the information presented with others 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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8. HOW DID LEARNING FIT IN WITH OTHER ASPECTS OF THE VISIT? Some people find that learning and exploring new ideas fits in well with other aspects of their visit, such as relaxing, being entertained, and spending time with friends or family. Other people find that learning and exploring new ideas ‘gets in the way’ of the other things they want to experience. Please indicate how much the following things either helped or made it harder for you to enjoy the various aspects of your visit. (Circle one number for each item.)
Made it
a lot harder
Made it a little harder
Had no influence
Helped a little
Helped a lot
During my visit, learning and exploring new ideas helped or made it harder for me to relax and forget the stresses of everyday life.
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
During my visit, learning and exploring new ideas helped or made it harder to keep me entertained.
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
During my visit, learning and exploring new ideas helped or made it harder for me to have a good time with my friends, family or other people.
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
During my visit, feeling relaxed helped or made it harder for me to learn and explore new ideas.
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
During my visit, having information presented in entertaining ways helped or made it harder for me to learn and explore new ideas.
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
During my visit, being with my friends, family or other people helped or made it harder for me to learn and explore new ideas.
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
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9. WHAT DID YOU GET OUT OF THE VISIT? For each item below, please use X to indicate the extent to which you actually experienced this during your visit, and O to indicate the extent to which you would like to have experienced this during your visit. Please ensure that you make two different marks on each line, as in the sample below:
SAMPLE: if you actually interacted with others only a little, but would like to have interacted a lot, you might respond to that item as follows:
Not at All
Moderate degree
A great deal
Interacting with others X O Use X to indicate how much you actually did experience; Use O to indicate how much you would have liked to experience.
Not at All
Moderate degree
A great deal
Interacting with others
Being mentally stimulated
Feeling relaxed and at ease
Being entertained
Discovering new and different things
Feeling good about myself
Spending quality time with family or friends
Learning and making sense of things
Recovering from the stress and tension of everyday life
Enjoying myself
Rethinking my personal values
Feeling I’ve achieved something worthwhile
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10. HOW SATISFIED WERE YOU WITH YOUR VISIT? Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. (Circle one number for each item.)
strongly strongly disagree agree
I feel I benefited from having come here today. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I found the visit worthwhile. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
The visit was as good as I had hoped. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
I would recommend this place or tour to a friend. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
If I had the opportunity, I would like to come back here again.
- 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3
Overall, I was satisfied with the visit. - 3 - 2 - 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 Thank you for taking the time to complete these questions.
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If you would like to make any comments regarding your responses to any of the questions, please do so below: _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX B
STAGE 1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
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Table B1
Rotated Factor Matrix (Personal Goals)
Factor Personal goal item 1 (LDG) 2 (PSG) 3 (REG) 4 (SOF) 5 (ENG) to be pleasantly occupied .216 .255 .369 .207 .660 to feel good about myself .209 .715 .529 .338 .531 to let my mind slow down for a while .091 .451 .704 .367 .361 to use my imagination .510 .466 .302 .167 .288 to feel happy and satisfied .311 .400 .567 .415 .662 to do things with my companions .168 .098 .329 .677 .306 to build friendships with new people .201 .615 .410 .717 .272 to satisfy my curiosity .586 .331 .255 .295 .476 to challenge my abilities .482 .691 .336 .253 .242 to help bring the family together more .206 .356 .476 .608 .219 to make things more meaningful for me .533 .626 .356 .280 .333 to discover more about myself .426 .746 .433 .329 .221 to interact with others .226 .531 .392 .731 .234 to get a feeling of achievement .454 .733 .492 .473 .398 to spend quality time with family or friends .184 .154 .438 .776 .346 to expand my knowledge .746 .313 .096 .124 .238 to alleviate boredom .235 .331 .498 .381 .377 to feel more confident about my own abilities .405 .786 .399 .368 .242 to discover new things .786 .300 .164 .187 .347 to be entertained .463 .140 .377 .348 .595 to recover from stress and tension .218 .509 .828 .411 .368 to think about my personal values .398 .750 .514 .263 .212 to enjoy myself .431 .193 .460 .364 .678 to relax physically .232 .368 .771 .472 .540 to relax mentally .233 .403 .813 .470 .539 to have a change from my daily routine .327 .380 .684 .519 .542 to develop close friendships .274 .576 .505 .746 .247 to experience something new or unusual .676 .233 .293 .313 .388 to develop my spirituality .350 .677 .427 .365 .069 to feel I am functioning at my peak .379 .764 .511 .478 .228 to use my mind .765 .463 .173 .201 .146 to meet new people .233 .586 .466 .725 .209 to explore new ideas .761 .473 .263 .277 .170 to get away from responsibilities .235 .418 .772 .563 .345 to do something exciting .575 .426 .496 .508 .440 to expand my interests .784 .440 .304 .323 .336 to be mentally stimulated .803 .406 .270 .196 .257 to find peace and tranquility .292 .527 .753 .388 .283 to explore the unknown .778 .377 .339 .181 .295 to be better informed .790 .315 .147 .167 .223
Note. Extraction Method – Principal Axis Factoring; Rotation Method – Promax with Kaiser Normalization; Rotation converged in 8 iterations.
216
Table B2
Descriptive statistics for the Personal Goals subscales
Personal Goals Subscale
N
Mean
S.D.
% 0-1
% 2-4
% 5-6
Passive enjoyment 477 4.45 1.07 2% 60% 38% Learning and discovery 479 4.21 1.08 4% 70% 26% Restoration 483 3.71 1.45 13 66 22 Social Contact 486 2.88 1.47 27 65 8 Personal self-fulfillment 472 2.73 1.45 31 61 8
Note. 0-1 = not important; 2-4 = moderately important; 5-6 = extremely important. Subscales are listed in decreasing order of importance.
Table B3
Personal Goal subscales by site
MU AG WC AQ GH GF
Means Passive Enjoyment 4.28 4.33 4.80 4.41 4.60 4.23 Learning and Discovery 4.54 4.35 4.18 4.17 4.26 3.69 Restoration 3.12 3.37 3.97 3.84 3.89 4.13 Social Contact 2.15 2.07 3.36 3.10 3.56 3.02 Personal Self-Fulfillment 2.67 2.91 2.58 2.56 2.45 3.25
Standard deviations Passive Enjoyment 1.13 1.29 0.74 1.08 1.03 0.93 Learning and Discovery 0.95 1.19 0.99 1.05 1.07 1.08 Restoration 1.48 1.49 1.31 1.46 1.44 1.29 Social Contact 1.47 1.60 1.06 1.31 1.32 1.27 Personal Self-Fulfillment 1.20 1.62 1.49 1.50 1.43 1.30
Percentage ≥ 5 Passive Enjoyment 33 37 47 34 48 26 Learning and Discovery 36 39 16 24 28 13 Restoration 8 16 23 26 27 31 Social Contact 3 6 6 9 18 6 Personal Self-Fulfillment 4 10 8 8 3 16
Note. MU = museum; AG = art gallery; WC = wildlife centre; AQ = aquarium; GH = guided history walk; GF = guided forest walk
217
Table B4
Personal Goal subscales by site type
Museum sites
Interpretive sites
Natural site
Means
Passive Enjoyment 4.31 4.60 4.23 Learning and Discovery 4.44 4.21 3.69 Restoration 3.25 3.90 4.13 Social Contact 2.11 3.35 3.02 Personal Self-Fulfillment 2.79 2.53 3.25
Standard deviations Passive Enjoyment 1.21 0.98 0.93 Learning and Discovery 1.08 1.03 1.08 Restoration 1.49 1.40 1.29 Social Contact 1.54 1.25 1.27 Personal Self-Fulfillment
Percentage ≥ 5 Passive Enjoyment 35 43 26 Learning and Discovery 38 23 13 Restoration 12 25 31 Social Contact 4 11 6 Personal Self-Fulfillment 7 6 16
218
Table B5
Descriptive statistics for individual personal goals
Personal goal items
Sub-scale
Mean S.D. % 0-1
% 2-4
% 5-6
enjoy myself ENG 4.83 1.22 3 28 69 discover new things LDG 4.71 1.17 1 38 61 expand my knowledge LDG 4.68 1.25 3 35 62 experience something new or unusual LDG 4.51 1.39 4 41 55 be better informed LDG 4.44 1.40 4 42 54 be pleasantly occupied ENG 4.37 1.30 6 45 49 feel happy and satisfied ENG 4.32 1.57 8 39 53 expand my interests LDG 4.27 1.41 5 46 49 satisfy my curiosity LDG 4.23 1.53 7 44 49 be entertained ENG 4.22 1.46 6 47 47 be mentally stimulated LDG 4.20 1.49 6 46 48 explore the unknown LDG 4.10 1.59 8 46 46 relax mentally REG 4.09 1.75 11 39 50 have a change from my daily routine REG 4.07 1.79 12 39 49 do things with my companions SOG 4.06 1.88 13 37 50 relax physically REG 3.94 1.76 12 42 46 do something exciting LDG 3.90 1.60 10 50 40 find peace and tranquility REG 3.86 1.72 11 46 43 use my mind LDG 3.84 1.67 10 52 38 use my imagination LDG 3.83 1.58 10 54 36 spend quality time with family or friends
SOG 3.81 2.08 20 31 49
explore new ideas LDG 3.73 1.66 11 55 34 let my mind slow down REG 3.50 1.92 19 46 35 recover from stress and tension REG 3.45 1.96 20 44 36 make things more meaningful for me PSG 3.23 1.83 20 53 27 challenge my abilities PSG 3.16 1.84 22 52 26 get away from the responsibilities of life
REG 3.05 2.00 26 44 30
get a feeling of achievement PSG 3.02 1.91 25 51 24 feel good about myself PSG 2.98 1.97 29 46 25 interact with others SOG 2.93 1.80 26 54 20 alleviate boredom EX 2.67 2.01 36 42 22 discover more about myself PSG 2.59 1.89 33 50 17 think about my personal values PSG 2.53 1.82 33 51 16 feel more confident about my own abilities
PSG 2.52 1.87 35 49 16
help bring the family together more SOG 2.49 2.30 46 27 27 feel I am functioning at my peak PSG 2.40 1.92 37 46 16 build friendships with new people SOG 2.35 1.78 36 51 13 meet new people SOG 2.30 1.78 37 32 11 develop close friendships SOG 2.25 1.87 42 44 14 develop my spirituality PSG 2.22 1.93 42 44 14 Note. ENG = Passive enjoyment goals; LDG = Learning and discovery goals; REG = Restoration goals; SOG = Social Contact goals; PSG = Personal self-fulfillment goals; EX = Items excluded. Items are listed in decreasing order of importance
219
Table B6
Descriptive statistics for the Need for Cognition Scale
N Mean S.D.
Median
Need for Cognition Scale 464 1.16 1.20 23 Note. Scores on this scale range from –4 to +4
Table B7
Need for Cognition by site and by site type
Need for Cognition Scale MU AG WC AQ GH GF Mean S.D. % > median
23.65 20.79
53
31.34 19.56
68
19.18 19.91
49
22.63 19.17
53
13.73 21.50
34
14.84 24.75
44 Mean S.D. % > median
Museum Sites 27.59 20.47
61
Interpretive Sites 18.32 20.51
45
Natural site
14.84 24.75
44 Note. MU = museum; AG = art gallery; WC = wildlife centre; AQ = aquarium; GH = guided history walk; GF = guided forest walk
Table B8
Descriptive statistics for the Context Beliefs subscales
Context beliefs subscales
N
Mean
S.D.
% 1-2
% 3
% 4
% 5-6
Learning is Enjoyable "There are lots of opportunities to learn here" "Understanding the information presented here is important to me" "Learning here is a relaxing thing to do" "Learning here is a fun thing to do" "The visit or tour was educational" "The visit or tour was entertaining"
462 4.95 5.26
4.64
4.84
4.89 5.04 4.99
0.72 0.86
1.07
1.00
0.94 0.94 1.00
1 1
4
3
1 2 3
7 2
7
4
5 3 2
37 14
32
25
25 20 21
55 83
57
67
68 75 74
Learning is Effortful "It takes a lot of effort to learn things here" "Learning here is difficult"
473
2.38 2.74
2.02
1.12 1.41
1.14
65 50
72
22 21
17
9
16
8
4
13
3 Note. Responses were recoded to a 1 – 6 scale, with 1-2 representing strong disagreement, 3 mild disagreement, 4 mild agreement and 5-6 strong agreement.
220
Table B9
Context belief subscales by site
Context belief subscales MU AG WC AQ GH GF
Means Learning is Enjoyable 5.00 4.82 5.00 5.17 4.86 4.85 Learning is Effortful 2.45 2.64 2.37 2.37 2.27 2.18
Standard deviations Learning is Enjoyable 0.63 0.77 0.61 0.70 0.83 0.72 Learning is Effortful 0.98 1.26 1.10 1.26 1.15 0.98
Percentage ≥ 5 Learning is Enjoyable 56% 51% 60% 67% 50% 49% Learning is Effortful 0% 6% 1% 8% 5% 3%
Table B10
Context belief subscales by site type
Context belief subscales
Museum sites Interpretive sites
Natural site
Means
Learning is Enjoyable 4.91 5.00 4.85 Learning is Effortful 2.55 2.33 2.18
Standard deviations Learning is Enjoyable 0.71 0.73 0.72 Learning is Effortful 1.14 1.14 0.98
Percentage ≥ 5 Learning is Enjoyable 53% 59% 49% Learning is Effortful 3% 5% 3%
221
Table B11
Context belief individual item means by site type
Context belief items
Museum sites
Interpretive sites
Natural site
“There are lots of opportunities to learn here” 5.20 5.37 5.01 “Understanding the information presented here is important to me”
4.78 4.62 4.37
“Learning here is a relaxing thing to do” 4.73 4.88 4.92 “Learning here is a fun thing to do” 4.76 4.96 4.93 “The visit or tour was educational” 5.01 5.13 4.81 “The visit or tour was entertaining” 4.93 5.06 4.89 “It takes a lot of effort to learn things here” 2.84 2.75 2.48 “Learning here is difficult” 2.25 1.91 1.86
Table B12
Descriptive statistics for the Setting Characteristics subscales
Setting characteristics subscales
N
Mean
S.D.
% 1-3
% 4
% 5-6
Personal relevance "I was reminded of something I already knew or had experienced" "The topic ‘clicked’ with some of my personal interests" "The information was relevant to my life" "It provided ‘food for thought’" "The information appealed to my emotions" "The information appealed to my imagination" Task Characteristics "The information was presented in an interesting way" "I had the opportunity to participate actively" "I had the opportunity to ask questions" "I was able to see the real things or places the information referred to" Novelty "The information was surprising or unexpected" "The information was new to me" Social Interaction I was able to discuss the information with a companion Setting Characteristics (13 item aggregate scale)
445
451
456
458
414
4.38 4.48
4.45
3.78 4.62 4.26 4.56
4.32 4.94
3.86 3.87 4.62
4.07 3.98
4.07
4.49 4.49
4.31
0.87 1.10
1.14
1.34 1.03 1.27 1.16
0.97 1.01
1.37 1.65 1.24
1.13 1.25
1.31
1.37 1.37
0.71
29 17
16
38 12 23 16
34 6
36 40 15
39 33
29
15 15
29
45 33
33
32 30 35 30
34 24
31 19 27
33 31
32
28 28
53
26 51
51
30 58 42 55
32 70
33 42 58
28 36
39
57 57
18
Note. Responses were recoded to a 1 – 6 scale, with 1-3 representing disagreement, 4 mild agreement and 5-6 representing strong agreement.
222
Table B13
Setting Characteristics subscales by site
Setting characteristics subscales MU AG WC AQ GH GF
Means Personal relevance 4.54 4.56 4.22 4.41 4.17 4.34 Task characteristics 4.09 3.66 4.33 4.33 4.65 4.97 Novelty 4.23 4.09 4.00 3.94 4.23 3.59 Social interaction 4.16 3.86 4.84 4.67 4.89 4.57
Standard deviations Personal relevance 0.75 0.93 0.83 0.80 0.88 0.96 Task characteristics 0.76 0.91 0.91 0.91 1.05 0.71 Novelty 0.99 1.01 1.11 1.03 1.29 1.26 Social interaction 1.71 1.79 0.92 1.18 1.03 0.94
Percentage ≥ 5 Personal relevance 30 34 19 23 20 28 Task characteristics 15 9 26 28 44 51 Novelty 28 28 26 17 34 16 Social interaction 48 43 62 63 54 43
Table B14
Setting Characteristics subscales by site type
Museum sites Interpretive sites
Natural site
Means
Personal relevance 4.55 4.26 4.34 Task characteristics 3.87 4.44 4.97 Novelty 4.16 4.06 3.59 Social interaction 4.00 4.80 4.57
Standard deviations Personal relevance 0.85 0.84 0.96 Task characteristics 0.86 0.97 0.71 Novelty 1.00 1.15 1.26 Social interaction 1.76 1.05 0.94
Percentage ≥ 5 Personal relevance 32 21 28 Task characteristics 12 33 51 Novelty 28 26 16 Social interaction 46 59 43
223
Table B15
Situational Factors (11-item) subscale by site and site type
Situational factors subscale MU AG WC AQ GH GF Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
4.85 0.62 41
4.76 0.75 40
4.70 0.64 29
4.93 0.73 44
4.76 0.81 33
4.70 0.71 30
Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
Museum
Sites 4.81 0.69 40
Interpretive
Sites 4.80 0.73 36
Natural
site 4.70 0.71 30
Table B16
Descriptive statistics for the Selection of Learning Options and Adoption of a Casual
Approach subscales
N Mean S.D. % 1-3
% 4
% 5-6
Selection of Learning Options "I deliberately set out to learn something or to think about issues" "I looked for opportunities to exercise my mind" "I tried to improve myself in some way" Adoption of a Casual Approach "I just let learning happen naturally, without really thinking about it"
454
466
3.93 3.84
4.09
3.85
4.38
1.08 1.37
1.23
1.32
1.21
43 34
27
35
21
36 32
32
33
27
21 34
41
32
52
Note. Responses were recoded to a 1 – 6 scale, with 1-3 representing disagreement, 4 mild agreement and 5-6 representing strong agreement.
224
Table B17
Descriptive statistics for Persistence and Evasion of Learning subscales
N Mean S.D. % 1-3
% 4
% 5-6
Persistence in Learning "I kept thinking about information or issues until I understood it" Evasion of Learning "I tried to see as much as I could even if that meant skipping over things quickly" "I avoided or dismissed topics that were difficult to understand"
461
455
3.66
3.13 3.58
2.66
1.27
1.01 1.48
1.33
43
73 47
77
32
20 25
13
25
7 28
10
Note. Responses were recoded to a 1 – 6 scale, with 1-3 representing disagreement, 4 mild agreement and 5-6 representing strong agreement.
Table B18
Descriptive statistics for Mental Effort subscale
N Mean S.D. % 1-2
% 3-4
% 5-6
Mental Effort subscale 460 3.29 1.16 20 64 16 Note. 0-2 = low effort; 3-4 = moderate effort; 5-6 = high effort.
Table B19
Motivated Learning Behaviours (10-item) subscale by site and site type
Motivated learning behaviours MU AG WC AQ GH GF Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
3.66 0.82
7
3.60 1.12
8
3.48 0.92
8
3.24 1.00
8
3.76 0.84
8
3.25 0.91
3 Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
Museum
Sites 3.63 0.99
7
Interpretive
Sites 3.51 0.94
7
Natural
site 3.25 0.91
3 Note. Composite scale, scores ranged from 0.4-6
225
Table B20
Descriptive statistics for the Relationship between Learning and Other Aspects items
N Mean S.D. % ≤ 0
% 1-2
Impact of learning on restoration 465 0.86 0.91 39 61 Impact of learning on entertainment 465 0.87 0.94 35 65 Impact of learning on social interaction 455 0.60 0.95 52 48 Impact of restoration on learning 460 0.92 0.93 34 66 Impact of entertainment on learning 451 1.08 0.92 27 73 Impact of social interaction on learning 449 0.59 0.95 53 47
Note. ≤ 0 = “made it harder” or “had no influence”; 1-2 = “helped a little” or “helped a lot”
Table B21
Descriptive statistics for the Experience subscales
Experience subscales N Mean S.D. % 16-21 Passive Enjoyment 415 14.88 4.00 46 Restoration 417 14.23 4.32 43 Learning and Discovery 417 13.49 3.89 29 Social Contact 413 10.96 5.25 19 Personal Self-Fulfillment 410 10.99 4.63 17
Note. Responses to this scale were indicated by marking an X on a line. The position of the X was measured and converted to a score out of 21. Scores in the range 16-21 are considered to indicate that the visitor actually experienced this aspect to a high degree. Subscales are listed in descending order.
226
Table B22
Experience subscales by site
MU AG WC AQ GH GF
Means Passive Enjoyment 15.35 14.24 15.25 15.78 14.04 14.84 Learning and Discovery 13.94 13.40 13.81 13.71 13.92 11.96 Restoration 14.01 13.49 14.66 14.29 13.27 16.04 Social Contact 9.14 7.79 13.95 11.60 12.94 11.95 Personal Self-Fulfillment 11.08 11.40 10.15 11.28 10.18 11.85
Standard deviations Passive Enjoyment 3.84 3.88 3.65 3.87 4.80 3.55 Learning and Discovery 3.54 3.98 3.71 3.43 4.19 4.18 Restoration 4.01 4.49 4.48 4.28 4.76 3.20 Social Contact 5.78 5.82 4.08 4.53 4.29 4.23 Personal Self-Fulfillment 4.62 4.25 4.68 4.57 5.17 4.33
Percentage 16-21 Passive Enjoyment 53 36 47 56 39 48 Learning and Discovery 33 34 26 24 35 21 Restoration 39 38 44 44 35 60 Social Contact 17 9 24 14 26 23 Personal Self-Fulfillment 19 16 13 15 20 19
227
Table B23
Experience subscales by site type
Museum sites
Interpretive sites
Natural Site
Means
Passive Enjoyment 14.79 14.96 14.84 Learning and Discovery 13.66 13.82 11.96 Restoration 13.75 14.02 16.04 Social Contact 8.44 12.52 11.95 Personal Self-Fulfillment 11.24 10.51 11.85
Standard deviations Passive Enjoyment 3.89 4.23 3.55 Learning and Discovery 3.77 3.80 4.18 Restoration 4.26 4.54 3.20 Social Contact 5.82 4.33 4.23 Personal Self-Fulfillment 4.43 4.84 4.33
Percentage 16-21 Passive Enjoyment 44 47 48 Learning and Discovery 34 29 21 Restoration 39 41 60 Social Contact 13 22 23 Personal Self-Fulfillment 17 16 19
Table B24
Descriptive statistics for individual experience items
Experience items
Sub-scale
Mean S.D. % 1-10
% 11-15
% 16-21
Enjoying myself ENE 15.65 4.32 13 30 57 Feeling relaxed and at ease REE 15.24 4.42 17 27 56 Being entertained ENE 14.08 4.72 21 35 44 Discovering new and different things LDE 14.02 4.56 24 35 41 Learning and making sense of things LDE 13.36 4.57 27 38 35 Recovering from the stress and tension of everyday life
REE 13.20 5.57 30 29 41
Being mentally stimulated LDE 13.00 4.60 31 39 30 Spending quality time with family or friends
SOE 12.70 6.58 32 26 42
Feeling I’ve achieved something worthwhile
PSE 12.24 5.71 34 34 32
Feeling good about myself PSE 12.13 5.41 35 35 30 Interacting with others SOE 9.21 5.51 61 24 15 Rethinking my personal values PSE 8.47 6.06 62 22 16 Note. ENE = Passive enjoyment experience; LDE = Learning and discovery experience; REE = Restoration experience; SOE = Social contact experience; PSE = Personal self-fulfillment experience. Items are listed in decreasing order of the extent to which visitors experienced each aspect.
228
Table B25
Descriptive statistics for the Arousal of Interest subscale
N Mean S.D.
% 1-3
% 4
% 5-6
Arousal of Interest "During my visit, the information/displays captured my interest" "During my visit, I became interested in things that didn’t previously interest me" "During my visit, the information/displays made me want to learn"
466 4.43 4.86
3.98
4.43
0.90 1.00
1.31
1.08
23 6
32
16
45 28
31
37
32 66
36
47
Note. Responses were recoded to a 1 – 6 scale, with 1-3 representing disagreement, 4 representing mild agreement and 5-6 representing strong agreement.
Table B26
Arousal of interest subscale by site and site type
Arousal of interest MU AG WC AQ GH GF Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
4.62 0.81 40
4.46 0.89 33
4.36 0.68 27
4.52 0.93 39
4.61 0.98 41
3.92 0.90 12
Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
Museum
Sites 4.53 0.85 36
Interpretive
Sites 4.50 0.88 36
Natural
site 3.92 0.90
12
Table B27
Descriptive statistics for Gap scores
Experience subscales
N Mean S.D. % 0-2 gap
% >2 gap
Personal Self-Fulfillment 332 2.11 2.68 69 31 Restoration 339 2.18 2.94 68 32 Passive Enjoyment 340 2.26 2.82 66 34 Social Contact 337 2.42 2.98 64 36 Learning and Discovery 338 2.80 2.87 54 46
Note. Gap refers to difference between ideal and actual scores, each out of 21; 0-2 gap includes cases where actual experience is greater than or equal to desired experience. Higher scores represent lower satisfaction. Subscales are listed in descending order of satisfaction.
229
Table B28
Learning and Discovery Gap scores by site and site type
MU AG WC AQ GH GF Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
2.98 2.60 60
3.88 2.75 75
1.80 2.28 38
3.05 3.26 50
2.83 3.21 45
1.73 2.44 27
Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
Museum
Sites 3.45 2.71 67
Interpretive
Sites 2.60 3.02 44
Natural
site 1.73 2.44 27
Note. Higher scores represent lower satisfaction.
Table B29
Descriptive statistics for the Visitor Satisfaction subscale
N Mean S.D. % 1-3 % 4 % 5-6 Visitor Satisfaction 462 5.09 0.91 11 22 67
Note. Responses were recoded to a 1 – 6 scale, with 1-3 representing disagreement (dissatisfaction), 4 representing mild agreement (moderate satisfaction) and 5-6 representing strong agreement (high satisfaction).
Table B30
Visitor Satisfaction by site and site type
MU AG WC AQ GH GF Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
5.03 0.85 62
5.04 0.86 60
5.20 0.84 74
5.21 0.84 68
4.78 1.23 59
5.35 0.66 82
Mean S.D. % ≥ 5
Museum
Sites 5.04 0.85 61
Interpretive
Sites 5.05 1.01 67
Natural
site 5.35 0.66 82
230
231
APPENDIX C
STAGE 2 QUESTIONNAIRE
232
233
Learning means different things to different people in different situations. In the following items, I am trying to find out what learning in the museum81 means to you. Please indicate the extent to which each item is true in your own experience of learning in the museum. (Circle one number for each item.)
Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1. Learning in the museum is like gaining knowledge through daily experiences.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
2. Learning in the museum helps me become a better person.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
3. Learning in the museum is finding out something that I didn’t know about before.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
4. Learning in the museum is making sense out of new information and ways of doing things.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
5. Learning in the museum means finding new ways to look at things.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
6. Learning in the museum means that I can remember that information whenever I want to.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
7. When learning is difficult in the museum, I concentrate harder and keep trying.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
8. When I have learned something in the museum, I know how to use it in other situations.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
9. Learning in the museum is an enjoyable way of spending time.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
10. I learn a lot from talking to other people in the museum.
-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
Please indicate which statement BEST describes what learning in a museum means to you: ________________
Please indicate your age group: (tick one) Under 20 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 & over
Gender: Male Female
City or town where you live: ___________________________________________
How many times have you visited this museum? This will be the first time 2-5 times before This will be the second time More than 5 times before
Who accompanied you on your visit here today? Came alone A child or family group One other adult Two or more other adults
Approximately how much time did you spend here today? ____________________
81 Wording was adapted for each site.
234
235
APPENDIX D
INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS
236
237
Museum site visitors: M1 – M21
M1 (female in 30’s from Brisbane, visiting with husband M2)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Actually the fossil area up there – we brought a spider with us it ended up being a mouse
spider – that side of the museum is excellent. A few things have changed since we were here
– seeing new things is good.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Definitely – the fossils we think we have might not be fossils at all, just something that
resembles a fossil – so we learnt that today - The fellow that helped us took us over and
showed us.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No just popped into our minds while we were here
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
It was a bit comical thinking that we might have a fossil but we don’t have a fossil
It was fun, but educational. Just thinking we’re really excited about this fossil that we’ve got
but it might not actually be a fossil – that was the funny side of it, but it was educational
because he pulled a few out and showed us.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
It probably wasn’t important as such, but now we know we can bring it in and they’ll look at
it – I suppose in a way it is important to us that we know whether it is or isn’t a fossil.
(Another learning experience)
The stick insects – I really enjoyed the stick insects – they were a living exhibit and that
absolutely drew me to it – I was standing there for quite a while watching them – just
wandering about on their own time – a living exhibit is more drawing than a dead exhibit – I
was talking to another guide who was feeding them and watering them and he was
explaining a bit about them.
238
How will you use the information you gained?
I’ll definitely bring my kids in to see them because they are just so beautiful and just so large
and they’re alive – they don’t often get to see such a big specimen outside.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Probably not, but it’s a topic you can sort of share with your friends so that topic gets passed
on and other people have a little bit of knowledge about it as well.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I think I have a little bit more knowledge, going out. I suppose I have changed a bit.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Yes – a skill tester upstairs that I couldn’t do that my partner could do so that really gave me
a bit of a --- and I just walked away – it made me realise I’m not so much of a lateral thinker
as he is.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Bit of both.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
The stick insects entertained me but they also educated me – and the puzzle was fun but it
was also educational to use your brain power.
M2 (male in 30’s from Brisbane, visiting with wife M1)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
All of it really – the spider – I thought it was a funnel web or trapdoor spider so I gave it a
name either Freddy Funnelweb or Terry Trapdoor and the man upstairs said it was a mouse
spider so now it’s Mickey Mouse spider – I’ve given it a name, the poor thing, it’s a female –
I’ve got to take her home now and put her in underneath the rocks – I’m concerned for the
spider, not the dog and the kids – I like spiders. It’s good that he identified it straight away
and he told me that it wasn’t poisonous, wasn’t going to harm the kids, so I’m a bit more
relieved now, so I can let her go and she can burrow and have a happy life.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
When we first got here, he identified it straight away – that was good – and then we just
looked around in the entomology and we saw the stick insects and that was really good –
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Madonna saw him spraying – we didn’t know what he was spraying so we went over and
there were these long stick insects – I’ve never seen stick insects that long – and we found
out what they eat.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
(The spider) was the reason for coming – I rang up yesterday and they said bring it in to the
spiderman at the museum
How will you use the information you gained? Is the information important to you?
Yes, because we’re both part of scouts – so it’s always good to talk to Venturers and Scouts
about it – like we went to the museum and this is what we saw – and it’s not just everything
is on the wall, there’s living things in the museum and you can see them feed them and you
can pick up some exhibits and you can test yourself on some exhibits and it’s a lot more
interesting than what they think – so yeah it is important to me.
How did you know you were learning?
Probably because I found out something that I hadn’t known before, like I knew about stick
insects but not that they were in the museum and not that they grew that long, and the
names of them – there was a thorny leaf stick insect and we walked around and I found out
the name of some of the birds we see, again, you can pass on to the scouts when you go
camping you can say that’s a brushtail possum, or that’s a brush turkey not a bush turkey, so
you can clarify things so they learn, so you can teach them things too.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
I felt happy that I now know what the proper names are, that I found out exactly what they
are (possums).
Would you say that the learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience
that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Yeah. It’s easy to do, it’s well lit, you can read everything, you can see them there, they’ve
sort of got them in their natural pose and it’s sort of not all open so when you walk around
there’s things that catch your eye – you sort of are drawn around the room and it makes it
interesting, there’s things up high, things down low, things you can touch, so really it’s an
all-encompassing sort of aspect.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
Yeah, I’m not too worried about my spider now – I’m a lot more relieved, I know what to do
with her now, I don’t want her to die --- I’ve learned a bit more.
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Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
For me mainly educational.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
If you make it fun, people tend to learn a lot more about certain subjects. When you go to
Venturers I try to make it fun so it sticks it their mind because pleasurable experiences and
bad experiences stick in your mind more than just ordinary experiences, so the more
entertaining or the more dramatic it is, the more it sticks in your mind, so it’s good to have
that entertainment value to educate people.
M3 and M4 (couple in 40’s from Hervey Bay)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Just about everything in here
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yeah, you do learn.
Especially all the fossils and things, all the dinosaurs and things like that, the beginning of
Australia. I like the old dinosaurs, the old bones, the old furniture upstairs.
How did you know you were learning?
You didn’t know it beforehand – things we hadn’t seen before just good to see, just interesting a
lot of the old Australiana stuff well I grew up with a lot of that so a lot of it wasn’t new, a lot
of the birdlife – I didn’t realise we had so many different types of birds, I knew we had a lot
of different parrots and finches and things, but when you start looking around and see what
you’ve got up there
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
Just wanted to come and have a look at the place, I’d never been here before, I wanted to see
what was in here – I’ve always been interested in them, saw a lot of them in the museum in
Sydney years ago, and thought I’d come and have a look.
It just really blows me away, all these old skeletons and the way things were, things like the size - I
still can't comprehend it all, unreal.
It amazes me too, obviously when the field teams go out and they bring back a lump of
plaster and you bring something out like that - that's really great -like the fossilised turtle -
they actually brought it back.
Yeah just fascinating
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
Eerie, I felt eerie - not in the learning experience but just looking at it and actually, it's hard
to imagine that those animals actually roamed the earth, that big life-sized goanna, just
imagine walking through the shrub and seeing that coming at you - holy moly - you imagine
being there and looking up and seeing that.
Try to work out what it would be like now if they were still around, wouldn't be game to go
behind a tree would you.
I can't describe how it makes me feel - it's just such a fascinating thing.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience
that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Oh yes, great - fun, interesting exciting, educational.
The fact that the things that you can see are there and some of the things you're actually
allowed to put your hands on.
I mean if you're sitting down watching a documentary on television, that doesn't compare with being
able to come to the museum and like get the feel for it - if you were to see that skeleton on television,
you can't comprehend the size of it or the magnitude of it, but to come in and actually stand there and
see it and it becomes sort of like real, you know you can envision all that sort of stuff - it's just
fascinating - we love all the old relics.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit?
It's always important to learn.
I think so too - it's important to learn something new all the time
They say you learn something new everyday and you come to something like this and you do learn
Did it add to your enjoyment of the visit?
Yeah
Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
We came here (Brisbane) for other reasons - but one of the reasons we wanted to do was
come here to the museum and have a look
How will you use the information you gained?
It will probably stick in the back of your head you mightn't use it everyday but you know I know for a
fact that I'll go home and I'll tell everyone that we came to the museum and tell them what we saw.
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Why is the information important to you?
It might be important to us on an individual thing - I don't know if we'd go home and anyone else
would find it important what we've learnt, but it is important because you've got to learn a little bit
of it to try and understand it and if you don't learn about it, you can't understand it (probe)- I like to
try and understand. I wouldn't bother coming in and just standing here and looking at it and saying
oh that's nice or that's horrid - we read all the literature and I've got a purse full of pamphlets.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I don't know if it's changed me, just makes you more appreciative I suppose.
I think it makes you more aware of what was around - it changes you in that respect.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way? Can you describe what happened and how you
felt?
On reflection I suppose, when you look at the old exhibits up there, the old sewing machines and
things I sort of think well I'm glad I wasn't a pioneer, although back then you wouldn't have known
any different because that would have been your way of life, but it makes you appreciate how things
are today, how easy we have it today- - I wouldn't have been a very good pioneer, I'm sure of it.
The thing that impressed me most was the loss of some of our animals - and birds - I didn't
realise how many have gone extinct and some that I've seen around actually in my lifetime
they're on their way out and that's what, fifty years (probe) I think they've got to stop
knocking down our trees and it's alright for them to say willy nilly we've got to have more
farmland but we've only got a certain amount of timber and stuff left and if they keep doing
it - no fauna, nothing
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both - I think it was educational to me in a lot of respects when you look back and see some
of the animals that we used to have like the "diprotodon" and the great goanna - I didn't
even know that existed, I knew the marsupial lion existed because you read about them all
the time, but when you actually see them, it's very educational I think
Yeah, I couldn't say one more than other - it's educational and it's interesting and it's entertaining
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
It's entertaining when you like you go past up there and you see the actual fossilised
skeleton of that big goanna, for arguments sake, and you walk around to where the
diprotodon was and you see his skeleton, and then you walk in and actually see the thing
moving, and with the Tasmanian devils, they're eating them and the goanna's actually
moving and that's exactly the way they moved - it's entertaining you know, the heads all
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moving and the tongue's coming in and out and you walk around to the marsupial lion
laying up there and it's actually breathing so you can see how they - it shows you in a small
way how they used to live
It takes you back there
So the closer you can get to what the experience was actually like
- the better it is I think, like for a argument's sake down at the war museum in Canberra, a
lot of the things they've got there have got sound effects, like you've got on some which
makes it a lot better, like you walk into the helicopters and maybe the planes - it's like with
the whales when you press you can actually hear the whales singing and it's good but if you
walk past you don't know what sort of noise that little tiny plane made up there whether it
was a - you know you can read about it, but… No the whole exhibit's really great but I think
it does need maybe a few more sound effects, not loud ones, just so you know, similar to
what you've got upstairs.
M5 (male in 20’s from London, came alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I came to look at the snakes - to know more about the snakes around here.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I didn't read everything I just came to have a look, have a look around really I suppose if I
spent more time I might have -come back again some time - I watched the turtle video I
knew nothing about them before - all the information is there, it's just how you use it I
suppose - I just wanted to have a look around really I didn't want too much information.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
I just walked around a bit, the video was there, just press a button and away you go - just
caught my eye.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
Relaxed.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
Yes I probably would yeah it was good.
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How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
It's quite a visual place I just wanted to have a nice stroll around the place and have a look.
Will you use the information you gained?
Probably not.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way? .
Not particularly - I was quite upset about the turtles getting caught in trawler nets - that was
not something I know about, or am involved in, so that would make me want to change if I
was doing that in that line of business - it was quite upsetting really - there's another one as
well about an animal that's get caught on barbed wire in the outback - same feeling - there's
an easy way to avoid it really - quite visual.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
For me entertaining, but it's probably more of an educational base.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
They have to, to make it work - for kids- if they're not entertained they won't learn - (for
you?) I actually had a go on the interactive puzzles that was good for me that was quite
entertaining - generally in a museum I think it's good for kids more than what I'd learn
about it - I wish I'd learned some more now - you make me feel like I haven't learned
anything.
M6 (woman in 50’s from Hobart, came with husband)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Vietnam - some things that I had not had any experience sort of thing.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes - Probably there because lots of the other types of things I've seen in museums before -
something new and different.
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How did you know you were learning?
I was reading a lot more, taking a bit more time there.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
No we are on holiday and we just came to the museum - it was something that happened in
my lifetime so something that I didn't probably know that much about not having any close
relations or anyone went.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
I made the comment to my husband "What a waste war is".
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
I wouldn't say I probably enjoyed it but I found it very interesting. (Would you say it was
fun or more engaging?) More engaging probably.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
I guess it was important - I didn't come to see it
How will you use the information you gained? Is the information important to you?
Probably, but more just a reflection of what the war was all about.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Yes.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today? .
Probably not, I guess in the past I've had thoughts about that war it hasn't changed my
thoughts.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way? .
No we haven't spent that long here, we've only been here for about an hour I suppose.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other?
Yeah, a bit of both - I was quite interested in the Western Women exhibition but my husband
probably went through that a little bit more quickly - we just sort of wandered through and
looked at things ourselves- we weren't together all the time.
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Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I'd say it's educational, but also entertaining.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
That's a tricky one - if education can be entertaining then it's going to be of more interest to
people in general.
M7 & M8 (couple in 20’s from Belgium)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
We are here from Belgium - it was interesting to see how many animals you can see and also
the Vietnam - made us realise how we are doing now when we see the pictures like
yesterday from Sept 11 - quite interesting - a learning process.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
It's better to see things - they stick in your mind
We just went to the Vietnam part and then the animals, these are the only things we saw, but it was
good.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
We just passed here. We wanted to go to the museum. Probably Vietnam attracted us.
Like these days there's so much news on the television like we couldn't see anything else the
only thing was just about America
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
I felt a little bit disappointed that we cannot realise that the things that we've done … we do
it again, all over.
We don't learn about the past - it looks like we don't learn
(in the animals?)
Interesting - you'd have to walk a long time to see the nature.
Yesterday we were staying at a friend's place and we were looking in a book with all the
dangerous animals and it was good to see them.
(how did it feel?) Frightening.
Would you say the experience was enjoyable at all?
Yes – we don’t have animals like that in Belgium – our animals are completely different.
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Did it add to your enjoyment of the visit?
Yes.
Will you use the information you gained?
Yes probably, we will tell about it to our friends at home – it was helpful to see the animals
in real life.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I like museums - Almost all my life I’ve been going to museums - better to … learning
process for everybody – it’s good using this knowledge – you get so much knowledge in one
place.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today? In what ways?
Yes, everything, like you walk into the street and you see situations, and now as we walk
through the streets we’re going to think a little bit more about the photos that we saw and
we’re going to have a clearer view about things.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way? Can you describe what happened and how you
felt?
The Vietnam exhibit.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
More individual.
Different for different experiences.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
When you are walking around you don’t have to look at things, when they don’t interest
you, you can go to another thing and when it interests you, you stand there and you read
about – you can choose.
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M9 (male in 50’s from Canberra, came alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Just to see what you’ve got, I’ve had a look around all over Australia – I guess there’s a lot of
things here that are unique to Queensland and the islands – the aboriginal artifacts and
things like that – all very interesting – some of the dinosaur bones upstairs – obviously
unique to the Darling Downs.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I think you’re never too old to learn. The bit down the back about Bert Hinkler – he must
have had nerves of steel to be able to fly something like that so fast.
I guess I’m picking up information I wasn’t aware of before.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
I just came to have a look – because it is a museum there’s always something there that
interests you and is worth looking.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
I was a bit sad with the exhibition about the mammals and animals that are actually dying,
becoming extinct around not just Queensland but Australia – I’m not sure there’s a lot we
can do about it – it’s called progress I suppose.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
Oh I guess so – not sort of rip roaring party type fun, but yeah interesting.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit?
I guess it is important --- what you can do to help improve things for the future.
How will you use the information you gained?
I guess it’s worth passing on to other people, certainly the younger generation cause I think
they’re the people who are going to actually make the changes that affect the future – some
of us are getting to old to be doing too much these days – I think if the kids can find out a
little bit more about it they can do something – they’d be in the best position.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I guess so, I’ a bit more aware I suppose.
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Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
I suppose – I don’t know what, but yeah obviously you have to think about it – it’s a bit sad
to see them going, and gone in a lot of cases.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I guess a bit of both – you learn something by visiting these places and can see what has
happened and what can happen and yeah it’s a good day.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I’m not sure I can answer that one.
M10 (male in 50’s from Gold Coast, came alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The Natural science part – there was a goanna and porcupine well over 100 years old – it’s
still there – you think, why didn’t they put it on, they had it in storage for over 100 years – it
wasn’t in the old museum – I never saw it, you think which one died first? They haven’t got
a very good range of sea-birds (is that something you were particularly interested in?)
birds in general – if I was smarter I would have been an ornithologist.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Everything you look at refreshes your memory. I suppose you learn from everything you
look at. It’s too much to cope with all in one hit (the dinosaur skeleton) – all the other
smaller skeletons, you look at the beetles and you try to work out where’s one ones
between? Like in Sydney Museum they’ve got acres of beetles and butterflies – they’ve got
every beetle – but upstairs they’ve only got one or two. I was trying to find a beetle I saw
the other day – I was just wondering what was it and I thought here’s a good place to learn
what it was.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No you know whenever you come here you’re going to go home knowing something more
about the country – I think it’s more like an antique shop, some of the stuff up there, I’m
more into nature rather than “Women of the West” and a few of the other things – they’re
not really that interesting.
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
Wondering how much you could cope with at one time – learning is something – it’s no use
trying to learn the whole of what you’re looking at because you’ll never retain it all, so you
just try to cope with small pieces, like I rescued an Australian albatross a couple of months
ago, hooked on a guy’s fishing line, he wouldn’t let it go, but I wanted to see exactly what it
was up there, but they didn’t have it, they didn’t have one albatross. But I was working this
morning and I ran out of materials, so I came in to fill in an hour or two.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
If I can cope with it, yeah. But if it’s a bit beyond me, it’s not enjoyable. If I went to
university, it wouldn’t be enjoyable, I couldn’t cope with it. Here there were things, because
you’re learning at your own pace – when you’re at school or uni, they tell you what you’ve
got to learn – that makes it very hard. It’s more enjoyable when you’re absorbing at the level
you can cope
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
One of the reasons you come here – you could sit on the side of the road and just watch cars
go by – but this is more time-worthy – you go home remembering things – I suppose I could
have gone home, because I live down the Gold Coast, could have gone down there and
watched TV but I thought this would be better, you don’t feel as ashamed of yourself for
wasting time – I think they could change the exhibits a bit more often, or actually make a
bigger museum.
How will you use the information you gained? Why is the information important to you?
Yes – you just relate to what you’ve seen, like the water rats up there – I saw a water rat
probably twice the size of the one they’ve got up there – I really didn’t have a clue what it
was, but it’s a native … so it turns out to be a water rat, so I remember that, so I suppose it
triggers your memory, things that you think you’ve forgotten – marsupial mice are
interesting, I’ve got friends that look after a few down in the Snowy Mountains, they don’t
look after them they just make sure no-one else treads on them, but I suppose it associates
with everyone you know, you see something that reminds you of it – the whales, I’ve seen a
few whales this year – every weekend you see whales they’re always down there on a board
or in a boat.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
Only if I saw something that I didn’t expect to – the big cat up there – it looks more like a
real cat and I just don’t remember ever seeing much about that, I’d like to look into that later
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to find out it looks like an African lion or something but I think it’s a native cat but it’s from
a million years ago. Saw a few of the finches that are up there, I’ll follow them up because
we don’t get finches at our place, we get a lot of birdlife that’s coming out of the desert
because of the dry, they’re getting a bit pushy – kookaburras on the doorstep begging for
food.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Build a big museum for schoolkids – you can tell by looking at the kids – they’ve got a
shorter attention span you can see the teacher’s interested but the kids sort of want to keep
on moving – you really do need to cater especially for kids.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Entertaining – I supposed that kind of education is entertaining, or that entertainment is
education.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I came here with the expectation to be just enjoying myself, and you do, you learn things and
I suppose if you do learn things you do enjoy it.
M11 (male in 20’s from Ireland, came with partner)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
All of it really, we rarely go to museums but we’re in a different country, see different
things.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
All the time – I’m very much into vehicles, I found that pretty fascinating. Very well laid
out, very easy to understand.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
Not a thing, just to see what the place looked like.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
You can never go wrong with learning, the more you know the better it is, the next time you
see something, you’ll have a better understanding of what - you can try to get something
else out of it then.
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Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
Yes certainly, I’m glad we came in.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
Yeah, definitely, even if you learn nothing, you’ve seen it, It’s impossible not to learn
something, you could just walk around looking at different things or even just stand there
and you’d still pick up something, you can hear other people talking about things.
How will you use the information you gained?
Maybe with others, but if I go into other museums or galleries along the way, you’d certainly
recognise what I’ve seen before in my own head. I could use it further down the line with
other people if I know I’ve picked up on something.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I don’t know – I’ve learnt, I don’t know if I’ve changed – change – it’s very hard to say
exactly what you mean by change.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Maybe not so much the way I do things, certainly attitudes towards the animals anyway,
understanding if you have a phobia, you get to understand things, again because it helps
your learning, it helps you change as well, because you’re learning the whole time, so I
suppose I have changed!
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Yeah just surprising things, unusual things.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both – very hard to pick one
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Education is very entertaining at these places because especially if you are learning, not just
sitting there looking at something, it can be very tedious, very boring, but if you are
interacting with things, you find that the entertainment value of it would be that the more
entertainment there is part of it the easier it is to actually pick up from it, even just from
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talking to someone about it, you’ll remember it the next time because you have been talking
about it, so it’s 50-50 I suppose.
M12 (male in 30’s from England, came with family)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I think all of it, because I compared to the one in Liverpool. In comparison yours is much
better. It’s quite good, although it’s smaller, it’s quite varied and very interactive. So the
kids could press the buttons.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
The whaling stuff was good, the Australian heritage, the women in the west. The aboriginal
women in the 19th century and the way they looked after the homes of the white families, in
essence they were the matriarchs, looing after the family, the home, the children, their own
children, their own families, and the way they’d often leave their own family to travel with
the white families across Australia – I found that fascinating. (How did it feel?) Very
enlightening, developing awareness of issues, when we were in Perth, the aboriginal issue
isn’t really discussed, you don’t see anything over that side, it seems to be more up to the
fore here, whether I’m wrong on that I don’t know, that’s just my perception – so awareness
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No I just came to see what you had to offer – I quite like history, so one of the big things was
comparing to where I live, to where you live, and the difference in between, and yours is far
more child friendly.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yes of course it was good because it was so easy to actually access the exhibits, the
animatronics were great, the waxworks you’ve got were fantastic, to actually see how people
lived a hundred years ago and how hard it was to do the daily cooking or cleaning, all the
utensils, and again the interactive bits, pressing the button, hearing people speak and so
forth, yeah it was. We leave Australia tonight.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I’m not sure about that, it’s heightened my knowledge.
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Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I’ve developed awareness so I must have changed. Time will tell.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
The aboriginal thing was one, women and children’s role In the past, the pioneers’ role. I
think people should say today looking at how hard life was, it’s hard to empathise with that.
I’m aware of all that anyway but it heightens awareness, and when I tell my child about
something, she says “Yeah Dad” but if she can see it and experience it, in an almost real
type of environment then I think I can get a message through to her and I can pass that on.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other?
Yeah.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both – there was a nice balance.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think it’s the right way to go because you’re catering for all ages and audiences, children
are enjoying it, I’m in my 30’s and I’m enjoying it, older people are enjoying it, so there’s a
nice mix and balance going on.
M13 (female in 40’s from Sunshine Coast visiting alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I’d say probably the dinosaur exhibit upstairs.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes I did actually, it was interesting, I didn’t realise Australia had such a wide, vast, I didn’t
realise we had so many fossilised areas, I didn’t realise that we had those animals here. (the
dinosaur exhibit) possibly because it’s not just one exhibit – they have little bits of it all the
way through – that’s what interested me is, you think oh yeah that’s good and then you go
along and you see another one and then because I had just been out at Winton I didn’t
realise with the prints that they had that much there. Probably just , I don’t know what it
was about it, it’s just an area that I’m interested in and I didn’t know much about it – I’ll
come back again.
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
Good, I was only going to be here for 10 minutes and I ended up here for an hour and a half,
so yeah it was very good – it was great to be learning actually, because I still have in my
mind that museums are kind of boring and that, but this was good, I enjoyed today. (What
was it in particular that changed your mind) Probably just the layout and the diversity
that’s in it, like I can still remember when they were just big old, there were huge big long
lines of stuffed animals and bits of broken pottery and that, but just the diversity really
impressed me today.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
Yes definitely.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
Yes definitely because it’s not just, rather than say come on in have a look, I spent an hour
and a half here and it’s good to see the value in it and not just for children, it’s for adults as
well.
How will you use the information you gained?
Probably too much for me at the moment, bits of it I will, and like we’re coming back again
next week, and I think, cause I’m from the Sunshine Coast, I don’t come down that often, but
in future when we come down, if we come to Southbank, we always drop in to the markets,
but now I think we come back here again.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Yes I will.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today
No I don’t think so.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No not to that extent.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
That’s a hard one. Mostly – I can’t – 50/50.
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How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Well because it was enjoyable as in it was surprising, and like I spent an hour and a half
here, which I didn’t plan on doing, I learnt quite a bit for that hour and a half as well – how
they fit together, I don’t know (You said it was enjoyable because it was surprising) Yeah
and like there was not just the dinosaurs, like they have that little film up there about 100
year ago, that was interesting. Seeing something I didn’t expect.
M14 (male in 20’s from Lismore visiting with friends)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Seeing the megalania – I’m a big fan of reptiles, particularly large scary ones.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I’ve been here lots of times before so I’d already seen it, so probably not. Nothing new. I
can’t think of specific examples of anything interest – maybe the road snake with the cane
toad sticking out of its mouth, that was interesting.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No, I was actually here to see some paintings so while we were here we thought we’d
wander round the rest of the museum.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
It’s a lazy day today – I felt relaxed.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
I wouldn’t be here for any other reason. It’s always fun looking at stuffed birds too and all
the rest.
What was it about the experience that you found attractive or enjoyable?
I have no idea. Seeing things that you don’t get to see close up. That’s probably what it is.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I’m already a wildlife biologist, so I’ve probably already done that.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No.
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Did you talk about the things a lot with each other?
Yeah, plenty of things – making up statements about stuff – I’m a biologist.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Entertaining.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
You can always find something that you haven’t seen before and the interest is in having
seen.
M15 and 16 (couple in 20’s from Germany)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
It was a great museum – you can touch, if you go in Germany to a museum, you can have a look and
go through it, here you can touch and hear sounds – it’s more interesting I think. The little things like
the tiger moved its ears, or you can see their heads move, and so it’s much more interesting as well as
for kids.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes, I think it is easy to learn because you can … with the text you can know more about.
It is very easy to learn here, easy to take something with you, it’s not like you start feeling it
that you learn something, it’s just very interesting, and something’s touched you, it doesn’t
feel like learning, because learning for me is something I do at home, on a desk and read
stuff or work it out.
You come here to know more about, for example how much milk the whales need to grow, it’s quite
interesting to know, then you are happy after.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
We came because of the Vietnam display, we wanted to see that, but that was – I had
expected more, it’s always interesting how Australians think about the Vietnam War, you’ve
got a European and a German opinion about it and French opinion about it and America of
course. It was not so interesting because there were more posters and more art – we were
expecting more information and what people thought about that, about Vietnam against
Vietnam.
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yes it was fun, it was very good. The objects are very good as well, they are very interesting
and, for example, the turtles are very amazing how big they were, they were very good to
imagine how big they are, I didn’t know either that they eat jellyfish.
The first time I saw the ??? there, it looked real and I thought they have to move all the time because if
they don’t move, we don’t feel amazed – the women of the farm – the cat on the floor, and it looked like
real.
There were some other people at other places in the museum that looked real (So the fact
that it looked real made it interesting for You?) Yeah, because if it looks like a doll you just look
and say “oh that’s nice” and then you look twice and say “Oh it looks like real”.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
I think it’s really helping you there because you want to know more, it’s just interesting to open your
mind on new things, it is so easy, you just can go and search for it, it’s not so serious, just have a look
and think “Oh that’s interesting, can you read a bit more about that” especially for the animals that
you can open up and look at the eggs how they look, how the nests look.
How will you use the information you gained? Why is the information important to you?
Yes you will forget some things, just to make you know it’s wise to get a bigger knowledge. I
love to learn things. It’s always good when you learn new things. Just to no something
more.
Nobody can take it from you, you know. If you know something, if you learn something, it’s in
yourself, you can open your mind to other things because you know.
It makes you more open-minded, you have a bigger pool where you can take things out of it.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
The whales – we went to a museum once on whale hunting – it’s quite interesting now to see
it now again, why they were killed, and where they lived and how they lived.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No not changed … you can go to the ocean and if you good luck you can see one, a lot of animals die
out… our children will not have the opportunity to see those animals which is quite interesting, to
know how we can protect those animals. More sensitive, what you do with rubbish.
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Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
If you go to another country, there are other animals, you don’t know the names, it’s good to
buy books so when you are travelling if you see a bird or an animal you can say “Oh, that’s
this one” I think that’s a good thing.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other?
We did it together and said “Oh have a look there” and discussed about it …(did that help
you learn?) because you remember if you speak later on about something then oh you
remember we talked about it or you see when someone else shows you something maybe
you just walk through you wouldn’t see it and he has seen something very interesting and
shows it to you and so you’ve got “Oh yes, that’s very interesting” so for example I was
sitting next to this little kid and you can press a button and then… I explained to the kid
how to use it.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I think both of them. The museum is always entertaining and educational together.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
In Australia it’s always pretty nice, the museums are very interesting. In Europe it’s less … because
it’s too serious, don’t touch it, kids not allowed and so here with the sounds and movement and
pictures and movies (Does that add to the entertainment value or the educational value?)
Both because you learn more, if you don’t read it all you can see it you can touch it then you learn the
most.
M17 (woman over 60 from Brisbane, visiting with husband)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I just think the general layout, the building itself was different.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I think all the way through. I think the dinosaurs because the children are interested in
dinosaurs, I think the other things we saw, the more modern history, like from the 1850’s to
1930’s – the displays of all the old ironing, sewing machines, that was fascinating. I think
there’s a bit of connection with the past that you can make there and something you
remember.
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Did you come with the intention of learning?
No we just wanted an experience, and it’s given us that. We just wanted to find out about
the past and see things we haven’t seen before.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yes I think so. I think it’s good to see how far we’ve come when you see things from the
past and where we are in the modern era like with cameras and even with
The Vietnam experience was a bit soul-searching, but worthwhile having. I’m not sure
you’d classify the Vietnam room as enjoyable but certainly informative.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
Very important. I don’t think we came to learn anything, we came to just experience
something.
How will you use the information you gained?
Difficult to say. I think it’s difficult to use it – not in any academic involvement but I think
just part of everyday life.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Yes. It makes you look at things differently. I was mentioning today that when we came
museums are very different from when I was a young girl, this is a fun place for children to
come to and I think it provides them with a way, a hands-on way of learning things from the
past, and relating with the modern day to the past and I think it’s very good that they
provide something like this. Not just stuffy exhibits – that’s what it used to be. I think that
you think of museums as being that way but I think this a very interesting place to come.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
In a small way I think yes, it always does. I think certainly knowing a lot more of what’s
going on I think helps you understand why we are what we are today.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
The Vietnam thing, I think, everybody created a whole reason for being involved in it. I
think it’s part of a modern problem we have, in fact right now it’s a big issue as well, with
Iraq.
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Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
No we talked about things.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I think probably educational, I think sometimes there’s a fine difference between the two.
We didn’t come to be involved in a fun show or something like that, just to see things that
are in the past. I found it extremely interesting.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think it’s a good mixture in here. I think the layout of the building is ideal. I think the
exhibits are organised in such a fashion that you’ve got some stimulant there as well as an
actual exhibit which teaches you something but also mildly entertains. Just the presentation
of some of the things and also some of the surprising events like the tiger lying on the rock
that moves. I think that all adds to the entertainment part of it, could also lead you into an
educational part.
When there’s mainly children who come here I think it’s important for it to be done that way
so that they do, apart from learning, they’re being entertained at the same time and they can
participate as well and I think that’s really important that they’ve put that aspect of it in as
well.
M18 (male over 60 from Brisbane, came alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Well I liked the old exhibits – the old fashion ones – cars and bikes – everything old I like -
antique
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I come here every year – the exhibits are basically the same but no it seems to be very – we
come once a year – my wife’s over the road having something to eat, so I’m just doing
something until half past one. I like the old vehicles mainly, I’ve been upstairs there but the
… studies don’t interest me particularly but I like the older equipment. I learnt that the
vehicle, for instance like the Indian, my father owned one with a side car and I remember
when I was around about 5 or 6 having a ride in it – it brought back good memories (Was
that important to you?) Yes it is at my age, I’m on a downward track now.
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Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No I came to see them particularly, I went upstairs but I was interested in this area. I came
last year but I was a bit waylaid and I didn’t actually see it – this is the first for two years that
I’ve actually seen what I like to see. (Do you come to the same part of the museum every
time?) Same part.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yes.
What was it about the experience that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Being able to think about where I used to sit on the back of the motor bike and also those
sulkies and buggies it brought back when I first started work in 1936 I used to see these
buggies around being used and now of course the only time the young ones see it is in the
museum whereas I saw it in the flesh, which I enjoyed – you didn’t at the time you thought
nothing about it but now that it’s bygone days it good that the kids can see what really
happened – they wouldn’t appreciate it fully but at least they’d see the type of vehicle, the
horse drawn vehicles.
How will you use the information you gained?
I’ll tell my grandkids – they’re about 18 is the youngest – they live in Gladstone but they
come at Christmas time so I don’t think they really have the time. I don’t think they’ve ever
been to the museum here, museums up at Gladstone they’ve got nothing like this.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No just refreshed my memory.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
It made me think about how I really enjoyed the older days, with the vehicles, now that old
taxi down the back there I can remember the old cars and the old taxis that were going, see
I’m nearly 80 so I can refresh the memories. I enjoy coming here. I like also to see the
dinosaurs because when I was up at Hughenden they have the big full one there which is
very very good, so that’s interesting to see.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Entertaining for me, no I think it’s good, and to see all the school kids here. Last time I was
here there were a few, but there are a lot here today. It’s good that the kids can see – they’re
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very enthusiastic about it what I’ve heard them talking about as I’ve been walking around.
No it’s great.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think the education is very good for them. At least they’re seeing, some of them may be a
little it young to absorb it, but at least with the teachers probably telling them what it’s all
about they’ve got some idea because all they see are the modern ones and the computers,
whereas they’re seeing the old things in the flesh and the teachers have probably told them
what happens, how it happens, how slow the vehicles were. It’s important – I think when
they get older – these kids might be around about 8, these are old enough to say “I’ve seen
an old dray, or I’ve seen what a blacksmith does”. When I used to go to school, I passed the
blacksmith’s place with the horse and it was good to see the old bellows being used and so
they see and they probably ask “What are they?” and they get told.
M19 (female in 50’s from England, came alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Mainly everything that comes from Australia – I’m over here on holiday I’m here to learn
and try to understand it a bit more. The wildlife, because I’ve not seen a lot, saw my first
kangaroo and I’ve been here over a week. It’s very fascinating learning about the different
animals that are endangered, and the animals you have got, I’m fascinated by the birds.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes I did, being a visitor from the UK. I was looking more for the wildlife – I can’t get to see
all of Australia obviously, so it’s good to see what you’ve got.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
Well we haven’t got what you’ve got here in the UK anyway (something different?) yes. It
was (fun) I found it very interesting, exceptionally interesting, and I’ve been told all about
the different spiders you have here so that was interesting – you have a lot more animals
and a lot more species here than in the UK – it’s a bigger country. I found it very fascinating,
I’m quite pleased with it actually.
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How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
Yes I didn’t think I’d enjoy it quite so much, I thought it would be the same as the London
Museum, because I live there, it’s nothing to me now.
How will you use the information you gained? Why is the information important to you?
Probably when I get back – I’ll tell the grandchildren all about it – Oh I’ve seen one of those,
it might have been in a museum, but I’ve seen one. I’ll be able to identify things a lot easier.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Maybe I don’t know.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
You’re a bit wiser aren’t you. You’ve learnt something so obviously it does change you.
You look around and say oh yes I know what that is or I’ve seen that, you’re more informed
(were you more interested in actually seeing the things than reading about them?) yes, I
mean I wouldn’t be interested in everything obviously, you can’t take it all in so you look at
what you actually want to look at and then you have to move on because it gets too much.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way
No I just take it in and just try to learn what I can, I don’t question an awful lot, I just take it
in, I’m quite laid back and easy going.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both, definitely both.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
It makes it more enjoyable doesn’t it, you know learning can be quite tedious, quite boring, I
found it quite boring when I was at school but if they make it fun, like it is in her, I can
understand why the kids are enjoying it. I used to go around museums in London when I
was little and that was all a learning experience because they made it fun for youngsters and
it is interesting to see all the skeletons, I remember seeing that when I was a kid.
M20 and M21 (couple under 20 from Gold Coast)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
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I liked the under-sea exhibits with the turtles Yeah I think me too, that and the old fire engine
things.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
All the time, even if it was just passively I think that you are learning it anyway (What do
you mean by passively) You know, not even realising you’re learning it, you’re just
becoming aware of it. Like for example, the turtle one, I didn’t realise that the leatherback
turtle grew up to be 2 metres long, I thought it was an exaggeration and then we read it, it
said yes 2 metres, we didn’t realise but yeah you’re learning.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No not really just to look around. Yeah, I haven’t been to a museum for a long time.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Just when you kind of go – oh wow, that’s interesting – and there were a lot of interesting exhibits
there. Fun? Yes for sure.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
Yeah, it’s pretty interactive learning too with all the videos and that sort of stuff. I don’t think I’d
come if wasn’t stuff that I wouldn’t learn about, like if it was just say something boring that
you see every day, and I wouldn’t be learning about it then there’s no point coming. I knew
that this was a museum so it would have old things, new things, animals, that kind of stuff.
How will you use the information you gained?
I don’t know – next time I see a turtle, maybe I’ll say, whoa that’s a leatherback turtle and
they can grow up to 2 metres but I don’t know, not really no, I don’t, maybe you more so than me,
but I could not see myself Oh definitely, I was thinking up at the animals and the insects and
everything, I did an insect collection, I was doing animal diversity last term, and I’ve gone
“wow, I should have come here because there’s so many, especially the insects, I had to do a
collection and there are so many up there that I could have just looked through and gone
that’s what I need instead of going through books and on the internet. So in retrospect, yes,
but I don’t know if there will be anything I will learn that in the future I will reference back.
Do you think the information you have learned today is important to you? Interesting
more so than important. Yeah I agree. Important in some ways, but not really, not dire strait,
we’re not dead if we don’t learn it but it’s interesting to know.
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Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I didn’t like the whaling video, that’s for sure yeah I think that’s gonna disturb me for a while the
actual video of the whaling, how they were all talking about it, oh it’s the greatest adventure
that sort of stuff, they were like bullfighters, they were like heroes. (Will that have any impact on
the way you do things?) I won’t go shooting any more whales, no problems. I won’t be buying
any whale products, not that I do, but you know. Just maybe strengthened the resentment I
have for whale killing.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
A few interesting Australian animals I didn’t even know existed, like the quoll, I’d never
seen that in my life and I didn’t know bilbies were so big and so that was interesting.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other?
Yes we just yeah talked about it (Did that contribute to the learning experience?) Yeah
because he knows things that I don’t yeah and vice versa. It is good to come as a group, but
it’s so interactive up there you don’t really need another person I suppose. Like a lot of
video media and that sort of stuff. And the notes underneath each which will tell you about
it.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Entertaining entertaining, with a bit of education
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
If it’s interesting, you want to learn about it. But if it’s just boring learning, they’re not
gonna want to learn about it. Yeah, they’ve put it together pretty well. If it wasn’t
entertainment, you’d just kind of walk in here and go oh yeah, I’m not here to study and
walk out. But you can just walk around and learn stuff without actually knowing you’re
doing it without straining you brain (So it didn’t take too much effort?) Yeah that’s right it
doesn’t feel like it not at all, which is good.
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Aquarium (Interpretive site) visitors: A1 – A22
A1 (woman in 40’s from Crow’s Nest visiting with husband and parents)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The seals.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
The whole time, trying to find where you wanted to go, that was learning the map. Just
looking at the tanks and realising that’s what you see - when you see them out of the water,
you know there’s no colour at all – when you see them in the tanks, how bright and
colourful they were. (did you read some of the information?) Just looking at them mainly
for me. I’ve been to places like this before so I sort of think I know it all, but I noticed mum
and Dad were reading all the plaques and that.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
Came to give Dad a good day out – for him to see something he’d never seen before. He’s
from the bush.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Fascinating, you just sort of go “Wow, I didn’t know that” With the jellyfish and that, the
fish that don’t have eyes. I expected to see a mexican walking fish but no, they were real fish
with just little red things, no eyes.
What was it about the experience that you found attractive or enjoyable?
I thought here we go, it’s a Mexican walking fish, I know it all, that’s what I thought. I
realised it wasn’t, it was actually a fish that didn’t have eyes. And the cave fish I liked that
too (So did you read about those things?) Yes.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
Definitely, it makes it exciting doesn’t it.
How will you use the information you gained?
I might get on my internet a bit more.
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Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Yes, cause those sharks didn’t look so scary.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
That’s a hard one, I’ve been to the one at Darling harbour. I brought my husband mainly,
he’s still “I just can’t believe it” but he’s shy. So he would have definitely come away with a
lot of insight and curiosity. (Do you know what particularly appealed to him?) The
stingrays, the crocodiles when they were being fed. Interesting to realise that they don’t feed
all year around so there is safe times to go swimming – when it’s cold.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No, I’ve always thought I had a good attitude anyway, you’ve got to respect them. I don’t
think those nets should be there for sharks, along the coastline. It’s good to know that
everything here, has not just been people gone out and caught and brought back, they’ve
either been injured or born here, I thought that was good. To know that you’re not just
going out there and grabbing stuff from the ocean and separating a family or whatever.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Probably an individual thing, I think. Probably when we go back and have lunch we’ll
discuss and compare notes and everything, but we haven’t done that yet.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Well it depends on your age level and that. Someone who’s never been here before would
find it very educational, like all those children and that, but I found it entertaining.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Definitely, otherwise it would be too much like schoolwork. It all ties in.
A2 & A3 (couple in 20’s from Gold Coast)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I enjoyed looking at all the fish we love the fish I enjoy everything about nature.
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Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
This is about the third or fourth time we’ve come back here, but no I watch a lot of
documentaries and things like that so it’s good to see how fish react in their normal
environment instead of pulling them up with a hook and line in their mouth (So you already
had a lot of knowledge about it before you came today?) I know a bit. I know nothing, he
was telling me. You always learn something, you can never remember the whole lot - like the
jelly fish, the way that they breed - they breed them here – just something different.
How did you feel while you learning?
It’s good to see that someone’s still doing research into helping to keep stocks of different
fish and different animals up..there are major problems with the fisheries, like they’re having
to stop, have certain limits, it’s good to see that they’re trying to rectify the problem.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
Came just to see the fish, always the way.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience
that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Yes, I always have fun when I come here. I think a lot of people wouldn’t realise that they
are learning, like you read a little plaque or something about a particular species or
whatever it is, and you’re going to learn something from it aren’t you, no matter whether
you are consciously trying to learn something or you’re just reading over it, you can always
remember it.
Do you think you were learning something in that way?
Probably – I won’t know until it comes out later. I just see it and say “Oh”. I just like to see the
sharks. I’m easy pleased. (Did you find learning fun here?) Yeah I think I did, I had a good time
looking at how ugly some of them are.
How will you use the information you gained?
I know a lot of useless information. No I always pop up with something in my head that I
think about and then I come back and say “Well yeah” it might be something I see on TV
and say “Well I saw that at Underwater World”
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
We’ve been here a few times, we always seem to keep coming back so we won’t let it go. I don’t see a
great need to learn everything about it, I’m happy with what I’ve got, but I’m only one person. I love
it I think it’s great.
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Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
Apart from knowing already the problem about grey nurse sharks and things like that, and
all the pollution and over-fishing and things like that – I already knew about that, probably
just another thing. Do you think it will change the way you go about fishing? I don’t keep
any of the fish anyway, I throw them all back. I always have. I really don’t know. There’s a
lot of kids in there. So hopefully they’ll learn something from it and if they go fishing their
fathers or their parents or whatever and it they catch a fish that’s too small they know to put
it back, so yeah.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Not really. I liked the car though, that was cool. I though it was different. I thought it was
very clever. And we’re not doing it so don’t even think about it.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
He was showing me everything about what they do and what.. I’m not a water person at all,
it was all for him, being here today.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
A bit of both – different species, you learn new things about different species that you might
have seen last time and you come and see them again and the entertainment value where
you can see nature, but go round and have a look at it from underneath instead of looking
down on it. One thing that I pointed out was seeing the tailor and snapper swim together, in
a school, I didn’t think they’d do that.
A4 & A5 (couple in 50’s from Brisbane)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Well it’s all fantastic. I find the seals the way they are trained – you give them a fish, they do
what you want them to do and then you come into all these different ponds – it’s great to see
what underneath the water is about – it’s tremendous. I would say that looking at the fish – the
peace that they must feel is what impressed me the most – it made me envy them.
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Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
It wouldn’t matter how much you see you always learn. The jellyfish is interesting, to see
what they do and what they can’t do – cause I’ve only seen them in the ocean, I’ve never
seen this part before. Every time you come here it’s always improved. Seeing the otters was a
learning experience – I’ve never seen otters before. (Did you read about them as well?) Just
watching them and listening to the gentleman talking about them.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No not specifically No we more or less came just to see the experience – you always learn
doesn’t matter what you do – you pick up a book, you learn something out of a book, it may
be only a little thing but it all helps, it’s the same coming here just to see those jellyfish, then
you’d move around into this area here, it’s all different and it’s great to see. (What was it
that attracted you to the jellyfish in particular?) Just seeing how they pulsate, just to see
them dancing around – they’re great.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
Yes, it makes me go back now and want to read a book on that. I don’t know whether I want to
read a book but it just helps you to understand and really appreciate the ocean is for fish and jellyfish
and sharks and things like that it’s not really for people.
Enjoyable Enjoyable yes, interesting, fascinating at times. And to think we’ve got to put up
with trawlers that go out and they go for all this little stuff, they’re last to go back into the
water – I’d like to see that stopped, look what they kill, they destroy, and they ruin the
bottom of the ocean, they must do, you know people have got to have prawns and things
like that but I’m sure they could probably eliminate a lot of that damage they do out there.
(Is that something that you picked up from today?) Well it is, because you see what’s all
there and to think when you see them pull up these big nets on movies and the amount of
stuff that they destroy – I reckon it’s bad (Was there something you saw today that made
you think along those lines?) Just to see what’s there I suppose, cause I wouldn’t have seen
half of that last time we were here. Some of the tropical fish, I think that’s what makes you stop
and think, so many different ones, they are so beautiful, and you think when huge ships hit reefs, and
spill out their oil and kill all those beautiful fish (Was there something in the display that made
you think about that or was it just your own reaction?) Just my reaction to what I’m seeing.
Will you use the information you gained?
Probably not, just store it. It’s all learning material.
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Is the information important to you?
Of course it is, it’s very important – I’d like to see that Cherry Venture now, put a big glass
cage around that and turn it into a fishery – I’m sure they can build something around it, just
like they’ve done here – this is great (the car) – I’m sure they can do that to the Cherry
Venture, rather than shift it. Why move it, it would be cheaper to spend another $800,000
and put a cage around it, and put all these other little fish in it -–that would be lovely, to
have something out on the real seashore, I bet the government haven’t thought about that. I
think the car’s great, it’s different. I think it’s crazy.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Individual. Like everybody takes an eye to something, and someone will see it a it different.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
We meant it to be entertaining but I think we’ve learned along the way.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I guess they can – they can and they do – it just happens that way. If you came just
expecting to see entertainment and not learn anything, well you’re missing too much of
what the place is. That’s what the world’s about isn’t it, it’s just great to see.
A6 & A7 (Couple over 60 from Gold Coast)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The seals, very good. The tunnel was good, particularly with the moving footway, we came
here years before and they didn’t have that then.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
All the time Yeah, very good Can’t remember any one particular thing. (Did you learn
anything about the seals?) We learnt they were pretty clever. We learnt that they can go by
movements, you know one step of (different signals?) yes, terrific. There’s lots of different fish isn’t
there – there’s fish I’ve never seen before.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
Yes, well I’m of the opinion that you’re learning all the time – you learn something every
day of the week, I don’t think you ever give up.
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
I think it was very enjoyable. It makes it much more enjoyable when you’re learning
something. When you’re going away thinking “Oh well gee I didn’t know that before”.
How will you use the information you gained? Why is the information important to you?
That’s very hard to say. Certainly we’d be able to look at poisonous fish if we ever get up to
the Barrier Reef, stonefish and things like that – it gives you an idea what to watch for. The
jellyfish, just looking at them, there’s so many different kinds What’s sort of amazing is in the big
tunnel, the amount of fish that’s there and the sharks there but they never seem to feed off
the fish, you sort of wonder why because if they were in their natural habitat they’d
probably be eating half of them.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I don’t think we’re changed, I don’t think it’s that sort of experience. It would probably make
you appreciate some things a bit more.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Well we’ve more or less become partly greenies in our latter years, you sort of start to
appreciate things more and you get disgusted with – you know how people litter the
country and things like that (Did anything here today make that stronger?) Yeah the fact
that the damage you can do, you know just a plastic bag or anything in the wrong place. We
don’t litter the countryside we litter the car.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
No we were discussing things as we went around. It’s hard to single out any particular
thing.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Well I think it’s both. I think it would be very interesting for the kiddies, the school children, I think
they’d learn a lot. (What about for you?) Yes
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How do those two things fit together in the visit?
They fit together very good in this sort of environment, because you don’t realise, obviously
you’re enjoying the visual part, you are also learning something at the same time. (So you
don’t realise you’re learning?) It just happens fairly naturally
A8 (woman in 50’s from Adelaide, came with adult daughter)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Going through the tunnel, you just sort of came through and you feel like you are actually in
there and you’ve got them swimming around you, it’s actually really nice. She didn’t like it
so much, she felt like she was getting a bit claustrophobic.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I think you always learn something when you are looking at animals like that. I don’t know,
I think it all goes in and it’s just a pleasurable experience just to watch them.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
We didn’t even come with the intention of coming here today, we just went past and
dropped in.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
I would think so, I mean I saw the kids going through with the guides, they kept telling
them about different things and I think that would be good for kids.
Did learning add to your enjoyment of the visit?
Probably.
How will you use the information you gained? Is the information important to you?
I don’t know about that.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No I don’t think so, I think you can just coming through here, you sort of let yourself feel
like you’re really relaxed and open to things.
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Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
No mainly an individual thing – she’d be choofing around and I’d be “Come and have a
look at this one”.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I think it could be entertaining and educational.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think they both fit together because if you’re entertained you’re more likely to learn things.
A9 (man in 30’s from Sunshine Coast) and A10 (son under 20)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The sharks, I’ve been diving with them before here. I liked the big tank that you walk through.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
All throughout. How beautiful the animals can be in their own environment and how we’ve
got to look after them. Basically taking care of the waterways and not throwing your
rubbish around. (Do you think that will change your behaviour?) I always have, cause
I’ve got a mate who works here as well and he’s always telling me about the things that he’s
come across and I’ve always been pretty conscious of that anyway Not anything specific, jus t
about all the fish and how big they grow and stuff like that.
Is that information important to you?
Well it wasn’t, but now it sort of is.
Will you use the information you gained?
Probably not, but I still think it’s good to know.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Yes
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
A lot. No not really, just part of life in general, everywhere you go you’re learning
something anyway, it’s just part of general knowledge gathering, just part of life. I think
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when I go fishing, I’ll know what I’m catching, I’ll know the different species, and then I’ll
throw it back. I just enjoy cause I don’t eat fish or any type of seafood so I just enjoy it to
catch them and release them.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
No not really – the fun of it all I think.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
Definitely, with all the interactive stuff, and just e able to like see, instead of being in a classroom, like
if you came here on a school visit instead of being in a classroom and learning about it you can come
and actually see what you are learning about.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
Not really, just learnt stuff.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way? ?
Like oh, probably seeing that turtle out the front, how it had that big cut thing on its back,
made me think about boat safety and all that.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
I was just pointing out when I came diving here, just things I saw then and how much bigger
some of the sharks have gotten since I was here. Yes we pointed out stuff.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Entertaining A bit of both.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Very well, because you’re not going to learn anything if it’s not entertaining, you just get bored. If
its basically like on a news type program or in papers where they’re trying to shove it down
your throat, well you just ignore it, but if they make it in an entertaining way, you’re going
to learn more and respect it more, if they make it more fun.
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A11 and A12 (couple over 60 from NZ)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
On the ground floor where we came in – I’ve been down to the Barrier Reef, and I was
intrigued with the, I don’t know the name of the fish, it was white and black and yellow
striped, and I watched it for 10 minutes, and it stayed around one piece of coral, now does
that coral sting other fish and not that fish because no other fish came near it? It kept going
in and out for 10 minutes, it didn’t go anywhere else and no other fish came through it. (Did
you find any information about that that could help you understand that?) No I didn’t but
it might be in there and I mightn’t have read it perhaps.
All the various fish, some of the pretty ones that you spend extra time at, see all the various varieties
you’ve got here.
The rock fish we were intrigued with, and the poisonous ones that were in that area too,
beautiful colours on the fins of the poisonous fish, and the small ones, their fins didn’t seem
to separate until they got older, but the colourings on that were just beautiful (Did you just
observe those things yourself or did you read about that?) No I just observed it. I would
have to change my ways if I came here and saw the poisonous fish you’ve got here – I’d have to put my
shoes on wouldn’t I – we don’t have anything like that at home (NZ) –occasionally we get jellyfish
but it’s very rare to hear of anyone being stung with a jellyfish.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No, just looking to see what was here and you pick things up as you go round. Yes, I had seen some
of them in the Barrier Reef and that was very intriguing as well of course. I was not interested
in anything in particular, just was interested to see the poisonous fish.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience
that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Yes I think it could e for young ones (What about for you?) Yes it was alright. Could be improved,
what you’ve got written on the walls could be written on the information sheet and then you could
read it as you go round particularly if there’s a crowd of children there.
There was a lot I didn’t read but that was no fault of the display, it was because I can’t walk
and stand as long as I used to be able to do, I tire easier like a lot of older people, so I didn’t
read everything that was up there, I feel that I would need to come back another time, or
better still do an hour and a half and then come back another time and do an hour and a
half, but that’s only because, for younger people that wouldn’t necessarily apply.
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How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
Yes – I saw more than I expected to.
How will you use the information you gained? Why is the information important to you?
Yes, I’m just beginning to paint and I’d like to have a go at painting some of those very
pretty fish – the colours in that poisonous fish are colours I see in flowers and silks and those
delicate shades are absolutely beautiful.
I’ll use the information in that you go to the seashore or rocky areas, you watch where you walk.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Doubtful, we’re fairly interested in that sort of thing, we’ve lived next to the sea all our lives.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
He was more interested than what he thought he was going to be.
I don’t know whether it will change much.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Probably the poisonous fish – to be aware of them – I wasn’t quite so aware of them before, I knew they
were around.
Not necessarily alter how we do things, but amazed at the uniqueness of so many creatures.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Yes, both
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both, could be more educational than we found it – if you wanted it to be, it depends on each
individual.
I found it more entertaining because I didn’t read all of it because I would tire – it’s
something I would need to come back and do again.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think it’s done very well, especially for children – quite a lot of these things we know
because of our age, even if we haven’t actually seen them, but for a lot of children it’s new.
They fit together fairly well, if you make it a little bit entertaining it help people to look at things a bit
better.
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I’ve only got one grandchild here in Australia and she’s only 3, I wasn’t able to bring her but
she would have been delighted with some of those things that even though some things she
wouldn’t, she would have been delighted.
A suggestion – three years ago I went to Edinburgh Castle and they gave me a tape recorder and all
the items were numbered and you go round the numbers and you press the button and it tells you all
about it through the earphones. That might be worth having for those who want it, then you don’t
have to worry about reading – the hard work’s done for you.
Also if each window was numbered, because there are so many, you think have I gone there
or have gone there, if you have numbers you could tick it off, it would need to be numbered
on the pamphlet. (Did you have trouble finding your way around?) Just a little bit. If
you’re keeping up with someone else and they go ahead at a different speed, and there’s
such a crowd, it’s very easy to think where have they gone an d have they seen this. if they
had numbers we could just go consecutively through it and know we’d done it.
A13 (woman in 20’s from Brisbane)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The underwater tunnel with the sharks and the stingrays.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I didn’t know that female cuttlefish died after they laid eggs and that’s why they washed up
on the beach. And I’ve never seen that gigantic crab before.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No I came to look at the fish – I just stood there looking at the fish and then just reading all
the bits on the side, I just read everything.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience
that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Yeah it was good, the reading things were not very long, they were straight to the point.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
I’ve never been before – I thought it was more for little kids.
Will you use the information you gained?
No not really, just general knowledge.
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Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
No, I’m a diver, so all conservation and looking after nature and the importance of the food
sources and things and protecting the coral underwater and not littering the ocean and
whatnot – There sort of general knowledge things.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
No we discussed things I didn’t know, we talked about it, we just read it
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
More entertaining than educational, but both
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
It was a good experience to come and look at the fish and the way they swim and all the
colours and all that so just a fun way of learning.
A14 (woman in 50’s from Melbourne, came with 15 yr old son)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Seeing the different colours of the fish, and the jellyfish – I’ve never seen jellyfish so close
like that before.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes when I read the information – I’ve just looked at the car and I learned how they made
the thing, turned the car into a tank – I can’t think of anything else – lots of different things –
when the seal show was on, the information was attractive, about what seals do naturally.
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Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
Yes and no, I didn’t think it was going to be all show and no information so I did expect to
learn – just the signage really, it’s good to look at all the different kinds of fish but I wouldn’t
know what they’re called, but the thing is you read what’s on the board, you compare what
the pictures show with the actual fish in the tank.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
Something new for me, I don’t have a lot of experience with fish so I don’t know a lot about
them, probably know more about animals than fish.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience
that you found attractive or enjoyable?
Yes some of the facts were fascinating so yes I did enjoy it.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? Did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
Oh yes, if you didn’t find out about some of the things you saw, it wouldn’t really be
interesting.
Will you use the information you gained?
Not really, I’ll probably forget a lot of it now as soon as I walk out, but it’s good at the time
when you’re watching something and you’re looking at something and then you find out
what you’re actually looking at – I don’t know, it could come up in the future, you know
“Oh yeah, I read that at Underwater world”.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I teach, I’m a teacher so if I ever did a unit on the ocean or fish, yes. And that’s when I’d
have to go in and find out some more for myself, find it from books really.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
Not really, no.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
I wondered, I did wonder it’s like a zoo, I can’t help but wonder do they feel cooped up or
do they feel trapped or if they haven’t got enough room, that sort of thing, but I don’t know
if fish, if there’s any scientific evidence that fish have a memory or fish feels things, I don’t
know, but that made me think, they’re all so beautiful, the colours really, you think of fish in
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aquariums and things like that but there absolutely beautiful some of the ones that were
with the coral, cause I’ve never been snorkelling.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Yes and no, it depended what interested either of us – the stingrays were brilliant – the
initial ones we saw when we came in the tank, then in the tunnel, they were just so close,
almost collecting you as you pass them. What I thought was really good too was at the
beginning there, there are a lot of schoolkids here today, and the kids were allowed to pick
up the fish and touch them and put them back in and there was somebody there to show
them what to do and that was brilliant.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Well I’ve come to be entertained really, I’m on holiday, I’ve just left school for a week so I
don’t want to be educated much more, but you know it depends, just today I just want to
relax.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Part of the entertainment was finding out about them as well – you can have a bit of both,
you know, it’s just the focus that I came with today was to be entertained and see what they
would present to me.
A15 (man in 30’s from Adelaide, visiting with wife and daughter)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
That tunnel thing, amazing how they say they’re only 30% of their size, imagine how big
they really are.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Learning all the time, had a look at the corals, and the jellyfish there – we sat there at the
otters and found out there was only one species (?) – we found out what they ate and how
they done it – it was excellent.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No not really, just to see the moving platform thing, I was looking at that – I was just sitting
there listening and interesting reading – facts.
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
Fun, enjoyable, educational –it always helps when you have little talks and find out
something more – understand more things.
How will you use the information you gained?
I don’t know if I’ll use it again. It’s always good to have a different sort of thing of
everything.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I wouldn’t go out of my way to go there, but when I see things, yeah I’ll enjoy them.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today? In what ways?
I’ve realised it’s more wonderful what’s out there than I’ve really thought about, and what’s
out there, or what’s underneath, you don’t really realise what’s there.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
I suppose it’s always a it like that if you have a look at certain things, yeah. You might say
“Yeah I’ll be more careful of that” – not really until you actually come in contact with it.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Yes, My daughter and wife – it was good.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Entertaining, you’re enjoying yourself to look at something, plus you’re learning facts as you
look at it.
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A16 & A17 (2 sisters in 50’s from Canberra)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I enjoyed the jellyfish, I haven’t seen them before It was relaxing watching them I’ve been
before but I don’t think that was there last time, it’s been a few years, and also the moving
walkway, that was quite good.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes, I learnt the shark facts, I learnt a bit about the sharks and all about the jellies but we
didn’t come here to learn really we just wanted a good experience, just started reading and it
was interesting.
How did you know you were learning?
Because I didn’t know the things I was reading.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience?
It was interesting to find something that hadn’t known.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
I think I’m beyond that I wouldn’t say necessarily fun, but just satisfying and interesting
Interesting to see how Probably fun for the children because everything is shiny and new for them,
but not so much when you get older.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? Did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
Yes I guess so, I mean I don’t know what I would use that information for, but just to learn
things.
How will you use the information you gained? Is the information important to you?
It’s interesting, I saw something about the chemicals in jelly being used for cancer and heart
disease so that was interesting and that’s important. I found it more not important so much
as interesting. I didn’t know anything about those jellies.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Probably not, I wouldn’t I don’t think, although it depends, if you went and saw something,
you’d recollect what you’d seen.
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Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I don’t think so.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No, possibly a bit more understanding about sharks, but I didn’t read everything
unfortunately, I didn’t have my glasses so I couldn’t read it I suppose there’s a lot we don’t
fully understand about sharks, we just think of them as being horrible and scary and there’s probably
a lot more to it than that. I still find them scary and I wouldn’t want to be anywhere near them but a
little bit more understanding about them.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
We talked a bit – saying look at that, look at that, we didn’t really go into anything in depth
– maybe a couple of things we might have commented on When we came to the jellies we sat
there a little bit, then we came to the car – who would have thought of that?
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
It started out as entertaining but it became educational for me – (What made it become
educational?) probably when I started reading the things and not just looking, started
reading what the things said – (what made you start reading them?) because my sister was
reading them and I thought I should be reading them too, so as we walked down I saw that
and I thought I should be reading that but I can’t find my glasses but when we came back
she was stopping to read them so I read them too (Once you started reading things did that
make the experience more enjoyable for you?) Yes it did, but I don’t feel it was absolutely
necessary for me, I was just there to see them, but it did increase the enjoyment.
I think it was very educational for children, but mainly entertaining I think today.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Education can be pretty boring, so if you make it enjoyable, it’s better.
When we came in there was a gentleman swimming with the sharks and all these kids around looked
as if they were really interested and they talked about it
And it’s different, because it’s not the sort of thing you see all the time. We came to have a
look and enjoy it
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A18 & A19 (couple in 20’s, divers from Virgin Islands)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The sea horses – something I haven’t seen before – we do a lot of diving.
The sharks.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes, all the way.
The lion mane jellyfish – the tentacles are as long as a blue whale.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
Not really no, just came to have a look – just reading about it, I like reading about it to know
what I’m looking at.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
Pretty cool – we work with diving people.
Did it add to your enjoyment of the visit?
Yes.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
Well we’re pretty interested in them already.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
I don’t think so.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
Not that I can think of.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
We talked – showing each other what we’d found – if I found something then we’d read
about it.
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Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Both.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
It was good, I mean watching the kids go around, they’re all learning stuff.
A20 & A21 (couple in 40’s from Adelaide)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Just seeing the creatures in their natural habitat – seeing them swimming in the water – we
always see them out of water, being a fisherman type person you only ever see them when
you catch them on a line rather than see them swimming naturally.
I grew up by the beach – it takes me back there, as a child, I mean the stingrays were the first place we
stopped this morning, and I found about this – I’ve never seen them like that, it was really good.
I’ve been fishing for stingrays and caught them and then you have others swimming around
underneath, like when we’ve been in the surf fishing for them – it was amazing to see them
underneath, because you always saw them from on top.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yeah absolutely, we read most of the things that were on the wall – what the signs say, how old they
are.
And the lifespan of each of them – it gives you some feeling of what their age span is and
how long it takes them to grow from being eggs or little fish that are born into something
that’s fairly ? – at the door when we came in, look at the rays and everything in the little tank
and the lady there pointed out that this one was 21 months old and that one was 12 months
old and you see the difference and you think well if they’re that old and you go out and see
the big ones, how old are the big ones – and it was very interesting to find out that rays are
actually born as fish they are not hatched from an egg they’re actually born as a Like a
newspaper, flat out like a newspaper That’s what she said, they unroll themselves Sink to the
bottom and then wait until they feel safe to surface.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
We came purely because we wanted to revisit something that we’d seen many years ago.
I think in some ways we did come to learn a few things and really have learnt quite a few
things, about the jellyfish for argument’s sake, bits and pieces about them, if we read it last
time we were here, we’d talk about it, and you come in here and you read that and it
refreshes your mind to what you have seen.
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What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? What was it about the
experience that you found attractive or enjoyable?
You can never have too much knowledge – I think you take a lot of things for granted, and as a person
growing up by the beach I probably didn’t, still don’t know enough about what’s underneath it.
You just take a lot of it for granted, just knowledge that you acquire, something for the rest
of your life, it’s knowledge and the more people know about it I think the better off
everybody’s going to be, for everybody, for the whole planet, if everyone had more respect
for what’s actually under the water, it would improve it for everybody.
Yeah be a bit more aware.
Will you use the information you gained?
Yes, we’ve got a beautiful 2 1/2 year old granddaughter that we teach her, so these sorts of things we
can pass on, and we came here last time with our 3 children who are all now grown so we’re now
doing this as an adult, you know when you’re with them, you show them things that they want to look
at, their time span is this long so they want to go to the next one and they’re on to the next one,
whereas as an adult you get time to read, you get time to look at things you perhaps wouldn’t have
had with little children (Do you feel you learnt more this time?) Well the last time was 12 years
ago and I quite enjoyed this one.
And there’s been a lot of changes in that time too from what I can remember, and I think we
probably learnt a lot last time we were here too, but you generally forget a certain amount,
so when you come back it refreshes your memory and you think oh, I remember that from
last time.
I think all information is important because you can pass it on – the more you know the more you can
teach somebody that does not, I mean kids are always asking questions and different times that will
come out.
The information you have you can pass on.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
Yes, very easy to take in, the lady that we started with she was very knowledgeable and gave you an
insight into what the fish are maybe not thinking, but how you can look at them and see, put your
hands down and they’ll come across to you and it just looks to me as if they are looking at us and
we’re looking at them, but I think as we’ve gone around it’s very knowledgeable, I was quite
impressed.
Yes, I think it was a fun experience, it’s definitely not a boring dreary day, spending 2-3
hours walking around in here is quite easy, we just want to fill in time till the seal show, I
think we’ve seen everything, we’ve been right through everything, nearly read every plaque
that’s on the walls and bits and pieces.
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Did the learning add to your enjoyment of the visit?
I think so, I think being able to read about it, yeah definitely compared to just walking around and
looking as a visual rather than actually being able to read at the same time.
The reading and the literature that’s around enhances what you do see. If you see a big fish
swimming past then you read about that fish and you know more about him now, he
doesn’t just swim around in the water, he does something …
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
I’ve always loved water – that’s the luxury of growing up by the beach, but you have a lot more, I
always had a very strong respect for what was underneath that, but yeah seeing some of them today
you just realise why you have that respect.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No, I think we’ve gained some more information rather than changed, but definitely gained a bit more
information.
Yeah, I’ve gained some more information, I don’t think anything’s really changed.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No I don’t think.
I already had that strong respect, I just love watching underneath them, rather than looking
down. I think we had a couple of turns around the underwater tunnel.
Especially with the rays and everything, and being a surf fisherman you’re walking around
in the water and the fact is that they won’t sting you unless you hurt them, it gives you a bit
better feeling when you are in the water, knowing that just because you get one rushing up
against you leg it’s not going to hurt you, because it is an eerie feeling standing there and
you feel it brush past you an you think oh-oh, especially when you’ve got one hanging on a
fishing line about 100 metres away from you and you’re having a bit of a play with it, that’s
all we ever did really, just have a it of a play and let them go, they’re of no value to us those
things, only for sport. Having been fishing for crayfish, you get charts down south and you
can see, he won’t hurt you but he gives you a hell of a scare, but you sort of get a bit more of
a feeling for him around in the tank, even though they’re not up here, the ones we’ve got up
here are different to what’s down there.
I just want to know if they’re looking at us while we’re looking at them. I’ve stood at one tank and
there were no fish when I first stood there. All of a sudden there’s all these little eyes looking at me
and I’m going “Do you like me like I like you?”
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Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
Yes, we talk about different things and different types of fish – that’s one and we know that
one, or that one’s good on a plate or that one wouldn’t be.
We were pretty impressed that jellyfish don’t have any bones. I’ve spent a it of time in Townsville so
you tend to actually read – cause they were all on the beach, times in summer when you can and can’t
swim and what to like for.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I think it’s a bit of both, definitely both, I think if you’re a different age group, you’ve got younger
children you have to occupy them and they are very feely, hands on, but if you’re maybe like us where
you have no children that you’re running after you’ve got a bit more time to read more about it.
It is more educational this time I think than what it was last time because you’ve got more
time to stop, read and look around, you definitely learn more when you come back the
second time I think. (Was the difference because you didn’t have children or because you
were here for the second time?) No just because we didn’t have children.
And it was something we enjoyed the first time so we thought that we’d redo it again.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think as long as people have that option, there might be people who prefer to just walk along and see
everything visual and not read, and then you have the happy balance I suppose, there’s a lot of people
out there that like to read about it and watch so I think if you’re looking for something on either,
you’ve got both, you don’t have to sit there and have someone talk to you all the time but you can
actually walk along, read and decide for yourself.
But it’s very good the way everything is explained, it’s really well done because you can see
the actual fish swimming and you can read about him, or what ever it might be so the
educational side of it as well as the fun side of it, it’s great, it’s well set out the way it is.
A22 (woman in 50’s from Sunshine Coast, visiting alone)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
Relaxing, I’ve been at work all morning – just watching the fish swimming around – I was
thinking as I was watching them that as many times as you drew a fish and coloured it any
colours, I think you’d find one in those colours.
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Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
No not particularly, because I do come here just to walk around, I don’t actually read the
information – I did the first few times I came but it’s different to the everyday grind, you
know, you just come in and sort of just walk around and look at all the different animals
(anything that took your attention?)– I like the frogs – I’m right into frogs (did you find out
anything new about the frogs?) no just that they’re lovely, I don’t like toads but I like frogs.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun? What was it about the experience that you found attractive
or enjoyable?
Yes for kids it’s good, I was watching little ones “Mum, Mum, Mum” Mum was trying to
look at something and then run to look at something else. Steve Irwin has had quite a lot to
do with the place apparently, you kept hearing the kids go “Steve Irwin, crikey, crikey”
rather than expecting any other words, it’s good that he’s actually added that word to his
vocabulary you hear so many negative words.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? Did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
Possibly if I’d let it, but after 7 ½ hours work I’m not in the mood for stopping and reading,
cause my feet are really sore, I’ve been standing most of the day.
Will you use the information you gained?
No I don’t think so, I just like to come and walk around and unwind.
Will your experience today lead to a greater interest in the topic in the future?
No, last time I was here I spent a long time in the jelly area and that was very interesting – I
don’t particularly like the sea, things in the sea touching and that are irksome so to actually
come and look at them and not have to go into water.
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No I just think it’s lovely.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Relaxing, when I go home there’ll be dogs to be fed and walked so you’re sort of back doing
the mundane things that you have to do.
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Forest Walk (Natural site) visitors: FW1-FW9
FW1 (male in 50’s)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
There’s a lot of variety on this particular walk. I just like the physical activity. Being out in
nature. Living in the city – I lived in the Sunshine coast for 8 years prior to this and so I used
to be outdoors so I’ve got that outdoor connection – I look forward to doing these activities
to get out in the bush and the creeks.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yeah , Ryan particularly was very good at just imparting bits of information – not too much
so there’s not an overload of stuff just enough to make it interesting – a little bit about the
environment and how to recognise different things, signs of animal presence and vegetation,
so yes I wouldn’t think you’d want much more education than that in a leisure activity but
yeah, quite acceptable level (So if there was too much you’d find that a turn-off perhaps?)
For me personally yeah my primary focus in this is walking, going through the gorges and
that, the physical activity rather than too many stops and too many lectures.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
No just really when I started doing this about 12-15 months ago, my intention was primarily
a physical outlet, and prepared to accept whatever came along so I see a variety with the
different rangers – some are very sparse in what they impart (Do you find it adds
something to the experience when they do give you a bit more information?) Yeah, I think
so. If it’s kept in a nice, light, topical form. Pretty easy to pick up a certain tree, or a certain
scout marking, dingo or pig wallow or whatever, yeah if it’s done in that sort of easy manner
it’s not too heavy not too lengthy.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yeah, I enjoyed the whole experience, in that format yes I enjoyed it.
What did it add to your enjoyment of the visit?
I think it’s just another dimension. Different people coming from an urban environment are
pretty unaware of natural surroundings and I think to learn that that hole in the ground is a
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pig wallow or whatever I think it adds another dimension to it. I think there’s just enough of
that in the program at the moment to make it enjoyable and add that little bit extra to it.
Was the information important to you?
I don’t think it’s life-changing but yeah I just think it’s interesting.
How will you use the information you gained?
I suppose in the context of if I’m doing more bushwalking and not necessarily – to me all
knowledge is useful so yeah it’s nice to have a bit of a feeling for the natural environment
that you’re moving through and if I’m moving through some bushwalks by myself or with
other people, not with a ranger, there’s a certain amount of knowledge there that you
appreciate it just a little it more.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
These experiences generally, these walks, I programme myself to do one a month and yeah I
certainly get a lot out it, I like physical exertion, I like keeping fit, I like being in the fresh air,
giving you a new focus. I work from home so it’s good for the soul as well as the body.
Were there any times when the information made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
I don’t think so, I’ve always been interested in the environment, while I’m not a fanatical
environmentalist, I’ve always been supportive of environmental issues, so I wouldn’t say
today was life-changing in that respect. It just continues to reinforce, I suppose what I really
believe.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
More entertaining, more recreational than educational. To me these experiences are about
primarily it’s a mind-body-spirit connection, it’s a working body, appreciating what we’ve
got so close to the city, so the educational aspect of it just adds that overall dimension to it,
yeah you pick up some interesting bits of knowledge “Oh that’s what that sort of tree does”
It just adds to your appreciation. I wouldn’t advocate seeing it increased beyond what it is.
I think if you wanted to do that specific learning thing there are other avenues, other ways to
go about it, so I think primarily it is a recreational experience.
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FW2 – FW4 (females in 30’s, 40’s, male in 30’s)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about the walk today?
Oh just the scenery I think, the creek and the peace and quiet… wilderness experience (M).
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Yeah Ryan pointed out quite a few things to us, different trees, plants (How important was
that part of the experience to you?) I think it was really nice to be able to stop and
appreciate – I mean I’ve done bushwalks where you go really fast, but it’s good when you
can stop and look at things (Do you think that adds to the experience, being able to do
that?) Yes, I think that’s part of the reason why you come on a walk like this rather than
pounding the pavements in town, it’s a way to get some exercise but you get to come out
and sort of appreciate things and learn something about the environment. You appreciate it
more when you get information than when you just walk through it? Because you’re
actually stopping, you do need to stop and listen.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
It wasn’t a part of the motivation for me. You know that that’s the beauty of this particular Go
Bush. It’s part of the package. That you will get that extra information – it adds something to
it whereas if you just came out and did it by yourself you’d just be walking along but yeah.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yes
How important was the information that you learnt?
I don’t think it’s the sort of information that’s important to you I suppose but it’s the sort of
information that helps people appreciate what’s around and appreciate the greater … M: It
gives you a context for a lot of the scenery that you’re looking at, I mean I would have
walked past the red cedar and the celery palm without even a backward glance if he hadn’t
stopped and pointed it out.
Will you use the information you gained?
If you can remember it, like I can look at a tree and say, “Yeah he told me something about
that tree”.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
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I know what’s there – before I wouldn’t have known.
Were there times that there was some information that made you question your personal
values or actions, or see things in a different way?
No.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
I’d say it was fun, a nice, fun, relaxing day M: Physically challenging.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Yeah they complement each other. I think we can often learn a lot more by doing – I
certainly do – as opposed to sitting in the classroom and somebody saying this is a picture of
a red cedar, or looking at a computer screen, now that just leaves me dead, whereas being
out and having so many other senses involved, is much better.
FW5 (male in 30’s)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about the walk?
Swimming through the little lagoons, being out in the open air, in the countryside, looking at
nature, the environment.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I suppose it was a different experience – learning from an experience point of view – you
don’t normally go in those sort of places – I’d have been reluctant to sort of walk into the
bush without a bushranger – not as much now if I was going to the same spot, but because
I’d never been there before, so yeah, it was learning the trail. The sort of information they
were talking about – did you find that interesting? Yes very interesting. Ryan was very
good. I mean I can’t remember any of the names of the plants he told me but he did tell us a
few of the plants, it is quite interesting to listen to. Probably about a few things like hazards
you would want to be aware of, like the lawyer’s palm you know with the spikes, pointed
out a little bit of wildlife to us which was interesting and just generally telling us different
things about the environment as we were walking through.
Would you say that added to your experience?
Yeah, you wouldn’t know about it if you went on your own or without somebody that was
in that knowledge, I mean you probably wouldn’t be as aware of so many things. Do you
think it helped you enjoy the experience more? Yes, it added to it.
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Would you say that the learning aspect was enjoyable?
Yes I would say it added to it – made me more aware of the plant life.
Will you use the information again?
If I go bushwalking again, I wouldn’t want to get caught up with one of those lawyer palms,
you know you’re aware they’re there, basically how he explained about going down the
slopes, from a safety point of view, how to tackle them, walking sideways if it’s loose
underfoot. I daresay you would have found out sooner or later if you’ve fallen over, but it
just made you aware of things, a little bit more aware than what you were, you know like
this is a steep section here, give yourself a bit of space between the next person, if there’s a
loose rock move it off the path, you know, that sort of stuff.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
No I came for enjoyment really, just came for a walk and for enjoyment, I didn’t really treat
it as going here to learn about the bush. It was more just some exercise, a day out in the sun.
Did you talk about the things a lot with other people?
Not really.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
More entertainment than educational. It was nice to have a guide there to give you that
confidence to know where you’re going. If you walked 2 kilometres into the bush on your
own you’d be thinking wow, am I going the right way, how do I know how to get back, am I
going to walk over the edge of a steep cliff here in a minute, whereas you felt quite
comfortable with them guides because they know the track.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I think what he was telling us complemented the entertainment, the day out, just making us
more aware of the wildlife, you know what to expect, it improved it, let’s put it that way, it
gave a more fuller enjoyment to the day.
FW6 (male in 30’s)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about the walk today?
The swimming and the rocks – I love the river sculpted rocks, the natural beauty.
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Were there any times during the walk when you felt as if you were learning?
Yes. Not specifically, but whenever you go through it again, you hear it again, it’s like you
might get one little twist that you didn’t hear the previous time. I wouldn’t be doing it
unless there was something that interests me and it’s kind of my hobby to bushwalk and
stuff, so I might derive a little bit more knowledge than I had last time and it keeps making
my hobby deeper and deeper, my knowledge of it, so yeah. So he mentioned something
about turtles and he talked about the cedar tree for a while and how it kind of inter-relates
with the different species and the candle vine, he just mentioned the various species, and
you hear them over and over and finally maybe you figure something out, so it’s pretty
good.
Would you say it was enjoyable to be hearing that information and to learn things?
Yeah, Ryan’s great. He doesn’t like do it past the point where you’re, like you’re having fun
and using all you senses and then like when you’re ready to learn, he’ll come to a stopping
point and say “I’d like to point this out” but at the same time, he’s letting you use all your
senses – touch this, feel this, look at this, check this out, it’s not just like talk, talk, talk, it’s
like touch this, it’s kinda cool.
That added something to the experience?
Yes I think that’s a bit part of it, using all your senses, not just your vision your hearing,
you’re just processing information, you feel like a computer, but when you do this type of
activity I think that you get all your senses, it’s pretty good.
Did you come with the intention of learning about that?
Yeah, learning and developing my interests and my hobbies. I don’t know where it leads,
but that’s the point.
Will you use the information you gained?
I think so, yeah. I think I’m learning about the plants and the , it’s like you have to learn it
all together, the geography the fauna and the flora, and you get all these little bits of
information through all your senses and you just keep learning and learning until you have
a sense of place and you feel like you’ve learned something. That’s why I came to Australia
to do that, you know I didn’t want to come here on a two-week vacation and do this
whirlwind tourist trap thing I wanted to come here and experience it and then I’d learn and
I’d remember that. (Has been in Brisbane for 11 months) I got my friends to go – I said
“Do you know about this go bush program?” and they said no what’s that about and I said
“It’s so cool you know, you get to climb up waterfalls and do this, see all kinds of incredible
stuff, it’s pretty amazing”.
298
Yeah, I think the kind of learning about your environment and your world is more real than
other kinds of learning but I’m into herbs and herbal medicines and plants, I like geology
and plants, those are my favourite hobbies, so I love that kind of stuff anyway.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
It’s so incremental, that would be hard to say. Yeah, I guess, in some incremental way,
absolutely. I didn’t think there was any water in Australia – there’s actually a cold, fairly
clean, pools of water, even the middle of a drought, yeah it’s a really neat experience, going
out with a group of a dozen or so people and just experiencing it with all your senses, and
checking it out, it’s really cool you don’t want to miss it.
Were there any times the information made you question your personal values or actions,
or see things in a different way?
Yeah, maybe initially, but this is the sixth bushwalk I’ve done, so like incrementally, yes.
Like it made me start thinking about how all the species are adapted to drought, it made me
think about how valuable water is in Australia, it made me think about the whole
ecotourism, you kind of think about that a bit, you know why are people out here, like
whether they’re here to get a taste of it, because they can’t have that in the city, and it’s so
great, it’s so close, yeah it makes you kind of think about how that all fits in with living in
Brisbane, so yeah it kind of puts into perspective.
Did you talk about the things a lot with other people?
Not every walk but this walk yes. Some walks are kind of people stay to themselves and
other walks everybody talks. Ryan I think kind of facilitates that. (Did that add to your
learning?) Yeah that definitely adds to it. You give everybody a chance to kind of do their
thing, kind of spotlights different people.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
You’re only doing it because you have interest in it, it’s some passion, there’s something
about you that says I need to do this, so obviously there’s got to be a learning element to
that, the hobbies you have, and so you go into it because you love it, so it’s very entertaining
and pleasant because you love doing it and then it’s also something you want to do more of
until you’re incrementally learning everything you can about it.
FW7 (female in 40’s, second walk)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The swimming.
299
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
About the trees and vines.
Did you enjoy that part of it?
Yes I like trees, I like to learn what all the good ones are. I hope you learn something, I think
that’s the idea.
Did you come with the intention of learning something new?
Yeah, learning something about native animals or birds or landforms or trees.
Would you say that the learning experience was fun?
Yeah, you never know everything.
How will you use the information you gained?
Probably the bits about the birds, and we also learnt about the lawyer vine, I mean I’ve come
across it before but I didn’t remember it so it’s nice to learn about that vine, the safety
aspects of it. Giving us a few tips of how to go down really loose gravel, that was quite
good.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No, it was a bit short.
Was there any information that made you question your personal values or actions, or see
things in a different way?
No it wasn’t that deep, just enjoyable.
Did you talk about the things a lot with other people?
Yeah, I had a few good talks with another lady, she’s done a lot of walks around here so we
discussed a few different walks we’ve done. That was good, and I’m always looking for
new places to walk so that was good. Good networking.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Mainly entertaining, there are things to learn if you want to learn, a bit of both, but mainly
just enjoyment.
300
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Quite easily. If you’ve got any interest in anything, it’s quite easy. Trying to absorb things
all the time.
FW8 (male in 50’s)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
The swim.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
Not really, no my main motive in coming out to the walk was I’m helping my son set up
some areas for training so that he’s a sport scientist and he trains groups for eco-challenge
activities, so I’ve been helping him identify some of these areas that are good places to go –
identify where the waterholes are, how to get to them and where the hard parts are.
Did you come with the intention of learning?
I suppose, wildlife, trees, I’m interested in rainforest species and things. I didn’t really come
with the intention of learning anything other than location and degree of difficulty.
What did you feel while you were engaged in this experience? Would you say that the
learning experience was fun?
Yes, it’s a good way to spend a day.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? Did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit?
Yes it did in terms of location, how to identify the place and how to navigate in and out of it.
Will you use the information you gained?
Yes, I find these guides are very knowledgeable of their area and their bushcraft and you can
always learn something from them. Even though you think you know everything, I think
they know more. I’d probably take family members out and use the information.
Do you feel you have changed at all as a result of your visit here today?
No.
301
Were there any exhibits or displays that made you question your personal values or
actions, or see things in a different way?
No.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other?
Yeah just generally as we were walking around. (Did that add to the experience?) Yes it
does, it always does, getting other people’s views on what we’re doing.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
A bit of both I suppose.
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
I guess they’re additive because you can’t have one without the other. If a learning
experience is not interesting, it’s obviously not recreational is it. If you go out into a bush
scenario you’re obviously seeking some of the recreational aspects, so that helps the learning
activity.
FW9 (male in 40’s)
Can you tell me what did you most enjoy about your visit?
I enjoyed the nature, the environment.
Were there any times during your visit when you felt as if you were learning?
I thought the learning was a minor component of the walking probably. It depends how you
define learning. (How would you define learning?) Well learning in the context of your
question, I mean it wasn’t a classroom situation. (Were there times you felt you were
picking up new information that you didn’t know before?) There wasn’t a lot there, in the
whole process, I did ask a few questions, he said a few things about trees, birds, animals.
We were there for about 6 or 7 hours, there might have been a component of 5 or 10 minutes
all together. I don’t think there was a lot. I mean to me learning where the place was, the
destination, I can return there in the future – that was what I saw was the – whether or not
you include that in the learning. If you’re asking whether I learnt things about types of trees
– he didn’t give that much information.
How important was the learning experience as part of your visit? What did it add to your
enjoyment of the visit? Was this sort of experience one of the reasons you came here?
It was part of the experience, I mean I asked a question if I had an interest. Had he not
stopped and done these other things. It marginally added, it wasn’t for me the reason that I
302
was there, the information weren’t earth-shattering bits of information, just snippets. (What
sort of questions did you ask?) More of a social nature about his job and what it entails, as
much as what type of bird something might be. I think in the context of the activity, the
information was a sideline. But if you’re including my knowledge now of where it is such
that I can return there, I mean that was a significant discovery for me, walking around the
area, I hadn’t been there before.
How will you use the information you gained?
I’ll return there.
Did you talk about the things a lot with each other or was it more an individual
experience?
A little bit – it was good to have other people around. I suppose on another level it would be
a nice place to visit by yourself or in a smaller group. When the lookout area or the pool, it
would be nice in a smaller group. There was a diversity of people, that’s interesting.
Do you see your visit as mostly educational or mostly entertaining?
Entertaining
How do those two things fit together in the visit?
Education can be entertainment – it depends on the presentation (Do you think it was
today?) He had quite a good demeanour and he certainly didn’t do a song and dance – it
was a sideline to it – the entertainment was the walk and the view, swimming.
303
APPENDIX E
PILOT STUDY FACTOR ANALYSIS RESULTS
304
Table E1
Rotated Factor Matrix (Pilot Study Personal Goals)
Factor Personal goal item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
To be pleasantly occupied 0 .52 .12 .10 .18 .51 .20 .24 -.19 0 To feel as if you are doing something worthwhile
-.19 .68 .42 .13 0 .26 -.15 0 .19 .15
To feel relaxed and at ease -.21 .27 .24 0 0 .25 0 .26 .75 -.12 To use your imagination 0 -.12 -.13 .53 .14 .67 -.15 0 0 -.24 To feel happy and satisfied 0 .12 0 0 -.24 .84 0 .20 .19 0 To be active 0 0 0 0 .17 .82 0 0 0 0 To gain respect or approval from others .42 .16 .16 0 .24 0 .67 -.23 .24 .20 To satisfy your curiosity .15 0 0 .26 -.14 0 .77 .33 0 0 To challenge your abilities .21 0 .30 .69 .11 0 .39 0 .15 .30 To make things more meaningful for you .24 .20 .72 .22 0 .27 0 0 0 0 To feel at one with the world 0 .17 .40 .38 .27 -.12 .42 -.14 .20 .41 To be free to do what you want .15 0 .83 0 .12 0 0 .26 .17 .12 To compare favourably with others .27 0 .59 .12 0 0 .53 0 -.21 0 To develop your individuality .24 .23 0 .15 .17 0 .15 0 -.12 .84 To develop or maintain family relationships or friendships
.24 .14 0 .16 .86 .12 .11 .17 0 0
To escape the boundaries of ordinary experience
.26 .13 .10 .71 .23 0 .21 .13 -.28 0
To do what is expected of you by society .48 .13 .18 0 .45 0 .58 0 -.16 0 To be creative .37 .10 .10 .71 .20 0 0 0 0 .19 To maintain a sense of order in your life .39 0 0 .26 .72 0 -.21 0 .21 .13 To be entertained -.12 .19 .14 .12 0 0 0 .85 .18 0 To recover from the stress and tension of everyday life
.69 -.13 .13 0 .19 0 -.21 .29 .37 0
To enjoy yourself .10 .54 0 0 .37 .32 .15 .46 0 0 To discover new things .16 .83 0 0 0 -.14 .23 .17 .28 .14 To be better informed about things around you 0 .94 0 0 .18 0 0 0 0 0 To be mentally active .43 .55 .36 .35 0 0 0 0 -.24 -.32 To feel more confident about your own abilities .34 .35 .36 .28 .28 -.48 0 0 0 -.21 To develop your spirituality .68 .12 0 .26 0 0 0 -.44 .15 .17 To feel you are functioning at your peak .79 0 .19 .26 -.13 .12 .21 -.12 0 0 To feel special or unique .78 0 .13 .20 .11 0 .25 0 0 0 To be able to make your own choices .63 0 .49 .15 .18 -.11 0 .34 -.18 0 To compete against others .74 .13 0 .15 .13 .25 .32 -.14 .14 0 To feel accepted by others .81 0 0 0 .41 0 .28 0 0 .13 To gain a feeling of belonging .81 0 0 0 .26 0 .27 0 -.24 .16 To be a responsible citizen .28 .18 .31 .20 .61 -.25 .25 .10 -.25 .18 To support issues of justice and equality .69 0 .18 .32 .27 -.11 -.12 -.12 -.20 .29 To become more caring and unselfish .74 0 .27 .18 .25 0 -.11 .14 -.24 0 To develop or improve your skills .46 .29 .48 .52 0 -.14 0 0 0 0
Factors were interpreted as follows:
1 Perceived irrelevance (most of these items were considered of no or little importance by more than 20% of participants, with the exception of “To recover from the stress and tension of everyday life”)
2 Cognitive goals (especially “To discover new things”, “To be better
informed about things around you”, and “To be mentally active”)
305
3 Self-determination goals (“To make things more meaningful for you”, “To
be free to do what you want”, To compare favourably with others”, “To be able to make your own choices”)
4 Self-challenge goals (“To challenge your abilities”, “To escape the
boundaries of ordinary experience”, “To be creative”, “To develop or improve your skills”)
5 Social responsibility goals (“To develop or maintain family relationships or
friendships”, “To maintain a sense of order in your life”, “To be a responsible citizen”)
6 Pleasant activity goals (“To use your imagination”, “To feel happy and
satisfied”, “To be active”, “To be pleasantly occupied”) 7 Social expectation goals (“To gain respect or approval from others”, “To do
what is expected of you by society”, “To satisfy your curiosity”) 8 Entertainment goals (one item only)
9 Relaxation goals (one item only)
10 Individuality goals (one item only)
306
307
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