Luis Benevides Mispah Kwang

Emma Clarkson Jenny Mendez

Brittany Cuevas Stephen Norl

Michael Franks Angela Ruggeri

Lexie Kremenezky Mary Warwick

What is an oil spill?

• An oil spill is the release of a

liquid petroleum hydrocarbon

– into the environment

– due to human activity

– and is a form of pollution.

Crude Facts about Crude Oil

• Crude oil, also well-known as petroleum or

"unprocessed oil".

• Naturally derived from decaying plants and

animals, crude oil is a fossil fuel.

• Crude oil is made up of various elements:

– Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulfur, Nitrogen, Oxygen and

metals and salts.

Crude Facts about Crude Oil

– The main component of crude oil is

hydrocarbon, which contains a lot of energy

Due it to its constituency, crude oil differs in

color from plain to tar-black

– Viscosity, from water to nearly solid

• Crude oil is classified as light,

medium, or heavy

Neff, JM. 1979

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

by increasing molecular weight• Naphthalene• Acenaphthylene• Acenaphthene• Fluorene• Anthracene• Phenanthrene• Acridine• 2-Methylanthracene• 9-Methylphenathrene• 1-Methylphenanthrene• Fluoranthene• 9,10-Dimethylanthracene• Benzo[a]fluorene• Benzo[b]fluorene• Pyrene• Benz[a]anthracene• Naphthacene

• Chrysene• Triphenylene• Benzo[b]fluoranthene• Benzo[j]fluoranthene• Cholanthrene• 7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene• Dibenzo[a,h]fluorene• Dibenzo[a,g]fluorene• Dibenzo[a,c]fluorene• 3-Methylcholanthrene• Benzo[g,h,i]fluoranthene• Benzo[a]pyrene• Benzo[e]pyrene• Perylene• Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene• Dibenz[a,h]anthracene• Benzo[g,h,i]perylene

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

• Composed of 2 or more aromatic (benzene) rings fused

together by a pair of shared carbons

• All carbon and hydrogen atoms lie in one plane

• Physical and chemical characteristics vary by molecular

weight

• Lower molecular weight PAH’s have significant acute

toxicity to aquatic organisms

• Higher molecular weight PAH’s have been known to be

carcinogenic

Video

RAP SONGAuthors: Environmental Team (Each verse was created by group members using their own topic)

Facts

• Date of Explosion: April 20th

– Gulf of Mexico - 50 miles off shore and one mile underwater

– 11 deaths

– Controversy of cause

• BP’s Macondo Well – Deep Water Horizon drill rig

• Every 4 days released as much oil as the total amount released by the Exxon

Valdez oil spill

– Total = 4.9 million barrels

• Relief well finished September 19, 2010

• Largest accidental oil spill in petroleum industry

Facts

Rumor : BP executives were celebrating 7 years of SAFETY on the Deep Water

Horizon at the exact moment that the rig exploded.

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON PLANKTON

Angela Ruggeri

Plankton Meets Oil Spill

Diatoms are one of the most common forms of phytoplankton. They live in the ocean, fresh water

and even in soil. A simple microscope easily reveals their jewel-like forms. Credit: NOAA

Plankton

Cycle

(Photo Credit: R.Stewart; Texas A&M University)

Community Structure • Large variability

– They float or drift in great numbers in the ocean

– Physical structures very different from species to species

• Hard to identify populations

• Each plankton has a specific characteristic shape and size

– Plankton include:

• Phytoplankton

– varying from photosynthesizing bacteria, to plant-like diatoms, to armor-plated coccolithophores

Collage adapted from drawings and micrographs by Sally Bensusen, NASA EOS Project Science Office

www.coralscience.org/mainarticles/aquacultu...sbandry-4/filter-feedersHoulbrèque & Ferrier-Pagès, Biological Reviews, 2009

Community Structure

• Zooplankton

– Variability

» Reference website with lots of images:

wwww.cmarz.org/images/images_press/index.html

– Animal organisms

www.tarleton.edu/Faculty/dekeith/MarPlank.jpg

Phytoplankton Growth Rate

• Influenced by:

–Factors

–water temperature, depth and salinity

–wind

–predators grazing on them

– environmental changes

Phytoplankton: Community Structure – plant-like organisms - producers

• Plankton are the start of most oceanic food web.

• trait all phytoplankton share is chlorophyll

– green pigment that transform solar energy into food

• Without the phytoplankton, no other part of the food chain could exist.

• Relatively short life spans– generally a day

– busy photosynthesizing and reproducing

• Older generations of a bloom die off, – phytoplankton photosynthesize less

– re-radiate the sunlight absorbed

» heat and fluorescent light

earthobse....nasa.gov/ExperimentsICE/Channel_Islands/Smithonian

Phytoplankton and Crude Oil

• Phytoplankton

– Generate ½ of the oxygen produce by plants on Earth.

• Phytoplankton dinoflagellates contributes to red tide

– (water toxic, redish, less oxygen)

• Phytoplankton played an important roll in developing crude oil deposits

– by-products of photosynthesis

– naturally formed crude oil requires hundreds of years

– crude oil is made of organic matter and waste

• oil is not safe for any plankton

Phytoplankton

Bloom in the

Gulf of Mexico

Note: Prestige Oil spill: no significance

change of biomass, primary

production during spring bloom or

dominance of one group.

Types of Phytoplankton

• Diatoms

– Live in cooler waters

– Great producers

– No form of locomotion

– Large colonies

– Reproduce up to 100,000 times/month

– Microscopically large

• Clear boxy shape

• Shell made of silica – resistant to decay

– diatoms account approximately for 20% of global photosynthetic fixation of carbon

• more than all the world's tropical rainforests.

Some phytoplankton are bacteria, some are protists, and most are single-celled plants

• Dinoflagellates –Abundant In the Gulf Coast

– Live in-tropical waters

– Second great producers

– Move through water with help of 2 flagellate

– Move to absorb sun light

– Large colonies

– Reproduce at a high rate

– Toxic cause ecosystem problems red tide

in summer in the US Gulf Coast

Types of Phytoplankton

• What are Zooplankton?

– Zooplankton are:

• Heterotropics: rely on organic

substances for their metabolism

such as carbohydrates, and fatty

acids,

• animal and protozoan component

of plankton

• organisms that drift in the water.

– consumers

– Graze on phytoplankton www.science.gu.se/ViewPage....768372308

Zooplankton: Community Structure

Zooplankton in the Gulf

• Abundant in coastal areas

– Zooplankton ex: is the arrow worm or chaetognath

• predatory marine worm that feeds on other zooplankton.

• In the Gulf of Mexico, there are 24 species of chaetognaths

• important food source for fish and squid.

http://lifesci.ucsb.edu/~haddock/plankton/

Zooplankton Facts

• Marine life cannot thrive in oily environments

• Toxic hydrocarbons and heavy metals found in oil are carcinogenic

• Oil disrupts their environment

• Animals that depend upon plankton

– for food

• Affected

– Impact food web

– Impact marine life of all sizes

• Reduce concentration of zooplankton

– vertical distribution

– depth

ris.npolar.no/pages/news271.htm

Laboratory Experiments

• Laboratory Experiments (J. Davenport 1982)

– Very difficult

• Because of size morphological and physical changes

• Nutritional requirements

– Laboratory test usually

• Exposure to high concentration

– Higher than oil spill to determine positive effects

• Toxicity tests

• Sublethal Tests

– Chronic EC50

Schematic overview of experimental setup (photo: Louise Kiel Jensen)

Phytoplankton• Short-term exposure (24 – 96 hours) of selected organisms

– to a test compound (crude oil)

• estimate the concentration that produces a detrimental effect

• chlorophyll-a based growth rate

• photosynthesis efficiency

Zooplankton: • Long term exposure (>5 days) is mainly applied to these animals

– estimating the concentration that produces a harmful effect (EC50)

• On Growth

• Development

• Reproduction

• Population growth rates

Laboratory Experiments

Toxicity Tests

• “Crude oil is much toxic than weathered oil

tested in labs” (Lee et al. 1978)

• Coastal zooplankton are more resistant to oil than oceanic

zooplankton

– Tolerate more higher concentrations (>4 ug g-1)

• Test for the dispersant on the next generations

– Reductions

• in the growth and reproductive rate

Toxicity: Sublethal Studies

Demonstrate that chronic effects can:

• Affect behavior in planktonic organisms

• Feeding

– Tend to depressed

– Alter [HC]

• Suppressed mate selection

• Suppressed escape responses

Plankton and HC Pollution

• Reproduction

– Jhonston, in 1977 was able to demonstrate that Fucuseggs were:

• Damaged by HC at only [0.1] ug g-1

– Oil suspension lead to anomalies in the development of the early stages

• Because of lacking possibilities of self clean

• Chemical-biochemical investigations

– Rapid accumulation and complete depuration in zooplankton of:

• HC in marine plankton and the metabolism of aromatics

– Carcinogens

Other Spills vs. The Gulf Spill• Artic Lake and Ponds

Effect of exposure to crude oil

– Feeding • Egg production and hatching in the Arctic vs. Gulf

• different reproduction• not enough validated data from tests done in the Artic

• Artic: Experimental animals - tested from area with icy water • Gulf: Animals affected – tested from area where the climate is very different and the temp. of

water is higher than Artic (increasing accidentally)

• Artic: Oil spill in cold waters the level of PAHs may reach approximately 6 μg l-1 in the upper water masses

• Gulf: In the case of BP oil spill, the PAHS reached higher concentrations

• Artic:These experiments do not give information on long term effects, so …• Gulf: can the information be extrapolated in to the Gulf situation

• Artic: Control population

• Gulf: Phytoplankton in the low-oxygen zones has higher chances of being death

Other Spills vs. The Gulf Spill

• Prestige Oil Spill– Prestige: single –hulled oil tanker (2002) Iberian Peninsula

– Horizon: deep water oil well (2010) Gulf of Mexico

– Prestige and Horizon:

• polluted thousands of kilometer of coastline

• Toxicity depended on the composition of the oil and the capability of processing HC

• Variability of Plankton - different

• Inhibition of growth rate is highly temperature dependent

– Using Prestige data and location –

(the effect in the Gulf can be evaluated by using some of the information and compare to the Horizon Spill)

• Abundance of biomass

• Primary production

• Chlorophyll

• Species – composition

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

SARGASSUM

Stephen Norl

SARGASSUM

Taxonomy

• Domain: Eukaryota

• Kingdom: Chromalveolata

• Phylum: Heterokontophyta

• Class: Phaeophyceae

• Order: Fucales

• Family: Sargassaceae

• Genus: Sargassum

The genus includes about 150 species

Found in the shallow waters and coral reefs

Come from the Sargasso Sea located in the North Atlantic Ocean

The currents carries pieces to the Gulf of Mexico

Outside the Sargasso Sea, there is more Sargassum floating in the Gulf of Mexico than anywhere else in the world

The Portuguese word for grapes.

• Best known for its two completely free-floating species

i. Sargassum fluitans (left)

ii. Sargassum natans (right)

These two species of Sargassum are frequently found tangled together.

– Forms a unique marine ecosystems and are a vital floating habitat.

– Feeding grounds for larger marine species

• Sargassum natans & fluitans

– Lives their entire life cycle in the surface waters of

the open ocean

– Air-filled bladders that sprout from its branches

and keep it afloat

– When healthy it stays at the surface, helping

photosynthesis

– Has the ability to make cellular adjustments

• decrease functional light absorption during the

sunniest days

• increase light absorption on overcast days.

Sargassum can form patches that are miles long,

acres wide, and three to five feet deep.

Sargassum Reproduction

• Reproduced asexual reproduction by

fragmentation

– No union of male or female sex cells

– splits into fragments that generate new growth

• If a piece breaks off it can float and reproduce over

and over again

– Life span is from 1-4 years

• Sargassum is home and nursery ground to

hundreds of aquatic species

– Fish and squid are far more abundant in and around

Sargassum than they are in the Gulf’s open waters.

– Over 80 species of fish alone have been recorded in

Sargassum

• Filefish

• Jacks

• Blue runners

• Triggerfish

• Tuna

• Marlins

• Dolphin-fish

• Billfish

• Aquatic life's waste products provide

sargassum with the nutrients it needs.

– Nitrogen

– Phosphorus

Gas Percentage

in Air

Percentage in

Sea Water

Nitrogen 78.08 62.6

Oxygen 20.95 34.3

Argon 0.934 1.6

Carbon Dioxide 0.033 1.4

• The small gas bladder attached to sargassum natans & fluitans

are filled with a variable portion of oxygen (O2), very little

carbon-dioxide (CO2) and high proportion of nitrogen (N2)

– When in contact with the air-water interface O2 content of vesicle does

not drop to 0 even when kept in total darkness over a period of 75

hours

– Vesicles submerged in water and kept in total darkness lose all there

oxygen, but regain oxygen when returned back to air-water interface

even in total darkness

– That the oxygen appearing in the vesicles are not derived completely

from photosynthesis alone.

– The oxygen concentration in the water can control the oxygen content

of the vesicles

• The entire ocean gets its oxygen from the surface either from the atmosphere, or from floating algae photosynthesizing at the top.

• The oxygen then spreads to the deep ocean as the surface waters slowly sink.

• Hypoxia, a condition in which oxygen levels drop so low that fish and other animals are stressed or killed have increased nearly 30-fold since 1960. National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

• Researchers have found a 20 percent drop in oxygen levels

Sargassum vs. Crude Oil

• Physical Encounter – Because oil and Sargassum both float, they are

controlled by the same currents tend to eventually aggregate in greater concentrations

– weathered tar balls are also known to stick to Sargassum

– Sargassum becomes heavier, changing the buoyancy and causing it to sink.

– Lack of oxygen and sunlight due to deeper water levels

Sargassum vs. Crude Oil

Chemical Encounter

The upper 10 to 50 meters of the ocean can be highly

supersaturated with oxygen due to photosynthesis.

When the oil covers the floating sargassum it deprives it

from sunlight, and oxygen, enabling its ability to

photosynthesize.

Essentially suffocating the sargassum and killing it.

Threats

A survey of pelagic Sargassum spp. in the North Atlantic

Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico between

1977 and 1981 showed that the biomass of the plants in the

Sargasso Sea was <6% of the values in 1933 to 1935.

There were also major decreases in the Gulf of Mexico. (

Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers Volume 30, Issue 4, April 1983, Pages

469-474)

• Researchers believe these drastic reductions over the past

half century are related to an increase in human-

introduced pollutants in the ocean.

Past vs. Future

• Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred on March

24, 1989 leaving 260,000 to 750,000 barrels

of crude oil behind.

• Still Today some species have never

recovered in the Valdez oil spill area

– Research shows that pacific sardines, never

came back, because their habitat never came

back

Today

• Sample of sargassum in the Gulf of Mexico

are being collected

– Most of the species are absent if the sargassum

has oil.

– Other species are confusing oil globs for

sargassum, tying to hide in the oil glob

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

TUNA

Michael Franks

Bluefin TUNA

Distribution

http://www.thefishsite.com/articles/699/atlantic-bluefin-tuna-11/9/10

The Bluefin Tuna

• 2 subspecies

– Atlantic Bluefin

– Pacific Bluefin

• Spawn in the Gulf of Mexico

• Important species to fisheries

• Federally protected

Spawning

• Female produces 30

million eggs

• Site specific

• Large groupings

• Summer months

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100528210726.htm

Value of Bluefin

• Highly prized in Japan

• $7.2 billion industry

• A 440 lb. bluefin sold for $173,000

– $393/pound

Effects on Eggs

• Hard to survive under the best conditions

• Dispersants can cause eggs to sink

• Direct contact can kill the egg

Effects on Juveniles/Adults

• BP oil spill caused and expected 20% decrease in

juvenile population

• Decreased respiration

• Smaller prey fish contaminated by oil spill

Decreased Respiration

• Acute Toxicity

– Suffocate

– Resulting in fish kills

Effects of PAH’s on Tuna

• To determine PAH levels in Tuna

– Bile PAHs metabolites are used as biomarkers

• Enters body by eating contaminated food

• Absorbed in the blood through the small

intestine

Target location

• Target DNA

– Causes liver lesions

– Mutations

– Tumors

• Stored and biotransformed in the liver

Biotransformation & Excretion

• Phase I biotransformation forms hydroxides

– 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene

• Phase II biotransformation

– UDP-glucuronosyltransferases

– PAPS-sulfotransferases

• Excreted through the bile

BREAK

10 min.

THE EFFECTS OF SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

WHALES

Jenny Mendez

Sperm Whales

The Environment

Sperm Whales are found all over the world.

This is their Gulf Coast Environment

Sperm Whales

• Sperm Whales are toothed mammals with the largest brain of any animal

• It is the only living member of the genus Physeter

• Its diet consists of Squid and Fish, making it the deepest diving mammal

• These whales travel in groups called Pods

• They are found in various oceans, but are vulnerable for extinction

Whales And Their Environment

• There is about 1400 to 1600 whales living

year round in the Gulf Coast, making them

the most vulnerable because of their

relatively small size in population.

• These whales are now at risk from the

ongoing Deep water Horizon of the oil spill,

because they are likely to ingest or inhale

toxic crude and noxious fumes

Whales in Oil Spill

• Plausible cause for mortality

• Vulnerable to ingestion and inhalation while

feeding on water surfaces

• Effects of vessels and sound

• Effect their capability of producing

offspring or raising healthy calves

Impacts of Oil Spill

• Reduction in quantity or quality of prey

• High levels of emerging contaminants

• Acute exposure to petroleum products can

cause changes in behavior and reduced

activity

Internal Impacts

• Inflammation of mucous membrane

• Lung congestion

• Pneumonia

• Liver disorder

• Neurological

External Impacts

• Dorsal fins may fold ( indicates stress or ill-

health)

• Marine mammals have a thickened

epidermis that greatly reduces the likelihood

of petroleum toxicity from skin contact with

oiled waters

Whale Response

• If the oil spill kills just 3 sperm whales the

Gulf population could be pushed to the

edge.

• Research During the Valdez oil spill

indicate that whales did not try to avoid the

oil-sheened waters

Endangered Specie

• The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in 1989 had a

great impact in whale population

• The whale decrease from 1990-2003 was

detrimental and a future oil spills like it

would push the likelihood of extinction over

the edge

Recovery Plans

• Restoring any endangered whales from

becoming past borderline

• Puget sound clean-up

• Habitat watch

• OPA (Oil Pollution Act) in 1990 & CSA

(Canadian Shipping Act) 1993

THE FATE AND EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

EASTERN

OYSTERS

Mary Warwick

Meet the Oyster

Tony Boon, 2005

The Basics

• Scientific name: Crassostrea virginica

• Phylum: Mollusca

• Class: Bivalvia

• Filter feeder – consumes flagellates and

unicellular algae

• Can live up to 20 years

• Reach sexual maturity at 4 months

• Grow to about 100 to 115 millimeters in 2 years

Environment

• Gulf of Mexico has 1400 square miles of suitable oyster habitat

• Single most important factor is salinity

• Optimal salinity is 10 to 28 parts per thousand, cannot tolerate sudden shifts in salinity

• Grow on rocky bottom or hard mud

• Ideal water flow is steady and non-turbulent

Environmental factors can impact oyster

communities by:

• Increasing the incidence of disease

• Inhibiting growth

• Interfering with shell formation

• Inhibiting reproduction

• Interfering with larval development

Why are oyster reefs important?

Louisiana reefs are home to:• Mulluscs - Gastropods

– Greedy Dove Shell (Anachis avara)

– Barataria Nudibranch (Corambella baratariae)

– Small Nudibranch (Carambella sp.)

– Common Eastern Nassa (Nassarius vibex)

– Brackish Water Snail (Neritina reclivata)

– Snail (Odostomia trifida)

– Oyster Drill (Thais haemostoma) predator

• Mulluscs – Pelecypoda

– Hooked Mussel (Brachidontesrecurvus)

– River Mussel (Congerialeucopheata)

– Quahog (Mercenaria sp.)

– Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis)

– Marsh Clam (Rangia cuneata)

• Arthropods

– Acorn Barnacle (Balanuseburneus)

– Barnacle (Balanus improvisus)

• Arthropods - continued

– Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus)

– Little Blue Crab (Callinectes similis)

– Striped Hermit Crab (Clibanarius vittatus)

– Mud Tube Amphipod (Corophium lacustre & louisianum)

– Pistol Shrimp (Crangon armillatus)

– Snapping Shrimp (Cragon heterochaelis)

– Mud Crab (Eurypanopeus depressus)

– Callapid Crab (Hapatus pudibundus)

– Stone Crab (Menippe mercenaria)

– Crab (Metoporaphis calcarata)

– Mud Crab (Neopanope texana)

– Small Hermit Crab (Pagurusannulipes)

– Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetesintermedius, pugio, vulgaris)

– Herbst’s Mud Crab (Panopeusherbstii)

– Mud Crab (Panopeus occidentalis)

– Spider Crab (Pelia mutica)

– Flat Crab (Petrolisthes armatus)

– Mud Crab (Rithropanopeusharrissii)

• Echinodermata

– Brittle Star (Ophiophragmus limbata)

– Brittle Star (Hemipholis elongatus)

– Sea Cucumber (Psolus tuberculosus)

• Chordata

– Tunicate (Molgula manhattensis)

– Sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus)

– Skilletfish ( Gobiesox Strumosus and virgatulus)

– Sharptail Goby (Gonionellus hastatus)

– Freckled Blenny (Hypsoblennius ionthas)

– Gulf Toadfish (Opsanus beta)

– Leopard Toadfish (Opsanus pardus)

– Oyster Toadfish (Opsanus tau)

– Black Drum (Pogonias cromis)

• . . . And many other lower species

BP Spill Hits Oyster Reef

http://oilspillaction.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/BP-Oil-Oysters-in-Horn-Island-lagoon.jpg4_.jpg

Exterior Anatomy

• Body is covered with 2 calcareous valves

(shells) joined by a ligament at the hinge

• Shell opens to feed – this allows the mantle to

secrete calcium carbonate for shell growth and

direct water to gill for oxygen exchange to take

place for respiration

http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/PGclass/e%20smith/Lesson_Plan_One_Oysters.html

Reproduction

• Spawning is dependent on water temperature

– when temperature reaches 25 degrees C (77 degrees F)

– or stays at 20 degrees C (68 degrees F) consistently

and ability of oysters to produce sperm and eggs

• In Louisiana, spawning peaks in late May, early June and September

• In Mississippi, spawning occurs from May to October with peak in June

http://www.mdsg.umd.edu/issues/chesapeake/oysters/garden/guide/seed/index.php

Integrated Multi-tropic Aquculture, 2010

Absorption - Digestive Tract

http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/Biology/PGclass/e%20smith/Lesson_

Plan_One_Oysters.htmlhttp://www.portofpeninsula.org/fishfacts.html

Distribution

• Once the compounds have been absorbed by the digestive tract they are distributed by hemocytes to the tissues of the oyster

• Effects at cellular level:– Lysosomes:

• Lysosomes are membrane-limited organelles and their functional role is intracellular digestion and recycling of macromolecules.

• ED50 is 1,100 ng/g for lysosomal destabilization when oysters exposed to PAH.

• Effects blood cells, digestive cells, as well as, gametes

– Hemocytes:• PAHs reduce hemocytes ability to incorporate thymine, uridine and

leucine.

• Phagocytic, chemotactic and chemiluminescence responses were significantly lower in PAH exposed hemocytes

Bioaccumulation• Oysters store polycyclic hydrocarbons, especially

benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, fluorene, phenanthraene, and pyrene in lipids used for reproduction

• Oysters can accumulate PAHs at higher concentrations than in the water

• Highest accumulation is prior to spawning as oysters store glycogen and lipids during this time

• Lowest accumulation is after spawning when they are released in eggs and sperm

• However, PAHs do not seem to accumulate in eggs or sperm

Biotransformation

• It was previously thought that oysters could only bioaccumulate PAHs not biotransform

• Oyster digestive glands show:

• Low-level benzo[a]pyrene hydroxylase activity which is a mixed function oxygenase (MFO) typically involved in biotransforming (dextoxification and bioactivation) organic compounds

• benzo[a]pyrene metabolism was measured. – Metabolites include:

– most benzo(a)pyrene adducts with nucleic acids and protiens

– benzo(a)pyrene conjugates with glutathione

• Aromatic amine-activating enzymes

Biotransformation continued

• Oysters produce benzo[a]pyrene 9,10-dihydrodiol and benzo[a]pyrene 7,8-dihydrodiol

• benzo[a]pyrene 7,8-dihydrodiol is a proximate carcinogen; after oxidation, it gives rise to benzo[a]pyrene 7,8-dio-9,10-epoxide, which is an ultimate carcinogen and is highly mutagenic and can interact covalently with DNA, RNA, protein components of chromatin, and other cellular proteins. These interactions are involved in chemical carcinogenesis.

• Oysters also produce 3-OH, 6-OH, 9-OH, and 12-OH benzo[a]pyrene in lesser amounts.

Possible Neoplasms?

• Some oysters exposed to

3-Methylcholanthrene

showed an infiltration of

cells, probably of

hematopoietic origin,

into the mantle . This

resembled the sarcoma-

like lesions sometimes

seen in oysters collected

from the field.

Ixtoc I & Galeta Oil Spills• Ixtoc I

– Occurred off the coast of Mexico - 475,000 metric tons spilled

– Conditions (water temp, oil type) of close to that of BP oil spill

– Biological degradation together with photochemical and chemical breakdown took take of 10-15% of oil in acute phase

– Oysters lived in estuarine lagoons which were protected by freshwater run-off; therefore, very little oil was spread to the lagoons and oysters were not impacted very much.

• Galeta– Occurred on the Caribbean coast of Panama – 13,500 metric tons spilled

– Conditions (water temp, oil type) of close to that of BP oil spill

– Oysters lived in the edges of channels and lagoons on submerged roots

– Pre-spill abundance was 50 to 54% of roots covered by oysters

– Initially 27% of roots covered by oysters – 22% were dead oysters

– 9 months post-spill 6% of roots covered by oysters

– Oysters remained significantly less abundant at oiled sites 5 years later

Possible Ramifications of BP Spill• Estimates that 704,000 metric tons of oil were

spilled

• Oyster reefs along U.S. Gulf Coast is not as protected as much as the Ixtoc site. We would expect the results to be more like Galeta.

• However, the release of too much freshwater along Mississippi River levees killed many oysters off of the Louisiana coast before the oil hit.

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

BLUE CRAB

Mispah Kwang

BLUE CRAB: Callinectes sapidus

Facts Callinectes sapidus-“savory beautiful swimmer” Named after their blue claws

– Female Blue Crabs are distinguished by the red tips on their claw

Keystone Species- Both prey and predator Bottom dwelling scavengers

Adult crabs feed on bivalves, crustaceans, fish, worms, plants, organic debris, etc.

Prey to bony fish, sharks, rays, turtles, etc.

Have 5 pairs of legs Blue Crabs have the ability to regenerate their limbs Growth occurs by molting Avg. life span in the wild: 1-3yrs Generate approximately $300 million annually in the Gulf

HABITAT

Blue crabs are found in both salty and fresh water Estuaries

Lagoon

Extremely sensitive to environmental and habitat changes When air temperatures drop

below 50°F (10°C), adult crabs leave shallow, inshore waters for deeper areas where they can bury themselves throughout the winter

Environmental Factors Growth is regulated by water temperature

Growth occurs at water temperatures above 59°F Water Temperature above 91°F is lethal

pH tolerance range : 6-8; below 6 is lethal

Optimal Salinity: 3-15 parts per thousand (ppt).

Blue Crab population on the decline in recent years due to

Viruses

Bacteria

Man made contaminants

Pathogens and pollutants can impair the blue crabs metabolic processes

Reproduction

Female blue crabs mate once in their life time

The female extrudes thefertilized eggs into a sponge that is attached to her abdomen until the larvae emerge.

The average sponge contains about two million eggs

Life Cycle

Hydrocarbons Effects

The Gulf oil spill took place below the waters surface at 5,000 ft At the sea floor

Hydrocarbons are found in higher concentrations More toxic

Near waters surface The levels of Hydrocarbon are much lower

Less Toxic

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) could have long term sub lethal effects on crabs

Breaking down the oil into smaller particles by dispersants may make the contaminants in oil, particularly PAHs, more easily absorbed by crabs

Acute Toxicity Effects

Acute Toxicity Effects:

Crabs can be smothered when they swim through an oiled area or the when oil washes over their habitat.

Toxicity Test

Adult blue crabs are more resistant to the effects of oil have an estimated LC 50 of approximately 70 ppm over a 96-hour

exposure

Blue crab larvae are highly sensitive to oil exposure The eggs and larvae of marine animals are typically more

sensitive to toxic effects of oil contaminated water, with an LC 50 of 0.1-1ppm –larval stages of both fish and crustaceans.

Chronic Toxicity Effects Crabs can have direct exposure to the oil, or they can

ingest it from consuming contaminated food sources.

Higher concentrations of crude oil and longer durations of exposure create more serious consequences for marine life.

Leads to lethal effects

Chronic Toxicity Effects:

Lower exposure levels can have non-lethal effects such aso Reduction in the growth rate

o Reduction in the reproductive rate

o Development of Mutations

Hydrocarbons Effects on

Reproduction

Consumption of the hydrocarbons through contaminated food sources

An accumulation of hydrocarbons could affect the female crabs ability to reproduce.

Decrease fertility in female blue crabs o Female blue crabs use their fat to nourish their eggs

» Impact the volume of future spawns

» The toxic components of oil and dispersants could kill the zoeae and megalops.

Bioaccumulation

A combination of oil deposits and the chemical dispersant Corexit have been found between the shell and inner skin of immature blue crabs.

Crabs may lose the droplets when they molt and shed their shells

Ecological Effect

Important to look at the long term ecological effects Long-term effects on the blue crab

population is unknown

A possibility of oil contaminants moving up the food chain to organisms that never came in direct contact with the oil Crab larvae are a major food source for

fish and other blue crabs

Tiny creatures Can survive by taking in low amounts of

oil.

Animals at the top of the chain (Dolphins, Tuna, etc.) Could get fatal mega doses

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

SEA BIRDS

Lexie Kremenezky

The Sad Facts • Petroleum crude oil causes many chronic effects in

seabirds, as well as acute causes of death

– Immediate death is typically due to hypothermia or hyperthermia from oil covering

– Toxic effects lead to secondary causes of death

• Many species are threatened by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

– Brown pelicans

– Tri-colored herons

– Great egrets

– Roseate spoonbills

– Blue winged teal ducks

– Several other species

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

Brown Pelican

Tricolored Heron

Great Egret

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

Roseate Spoonbill

Blue Winged Teal Duck

QuickTime™ and a decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

(http://nationalzoo.si.edu)

(http://www.nps.gov/pais)

(http://www.worldbirdingcenter.org)

(http://www.birdsasart.com)

(http://www.dnr.sc.gov)

Some Species

at Risk

A Seabird’s Habitat and Behavior

• Typically nest on barrier

islands and in marshes and

swamps

• Some dive into the ocean

for their food (i.e. Brown

Pelican)

• Others feed in shallow

water

(http://coastalcare.org)

How Seabirds Become Exposed

• Externally via oil covering

– Adults

– Nestlings

• Internally via ingestion

– Preening

– Contaminated food

(http://www.examiner.com)

General Pathology

• A single small oral dose of crude oil or aromatic fractions can cause serious effects

• Observed chronic effects

– Reduced weight gain

– Problems with osmoregulation

– Organ damage

– Hematological problems

– Reproductive and developmental defects

• Differences in sex, age, and species among seabirds often does not significantly affect toxicity

Reduced Weight Gain

• Seabirds that ingest oil

have a marked

reduction in weight

gain

• Two major factors:

– Endocrine effects

– Gastrointestinal effects(http://www.ibrrc.org)

Reduced Weight Gain

• Endocrine effects

– Reduced growth is caused by a disruption of endocrine balance

– Increased blood corticosteroids

• Adrenal gland is a possible target

• Elevated plasma Na+ contributes to the elevation

– Increased blood thyroxine

• Likely a compensatory attempt to regulate overall metabolic processes

• Effects on intestinal tissue

– Alteration of intestinal transport

– Irritation and hemorrhage

Osmoregulation

• Using the kidneys and salt gland, seabirds are able to drink salt water and maintain osmotic balance in their body

• Osmoregulation process

– Kidneys filter water and Na+ from plasma

– Renal tubules reabsorb filtered water and Na+

– Na+ is secreted by the salt glands

• The concentration and rate of secretion determines how much water is available for physiological processes

Osmoregulation

• Complications from oil

– Increased plasma Na+

– Decreased activity of Na+-K+ ATPases in the nasal salt gland

– Proliferation of the nasal tissue

• Caused by corticosteroid elevation

• Elevation of corticosteroids influenced by plasma Na+ level

• Restoration of osmotic balance

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

(PAHs)• PAHs are responsible for a

significant amount of toxic effects seen in seabirds

– Napthalene is a major contributor

• Seabirds rapidly metabolize PAHs

– Cytochrome P450 and mixed function oxygenase (MFO) systems

• CYP1A1 is the major inducible isozyme

– Phase II conjugating enzymes

Naphthalene

(http://www.quantumwise.com)

PAH Metabolism in the Liver

• Because PAHs are lipophilic compounds, they tend to accumulate in the lipid rich tissue of the liver

• General metabolism

– Hepatic microsomal CYP1A1 enzymes and dependent MFOs generate Phase I hydroxylated PAH metabolites in seabirds

– These hydroxylated metabolites are hydrophilic, and some are more easily excreted by the body

• Phenols = easily excreted

• Dihydrodiols = more difficult to excrete

Benzene Metabolism

• Benzene is hydroxylated by CYP1A1 into

phenol and hydroquinone

– Phenol is easily excreted by the body

– Hydroquinones are bioactivated by Phase I

peroxidases into reactive quinones in the bone

marrow

– These reactive quinones attack the bone

marrow, causing aplastic anemia

Naphthalene Metabolism

• An epoxide (arene oxide) is generated from

napthalene by CYP1A1

• Phase I epoxide hydrolases attempt to detoxify

arene oxide by converting it to a dihydrodiol

• Phase I peroxidases convert the dihydrodiol back

into an epoxide

• The epoxide is an effective carcinogen

– It covalently binds to DNA

Hematological Effects

Hemolytic Anemia

• PAHs cause toxicant

induced hemolytic

anemia in seabirds

• PAH metabolites

generated in the liver

attack RBCs

Lysed Red Blood Cell

(biketool.com.au)

Pathological Findings• Birds that ingested oil

became severely anemic

– Decreased PCV

• Reddish color of the plasma after sample centrifugation indicated hemolysis

• High reticulocyte count

• Abundance of Heinz bodies

• Increase in reducedglutathione

Heinz Bodies

(http://www.vet.uga.edu)

Mechanism of Toxicity

• There is an oxidative attack of RBCs by hepatic PAH metabolites

– Metabolites oxidize hemoglobin (Hb)

• This forms Heinz bodies

– The change in RBC morphology and depletion of Hb causes:

• RBC lysis

• Leakage of Hb into plasma

• Ability to transport oxygen in the body is decreased

Role of Haptoglobin and Ferritin

• HAP is up-regulated to bind and sequester free Hb

that is released when RBCs lyse

– Free Hb would cause renal damage

• FT is up-regulated to bind and sequester free iron

– Free iron is toxic

• As plasma PAH levels increase, HAP decreases

and FT increases

– This indicates that the severity of hemolytic anemia

increases with PAH exposure

Hemosiderin Deposits• Iron storage sites found in

cells of the liver, spleen,

and kidneys

– Likely attributed to

hemolytic anemia

• When RBCs lyse, they

release iron

– High level of deposits

found in seabird tissue are a

result of increased RBC

lysis relative to the rate of

iron reuse by the body

(http://pathology.osu.edu)

Effects on Reproduction

• Seabird embryos are exposed to PAHs through the

eggshell

– Adult birds contaminate the shell during incubation

• Adverse effects

– Reduced yolk size

– Decreased shell weight and thickness

– Lower hatching success

– Bill defects

PAH Distribution in the Egg• PAHs detected in bile indicates

that the embryos are able to metabolize them

• PAHs were also found in the yolk, which demonstrates PAH diffusion into lipid rich areas of the egg

• The chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) is shown to be a significant target for toxicity

– The CAM is an extraembryonal tissue lining the eggshell

(http://www.ces.ncsu.edu)

Adduct Formation• Blood vessel endothelia

bioactivates PAHs in various tissues in the embryo

– CYP1A metabolism bioactivates PAHs

– DNA and RNA adducts are formed by reactive intermediates

• Adduct formation was seen in the CAM

– Important target for developmental toxicants, due to its role in respiration and gas exchange

DNA Adduct

(http://www.righthealth.com)

Outlook for Future• These long term chronic

effects will likely be seen in seabirds as a result of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

– These effects compromise the ability of birds to survive at sea

• In the Gulf of Mexico, seabirds may continue to be affected for years to come

– Accumulation of oil in the environment

– Contamination of the food chain

(http://www.atchafalayarevisited.com)

To be continued next Monday

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

Salt Marshes and

Diamondback Terrapin

Emma Clarkson

Salt Marshes and Diamondback Terrapin

• The main plant species of concern in salt marsh as

related to Diamondback terrapin are Spartina

alterniflora and Spartina patens.

• The algae on these plants is eaten by Littoralis

littorea, or periwinkle snails, which are in turn eaten

by the Diamondback terrapin.

• Therefore, it is important to know the effects of oil on

vegetation as it directly affects the terrapin.

• Little literature on the effects of crude oil on

Spartina spp. and Diamondback terrapin. So, I

will need to extrapolate from fuel oil studies,

and from crude oil studies on other species of

turtle.

• The effects of crude vs. no. 6 fuel oil a mangrove ecosystem

(also a habitat for Diamondback terrapin) were compared:

• For both oils, there was no mortality or measurable effects in

the first 30 days, and for No. 6 fuel oil, there was no difference

in growth, health, or live leaves between the oiled vegetation

and the control vegetation.

• However, the vegetation oiled with high doses of crude oil had

some necrosis, wilting, and mortality after 62 days. After 92

days, there was a reduction in leaf production. There was no

effect on the low dose crude oil vegetation.

• There was also growth enhancement due to the release of

nutrients as the oil degraded with No. 6 fuel oil.

• This study showed that crude oil had greater negative effects

than No. 6 fuel oil.

What caused these differences?

• No. 6 fuel oil is “a thick residual oil left over after other higher value products have been distilled out. Often some lighter distillate is mixed with the residual to attain a viscosity necessary for sale. No. 6 oil has a fairly high (>1%) sulfer content.” (Proffit and Devlin 1998). The light fractions used to reconstitute the oil often evaporate before it reaches land.

• South Lousianna crude oil is a moderate weighted oil with a medium sulfer content (0.4%).

• Because No. 6 crude oil is heavier, it will not float in the water like crude oil will. Instead, it sinks and coats the roots. In a terrestrial ecosystem, this would prove problematic due to the nutrient and gas exchange in the roots. However, in a marsh or wetland, because the soil is already anoxic, many of these exchanges occur in the aerenchyma cells instead of the roots.

• So, medium-weight crude oil coats the plant leaves and the

internal temperature of these leaves increases due to the

blocked transpiration pathway. Photosynthesis drops because

of the blocked pores, and CO2 entry becomes restricted,

causing wilting. The increase in internal temperature often

causes damage to photosynthetic cells, impeding the rate of

recovery.

• While No. 6 fuel oil does not impede photosynthesis and,

therefore, no wilting or necrosis was observed, it still affects

marsh plants.

• In Spartina spp. petroleum damages the root membranes,

therefore decreasing the plants’ ability to control ionic balance,

and therefore decreasing its salinity tolerance.

• For Spartina, a decrease in salinity tolerance is a serious

problem since its roots are constantly submerged in water of

varying salinities (usually more saline than not)

• This data is supported by many other studies

– Carbon fixation in Spartina alterniflora is greatly reduced

when oiled with crude oil (recovery over time)

– At low doses of light, floating fuel oil (No. 2), S.

alterniflora experienced no effect. However, at high doses,

S. alterniflora experienced a decrease in above ground

biomass and suppressed stem growth.

– At very low doses, No. 2 fuel oil actually stimulated plant

growth.

• Supporting studies cont’d.

– Photosynthetic rate of S. patens decreased with increasing South Louisiana crude oil exposure, while S. alterniflora was not affected until after 3 months of exposure.

– S. patens showed decreased plant stem density and inhibited new shoot production, while S. alternifloraabove ground biomass did not change.

– This makes sense: S. alterniflora is a more inundation and salinity tolerant species than S. patens, and therefore usually grows in the more inundated low areas of the marsh. This means that the aerenchyma is more important for gas exchange than the roots, and S.L. crude oil did not cover the aerenchyma.

Predictions for BP spill’s affect on vegetation:

• Crude oil is light enough that it may cover the aerenchyma of the vegetation, which would decrease photosynthesis, above ground biomass, and recruitment.

• If it does not coat the aerenchyma and damages the root membrane, it could decrease S. alteniflora’s salinity-tolerance, and therefore decreasing its range or causing vegetation death.

• However, after some time (the length of time depends on abiotic factors such as tides, temperatures, wind, season, amount of oil, where it lands on the plant, etc), the oil may actually stimulate growth, or at least the plants will recover their abilities.****

****This also depends heavily on the amount of SOM. High SOM slows biodegradation of petroleum, because it replaces petroleum as the substrate for bacteria.

Now that’s cleared up, on to Terrapin!

• Not very many studies on the effect of crude oil on terrapin, so

once again must extrapolate from fuel oils and from Sea Turtle

data.

• Sea turtles are the best comparison for toxic effects because they have a similar

physiology and life history.

• Both terrapin and sea turtles osmoregulate via salt or lachrymal glands (somewhat

reduced in terrapin), and lay eggs in similar habitat (beach, shell hash), and utilize similar

habitat

But first, what we have for terrapin!

• The only studies have to do with eggs, hatch rate, and embryo health –

no studies on adults.

• A study looking at PAH levels in embryos found no correlation with

oil levels in the substrate – high PAH levels were found in embryos

where there was no oil in the surrounding substrate.

• Instead, they found correlation between the oil levels in the habitat of

the parents and the PAH levels in the eggs.

• They concluded that embryo PAH was maternal: the female was

foraging in oiled areas and consuming oil, and passing this oil to the

eggs via vitellogenesis

• This shows the importance of understanding the effects of oil on the

whole habitat rather than just the organism.

• A quick explanation of vitellogenesis:

– The lipid-rich vitellogenin (or yolk) is synthesized in the liver.

– As we all know, any xenobiotics from the GI tract goes straight to the

liver via the portal blood system.

– So, the lipophilic/hydrophobic oil consumed by the mother went

straight to the liver, where it bound to the lipid-rich vitellogenin and

was passed to the embryo. This is why lipophilic compounds

bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms.

– Reinforces the ecological importance of the timing of the oil spill – The

oil spill in the aforementioned study occurred during terrapin mating

season.

That’s all for terrapin, on to sea turtles!

• M.E. Lutcavage (1995) oiled the surface of the water in a tank containing Loggerhead sea turtles in South Louisiana crude oil

• Results:– No change in surfacing for air

– No change in venous O2

– Red blood cell counts decreased and did not return (polychromasia)

– 4x increase in amount of white blood cells

– Skin sloughed off in layers

– Inflammatory cells and heterophilic granulocytes in stratum corneum

– Multifocal epithelial necrosis

– Dysplasia of epidermal epithelium

– Hemorrhage

– Failure of salt gland

– Oil in feces

What the heck did I just say?• Polychromasia = an anemic condition where immature erythrocytes formed

that cannot carry hemoglobin->similar to pancytopenia (from class), but

instead of not making any other blood cells due to increased commitment to

making red blood cells, white blood cell count drastically increased (immune

system activated).

• Inflammatory cells and heterophilic granulocytes in stratum corneum = the

arrival of white blood cells to combat the infections at the skin level (may

deal with the sloughing of the skin)

• Multifocal epithelial necrosis = multiple areas in the skin in

which rapid cell death was occurring.

• Dysplasia = abnormal development of epithelium

• How does this translate to terrapin affected by the BP oil spill?

– Terrapin spend more time on land than sea turtles, so may have lower levels

of oiling.

– However, they spend a significant portion of their day in the water – so a

slightly less degree of skin problems would arise.

– Terrapin forage in oiled areas as often as sea turtles do, so internal processes

(polychromasia, increased immune response, oil in feces and therefore in

portal blood system, liver, and offspring) are most likely comparable

– The big one! The salt gland’s failure in sea turtles is translatable to terrapin

-> if the salt gland fails on terrapin, their whole way of life is jeopardized.

1

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

GULF KILLIFISH

Brittany Cuevas

Gulf killifish

Fundulus grandis

155

Fundulus Facts

• Native to the Gulf of Mexico

• Up to 18 cm long

• Primarily inshore fishes

• Associated with low salinity habitats

• Feeds throughout the entire water column

• Used widely in toxicity testing

• Commonly used live bait species

• Spawn in March to October

156

Spartina Habitats

http://nas3.er.usgs.gov/XIMAGESERVERX/2008/20080306145520.jpg h ttp://www.dep.state.fl.us/northwest/ecosys/section/ImageGallery/IMGP2076web.jpg

S. alterniflora S. patens

157

Oil fractions Effecting fish

• Steady state equilibrium between fish and water

• High molecular weight aromatics and naphthenes

• Naphthalenes and methylnapthalenes

http://www.pherobase.com/pherobase/gif/naphthalene.GIF

158

Exposure Indicators

• Hepatic cytochrome P450

-CYP1A

• CYP1A levels

159

Effects on Juveniles

• Exposure that is not initially lethal-Tissue and cellular pathology

(Ernst and Neff 1982)

160

Effects on hatching and survival rates on

Fundulus grandis

Group 1 Group 2

No. hatched No. died No. hatched No. died

Control 11/11 0 13/14 1/14

12.5% WSF 11/11 5/11 14/14 0

25% WSF 0 11/11 4/14 14/14

50% WSF 0 11/11 0 14/14

161

Other effects seen on embryos

• An increase in yolk diameter was observed

as WSF exposure levels increased

• High WSF concentrations at high

temperatures led to a decrease in the

number of vertebrae in the

eleutheroembryos

• Spinal deformities observed

162

Internal Effects

• Organs and organ systems

• Gills

• Stomach and gut analysis

163

Salt Marsh Food Chain

http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/nwfla/images/marsh/cycle.gif 164

Adaptations

• Fundulus heterclitus

http://pond.dnr.cornell.edu/nyfish/Cyprinodontidae/mummichog.jpg

• Physiological adaptations

• Hydrocarbon metabolizing enzymes165

Other Internal Effects

• Necrosis of neurosensory cells

• Generalized blood stasis at higher exposure concentrations

• Necrosis and lesions observed in the brain, liver, and pancreas

• Skeletal muscle degradation and gut mucosal degradation

• Organs most susceptible to pathology were shown to selectively accumulate naphthalene

• Signs of chemical and metabolic stresses were present

166

Effects on Breathing Rates

• Prosencephalon

• Medulla oblongata

-L-DOPA

• Homeostatic

rate

http://www.uoguelph.ca/zoology/devobio/miller/brainfig7-10.gif167

Field Testing

• Liu et al, 2006

o April and November 2002

o Alaska North Slope crude oil (ANSC)

168

Field Testing Cont.

• Water quality results

• Survival rate: exceeded 83%

• Mortality rate: no significant difference

• Survival

169

Survival Rates

Liu et al., 2006 170

Other Factors

• Dissolved oxygen

• Tidal flushing

• Wind driven water flow

• Surface area

• Natural defenses

• Test time (24 h)

171

THE EFFECTS OF

SPILLED CRUDE OIL ON

AMERICAN ALLIGATORS

Luis Benavides

American Alligator

Alligator mississippiensis

American Alligator

• Largest reptile species in North America

• Called the “Living Fossil” est. 200 million

years

• Found in wetlands from Texas to South

Carolina

• Louisiana has more alligators then any other

state in the U.S., over 1 million

• 5 million live throughout the Southeastern

U.S.

Habitat

Alligator Habitat

• Found in fresh and brackish marshes,

ponds, lakes, rivers, swamps, mangroves,

and bayous

• Can tolerate marine environments for short

periods of time

• Varies through seasons

• Can tolerate a wide temperature range

(freezing <100°F)

Alligator Diet

• Have a wide variety of prey (opportunistic)

• As a hatchling eat invertebrates, insects, larvae, snails, spiders, worms, and other small prey

• As a juvenile and adult eat fish, birds, turtles, snakes, mammals, and amphibians.

• Sometimes eat own species

Reproduction

• Reach sexual maturity at about 9-10 years

• Females build mounds and lay an average

of 20-60 eggs in late June early July

• Embryos hatch between 63-84 days

• Temperature decided hatching’s sex (90 to

93 degrees Fahrenheit become males,

temperatures from 82 to 86 °F become

female)

Oil Spill Effects on Alligators

Environmental

• Vegetation becomes depleted

• Increased turbidity in water may block sunlight for aquatic plants who need sun for photosynthesis

• Severe damage to mangroves

• Animals become vulnerable because the need to surface to breath and may ingest toxic oil.

• Digging dens in contaminated mud pose a threat to both hatching and alligator

Oil Spill Effects on Alligators

Environmental (cont.)

• Event occurred during the

spawning season for fish

and nesting season for

birds

• Alligator will likely see

steep declines food

sources

• Hundreds of alligators are

being shot by private

citizens for trying to

escape the oil spill

Oil Effects on Alligators

Behavioral

• Limited food will cause alligators to wonder

off

• Competition for food will increase

cannibalism amongst alligators

• More energy is spend on food search and

less on mating, thus less opportunities for

reproduction

Oil Effects on Alligators Physiological

• A lethality test shows alligators have a very high tolerance for undiluted drilling oil-water mix with a 1.6% mortality rate (96h study)

• Contaminates in crude oil such as polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are know to alter steroidogenesis and estrogen production

• Some endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) mimic natural estrogen or function as anti-estrogen– Reproductive malfunction

– Development disorder

– Developing organism are most effected

– Body weight decrease

– Lower sperm count in male alligators

– Abnormalities in thyroid histology and circulating hormones

Future Outlook

• Oil spill significantly altered the ecosystem in the effected areas

• Reduction of food availability• Loss of habitat• Decrease in alligators in the area• Alligator amativeness

– Will move to find food– Slow metabolism allows them to go long periods of

time without eating– Large litter enhances alligator survival– Alligator in not effected areas will repopulate affected

areas once conditions are favorable

UHCL’s Alligator

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPnJT5DQikU

What Does The Future Hold?

Video Clip

What Does The Future Hold?

? Clean Up Technology and Chemicals

? Health Effect

? Seafood Organism

Questions

Calbert, Albert, Enric Saiz ND Carles Barata. 2007. Lethal and Sublethal Effects of Naphthalene and 1,2-dimethylnaphthalene on the Marine Copepod. Marine Biol #151, 195-204

Davenport, J., 1982. Oil and plantocic ecosystem. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 297, 369-384

Lee, W.Y., Winters, K. & Nicol, J.A.C. 1978. The biological effect of the water soluble fractions of an no. 2 fuel oil on theplanktonic shrimp, Lucifer faxoni. Environ. Pollut. 15, 167-183.

Miller, Michael, Vera Alexander and Robert Barsdate; 1978. The Effect of Oil Spill on Phytoplankton In An Artic Lake and Ponds. Institute of Marine Science, U of Alaska, Vol 31, No 3, pg 192-218

Reid, P.C. 1987. The Importance of the Planktonic Ecosystem of the North Sea In the Context of Oil and Gas Development. Natural Env. Marine Environmental Research. London B #316, 587-602

Salas, N, L. Ortiz, M. Gilcoto, M. Varela, J.M. Bayona, S. Groom, X.A. Alvarez, J. Albaiges; 2006. Fingerprint Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Plankton and Surface Sediments During the Spring and Early Summer blooms in the Galician Coast (NW Spain) after the Prestige Oil Spill, Marine Environmental Research #62, pages 388-413

Sharma, B. and Wilma Cyril, 2005. Distribution and abundance of zooplankton in relation to petroleum hydrocarbon content along the coast of Kollam (Quilon), south west coast of India. Journal of Environmental Biology. 28(1) 53-62

Vaughan, Shari, Christopher N. Moores and Shelton M. Gay III. 1994-98. Physical Variability in Prince William Sound During the SEA Study. Fisheries Oceanography, 10 (suppl.1) 58-80

Varela, Manuel, Antonio Bode, Jorge Lorenzo, M. Teresa Alvarez-Ossorio, Ana Miranda, Teodoro Patrocinio, Ricardo Anadon, Leticia Viesca, Nieves Rodriguez, Jesus Cabal, Angel Urrurtia, Carlos Garcia, Menchu rodriguez, Xose Anton, Steve Groom; 2006. The Effect of the Prestige Oil Spill on the Plankton of the N-NW Spanish Coast. Marine Pollution, #53 pages 272-286

Weikert, H. 1982. The Vertical Distribution of Zooplankton in Relation to Habitat Zones in the Area of the Atlantis I1 Deep, Central Red Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. Vol. 8: 129-143

Plankton References

Sargassum References

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 2010 “ Scientific Assessment of

Hypoxia in U.S. Coastal Waters” Interagency Working Group on Harmful Algal Booms, Hypoxia

and Human Health of the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology . Washington

DC.

• Coston-Clemens, L.,L.R Settle, D.E. Hoss and F.A Cross 1991. “Utilization of the Sargassum

Habitat by marine invertebrates – a review”. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-

296, 32 p.

• R.J David Wells and Jay R Rooker 2004. “Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Habitat Use by

Fishes Associated with Sargassum Mats In The Northwestern Gulf Of Mexico”. Bulletin Of

Marine Science, VOL. 74, NO. 1

•Allan W Stoner 1983. “Pelagic Sargassum: Evidence For a Major Decrease in Biomass”. Deep

Sea Reseach Part A. Oceanographic Research Paper Volume 30, Issue 4, 469-474.

•Vandensriessche, S., Messian, M., O’Flynn, S., Vincx, M. & Degraer, S. 2007. “Hiding and

Feeding in Floating seaweed clumps as possible refuges of feeding grounds for fishes”.

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