Louis Pasteur - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Louis Pasteur

Louis Pasteur photographed by Pierre Lamy Petit

Born December 27, 1822Dole, Jura, Franche-Comté, France

Died September 28, 1895 (aged 72)Marnes-la-Coquette, Hauts-de-Seine, France

Residence FranceNationality FrenchFields Chemistry

MicrobiologyInstitutions Dijon Lycée

University of StrasbourgLille University of Science andTechnologyÉcole Normale Supérieure

Alma mater École Normale SupérieureNotablestudents Charles Friedel[1]

Signature

Louis PasteurFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Louis Pasteur (pron.: /ˈluːi pæˈstɜr/, French: [lwi pastœʁ];December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a Frenchchemist and microbiologist who was one of the mostimportant founders of medical microbiology. He isremembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in thecauses and preventions of diseases. His discoveriesreduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created thefirst vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His experimentssupported the germ theory of disease. He was best knownto the general public for inventing a method to treat milkand wine in order to prevent it from causing sickness, aprocess that came to be called pasteurization. He isregarded as one of the three main founders ofmicrobiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and RobertKoch. He worked chiefly in Paris.

Pasteur also made many discoveries in the field ofchemistry, most notably the molecular basis for theasymmetry of certain crystals.[2] His body lies beneaththe Pasteur Institute in a spectacular vault covered indepictions of his accomplishments in Byzantinemosaics.[3] In 1887 he founded the Pasteur Institute.

Contents

1 Early life2 Administrator3 Medical research

3.1 Molecular asymmetry3.2 Germ theory of fermentation3.3 Immunology and vaccination

4 Pasteur Institute5 Faith and spirituality6 Principal works7 Honours and final days8 Legacy9 Allegations of deception10 See also11 References12 Further reading13 External links

Early life

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822, in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a

Louis Pasteur - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur

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The house in which Pasteurwas born, Dole

Pasteur separated the left and rightcrystal shapes from each other toform two piles of crystals: in solutionone form rotated light to the left, theother to the right, while an equalmixture of the two forms canceledeach other's effect, and does notrotate the polarized light.

poor tanner. Jean-Joseph Pasteur was his father and Jeanne-Etiennette Roquihis mother. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois.[2] This fact probablyinstilled in the younger Pasteur the strong patriotism that later was a definingelement of his character. Louis Pasteur was an average student in his earlyyears, but he was gifted in drawing and painting. His pastels and portraits ofhis parents and friends, made when he was 15, were later kept in the museumof the Pasteur Institute in Paris. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree(1840) and Bachelor of Science degree (1842) at the École NormaleSupérieure. After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg,[2]

where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector,in 1849. They were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children,only two of whom survived to adulthood; the other three died of typhoid.These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseasessuch as typhoid.

Administrator

In 1854, Pasteur was named Dean of the new Faculty of Sciences in Lille. It was on this occasion thatPasteur uttered his oft-quoted remark: "dans les champs de l'observation, le hasard ne favorise que lesesprits préparés" (In the field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind.[4]) In 1856, he movedto Paris as the director of scientific studies at the École Normale Supérieure. Pasteur took control of the'École Normale' (1858–67) and began a series of reforms. The examinations became more rigid, which ledto better results, greater competition, and increased prestige. He raised the standard of scientific work,leading to two serious student revolts[2]

Medical research

Molecular asymmetry

In Pasteur's early work as a chemist, he resolved a problemconcerning the nature of tartaric acid (1848).[5][6][7][8][9] A solutionof this compound derived from living things (specifically, wine lees)rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. Themystery was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had nosuch effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and itselemental composition was the same.[10] This was the first timeanyone had demonstrated chiral molecules.

Pasteur's doctoral thesis on crystallography attracted the attention ofW. T. Fuillet, and he helped Pasteur obtain a position of professor ofchemistry at the Faculté (College) of Strasbourg.[2]

Germ theory of fermentation

Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth ofmicro-organisms, and the emergent growth of bacteria in nutrientbroths is due not to spontaneous generation,[2] but rather tobiogenesis (Omne vivum ex vivo "all life is from life").

He exposed boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through


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Bottle en col de cygne (swan neckduct) used by Pasteur

Institut Pasteur de Lille

to the growth medium, and even in vessels with no filter at all, withair being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not allow dustparticles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks werebroken open, showing that the living organisms that grew in suchbroths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather thanspontaneously generated within the broth. This was one of the lastand most important experiments disproving the theory ofspontaneous generation. The experiment also supported germtheory.[2]

While Pasteur was not the first to propose germ theory (GirolamoFracastoro, Agostino Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others hadsuggested it earlier), he developed it and conducted experiments thatclearly indicated its correctness and managed to convince most ofEurope that it was true. Today, he is often regarded as the father ofgerm theory and bacteriology, together with Robert Koch.[11]

Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of micro-organismswas responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk.With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such asmilk were heated to kill most bacteria and moulds already presentwithin them. Claude Bernard and he completed the first test on April20, 1862. This process was soon afterwards known aspasteurization.[11]

Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that micro-organismsinfecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventingthe entry of micro-organisms into the human body, leading JosephLister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery.

In 1865, two parasitic diseases called pébrine and flacherie werekilling great numbers of silkworms at Alais (now Alès). Pasteurworked several years proving that these diseases were caused by a microbe attacking silkworm eggs, andthat eliminating the microbe in silkworm nurseries would eradicate the disease.[2][11]

Pasteur also discovered anaerobiosis, whereby some micro-organisms can develop and live without air oroxygen, called the Pasteur effect.

Immunology and vaccination

Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, a culture of theresponsible bacteria had spoiled and failed to induce the disease in some chickens he was infecting with thedisease. Upon reusing these healthy chickens, Pasteur discovered he could not infect them, even with freshbacteria; the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease, though they hadcaused only mild symptoms.[2][11]

His assistant, Charles Chamberland (of French origin), had been instructed to inoculate the chickens afterPasteur went on holiday. Chamberland failed to do this, but instead went on holiday himself. On his return,the month-old cultures made the chickens unwell, but instead of the infection's being fatal, as it usually was,the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discardthe apparently faulty culture when Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur guessed the recovered animals now mightbe immune to the disease, as were the animals at Eure-et-Loir that had recovered from anthrax.[12]


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Louis Pasteur in his laboratory,painting by A. Edelfeldt in 1885

In the 1870s, he applied this immunization method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest incombating other diseases.

Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine byexposing the bacilli to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in theBibliothèque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used themethod of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, a Toulouse veterinarysurgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine.[10][13] This method used theoxidizing agent potassium dichromate. Pasteur's oxygen method dideventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded apatent on the production of an anthrax vaccine.

The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to thevirulent version was not new; this had been known for a long timefor smallpox. Inoculation with smallpox was known to result in farless scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison with thenaturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also discoveredvaccination, using cowpox to give cross-immunity to smallpox (in1796), and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use ofactual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference betweensmallpox vaccination and anthrax or chicken cholera vaccination was

that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been "generated artificially", so a naturallyweak form of the disease organism did not need to be found.

This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakeneddiseases the generic name of "vaccines", in honour of Jenner's discovery. Pasteur produced the first vaccinefor rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.

The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur who hadbeen working with a killed vaccine produced by desiccating the spinal cords of infected rabbits. The vaccinehad been tested only on 11 dogs before its first human trial.[2][10]

This vaccine was first used on 9-year old Joseph Meister, on July 6, 1885, after the boy was badly mauled bya rabid dog.[10] This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician andcould have faced prosecution for treating the boy. After consulting with colleagues, Pasteur decided to goahead with the treatment. Meister did not contract the disease. It is sometimes said that Pasteur saved theboy's life, but this cannot be maintained with certainty, since the risk of contracting rabies after such anexposure is estimated at around 15%.[14] Nonetheless, Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter wasnot pursued. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. Thefirst of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement.[10]

Legal risk was not the only kind Pasteur undertook. In The Story of San Michele, Axel Munthe writes of therabies vaccine research:

Pasteur himself was absolutely fearless. Anxious to secure a sample of saliva straight from thejaws of a rabid dog, I once saw him with the glass tube held between his lips draw a few dropsof the deadly saliva from the mouth of a rabid bull-dog, held on the table by two assistants, theirhands protected by leather gloves.

Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment beforesurgery. Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced these procedures.

Pasteur Institute


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Louis Pasteur portrait in his lateryears

Main article: Pasteur Institute

The Institut Pasteur was founded in 1887 by Pasteur to perpetuate hiscommitment to basic research and its practical applications. As soonas his institute was created, Pasteur brought together scientists withvarious specialties. The first five departments were directed by twonormaliens (graduates of the École Normale Supérieure): EmileDuclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland(microbe research applied to hygiene), as well as a biologist, IlyaIlyich Mechnikov (morphological microbe research) and twophysicians, Jacques-Joseph Grancher (rabies) and Emile Roux(technical microbe research). One year after the inauguration of theInstitut Pasteur, Roux set up the first course of microbiology evertaught in the world, then entitled Cours de Microbie Technique(Course of microbe research techniques).

Faith and spirituality

His grandson, Louis Pasteur Vallery-Radot, wrote that Pasteur hadonly kept from his Catholic background a spiritualism withoutreligious practice,[15] although Catholic observers often said Louis Pasteur remained throughout his wholelife an ardent Christian, and his son-in-law, in perhaps the most complete biography of Louis Pasteur, writes:

Absolute faith in God and in Eternity, and a conviction that the power for good given to us inthis world will be continued beyond it, were feelings which pervaded his whole life; the virtuesof the gospel had ever been present to him. Full of respect for the form of religion which hadbeen that of his forefathers, he came simply to it and naturally for spiritual help in these lastweeks of his life.[16]

Maurice Vallery-Radot, grandson of the brother of the son-in-law of Pasteur and outspoken Catholic, alsoholds that Pasteur fundamentally remained Catholic.[17] According to both Pasteur Vallery-Radot andMaurice Vallery-Radot, the following well-known quotation attributed to Pasteur is apocryphal:[18] "Themore I know, the more nearly is my faith that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know all I would have thefaith of a Breton peasant's wife".[2] According to Maurice Vallery-Radot,[19] the false quotation appeared forthe first time shortly after the death of Pasteur.[20] However, despite his belief in God, it has been said thathis views were that of a freethinker rather than a Catholic, a spiritual more than a religious man.[21][22][23]

He was also against mixing science with religion.[24][25]

Principal works

Pasteur's principal works are:[2]


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Vulitsya Pastera or Pasteur Street inOdessa, Ukraine

French Title Year English Title

Etudes sur le Vin 1866 Studies on Wine

"Etudes sur le Vinaigre" 1868 Studies on Vinegar

"Etudes sur la Maladie des Vers à Soie" (2 volumes) 1870 Studies on Silk Worm Disease

; "Quelques Réflexions sur la Science en France" 1871 Some Reflections on Science in France

"Etudes sur la Bière" 1876 Studies on Beer

"Les Microbes organisés, leur rôle dans laFermentation, la Putréfaction et la Contagion'" 1878 Microbes organized, their role in

fermentation, putrefaction and the Contagion

"Discours de Réception de M.L. Pasteur àl'Académie Française" 1882 Speech by Mr L. Pasteur on reception to the

French Academy

"Traitement de la Rage" 1886 Treatment of Rabies

Honours and final days

Pasteur's death occurred in 1895, near Paris, from complications of aseries of strokes that had started in 1868.[10] He was buried in theCathedral of Notre Dame, but his remains were reinterred in a cryptin the Institut Pasteur, Paris, where he is remembered for hislife-saving work.

Pasteur won the Leeuwenhoek medal, microbiology's highest Dutchhonor in Arts and Sciences, in 1895. Both Institute Pasteur andUniversité Louis Pasteur were named after him.

He was made a Knight of the Legion of Honour in 1853, promoted toCommander in 1868, to Grand Officer in 1878 and made a GrandCroix of the Legion of Honor–one of only 75 in all of France - in1881.

On June 8, 1886, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II awardedPasteur with the Order of the Medjidie (I. Class) and 10000 Ottomanliras.[26]

In many localities worldwide, streets are named in his honor. Forexample, in the USA: Palo Alto and Irvine, California, Boston and Polk, Florida, adjacent to the Universityof Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio; Jonquière, Québec; San Salvador de Jujuy and BuenosAires (Argentina), Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, in the United Kingdom, Jericho and Wulguru in Queensland,(Australia); Phnom Penh in Cambodia; Ho Chi Minh City; Batna in Algeria; Bandung in Indonesia, Tehranin Iran, adjacent to the Odessa State Medical University in Odessa, Ukraine; Milan in Italy and Bucharest,Cluj-Napoca and Timişoara in Romania. A large university hospital is named after him in Košice, Slovakia.

In his honor, a statue of him located on the campus of San Rafael High School in San Rafael, California.Also, there is a Pasteur institute in Ootacamund, a hill station in south India, which is involved in vaccinetrials and also rabies diagnosis.

A bronze bust of Pasteur resides on the French Campus of Kaiser Permanente's San Francisco MedicalCenter in San Francisco, California. The sculpture was designed by Harriet G. Moore and cast in 1984 byArtworks Foundry.[27]


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Legacy

Avenue Louis Pasteur in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area in Boston, Massachusetts isnamed in his honor in the French manner with "Avenue" preceding the name of the dedicatee.[28]

The Lycée Pasteur in Neuilly-sur-Seine is named after him.The Avenue Pasteur in Saigon, Vietnam, is one of the few streets in that city to retain its French name.

Allegations of deception

In 1995, the centennial of the death of Louis Pasteur, the New York Times ran an article titled "Pasteur'sDeception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes, the science historian Gerald L. Geisondeclared Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in theexperiment at Pouilly-le-Fort.[29] Max Perutz published a vigorous defense of Pasteur in the New YorkReview of Books.[30]

See also

Modern medicineInfection controlInfectious diseasePasteur InstitutePasteurizationThe Story of Louis Pasteur (a 1936 biographical film)

References

^ Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology 2nd Revised edition1.^ a b c d e f g h i j k l James J. Walsh (1913). "Louis Pasteur". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: RobertAppleton Company.

2.

^ Campbell, D. M. (January 1915). "The Pasteur Institute of Paris" (http://books.google.com/?id=u8FUAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=) . American Journal of Veterinary Medicine(Chicago, Ill.: D. M. Campbell) 10 (1): 29–31. Retrieved February 8, 2010.

3.

^ L. Pasteur, "Discours prononcé à Douai, le 7 décembre 1854, à l'occasion de l'installation solennelle de laFaculté des lettres de Douai et de la Faculté des sciences de Lille" (Speech delivered at Douai on December 7,1854 on the occasion of his formal inauguration to the Faculty of Letters of Douai and the Faculty of Sciences ofLille), reprinted in: Pasteur Vallery-Radot, ed., Oeuvres de Pasteur (Paris, France: Masson and Co., 1939), vol. 7,page 131 (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7363q/f137.chemindefer) .

4.

^ L. Pasteur (1848) "Mémoire sur la relation qui peut exister entre la forme cristalline et la compositionchimique, et sur la cause de la polarisation rotatoire" (Memoir on the relationship which can exist betweencrystalline form and chemical composition, and on the cause of rotary polarization)," Comptes rendus del'Académie des sciences (Paris), vol. 26, pages 535-538.

5.

^ L. Pasteur (1848) "Sur les relations qui peuvent exister entre la forme cristalline, la composition chimique et lesens de la polarisation rotatoire" (http://books.google.com/books?id=gJ45AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA442&lpg=PA442#v=onepage&q&f=false) (On the relations that can exist between crystalline form, and chemicalcomposition, and the sense of rotary polarization), Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 3rd series, vol. 24, no. 6,pages 442-459.

6.

^ George B. Kauffman and Robin D. Myers (1998)"Pasteur's resolution of racemic acid: A sesquicentennialretrospect and a new translation," (http://192.129.24.144/licensed_materials/00897/papers/0003006/36kau897.pdf) The Chemical Educator, vol. 3, no. 6, pages (?).

7.

^ H. D. Flack (2009) "Louis Pasteur's discovery of molecular chirality and spontaneous resolution in 1848,together with a complete review of his crystallographic and chemical work," (http://crystal.flack.ch/sh5092.pdf)Acta Crystallographica, Section A, vol. 65, pages 371-389.

8.


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^ Joseph Gal: Louis Pasteur, Language, and Molecular Chirality. I. Background and Dissymmetry, Chirality 23(2011) 1−16.

9.

^ a b c d e f David V. Cohn location=University of Louisville (December 18, 2006). "Pasteur"(http://pyramid.spd.louisville.edu/~eri/fos/interest1.html) . http://pyramid.spd.louisville.edu/~eri/fos/interest1.html. Retrieved 2007-12-02. "Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain [sic] and Roux followed upthe results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, who had reported a year earlier that carbolic-acid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce anddiscarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint had been on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants tosubstitute an anthrax vaccine prepared by a method similar to that of Toussaint and different from what Pasteurhad announced."

10.

^ a b c d Ullmann, Agnes (August 2007). "Pasteur-Koch: Distinctive Ways of Thinking about Infectious Diseases"(http://forms.asm.org/microbe/index.asp?bid=52099) . Microbe (American Society for Microbiology) 2 (8):383–7. Retrieved December 12, 2007.

11.

^ Sternberg, George M. (1901). A Textbook of Bacteriology (http://books.google.com/?id=uNziSqWxtBwC&pg=PA278&lpg=PA278&dq=pasteur+loir+anthrax&q=pasteur%20loir%20anthrax) . New York: William Woodand Company. pp. 278–9.

12.

^ Adrien Loir (1938). Le mouvement sanitaire. pp. 18, 160.13.^ Melanie Di Quinzio, MD MSc and Anne McCarthy, MD MSc "Rabies risk among travellers" CMAJ fact sheet[1] (http://ukpmc.ac.uk/articlerender.cgi?artid=1263986) .

14.

^ Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Letter to Paul Dupuy, 1939, quoted by Hilaire Cuny, Pasteur et le mystère de la vie,Paris, Seghers, 1963, p. 53–54. Patrice Pinet, Pasteur et la philosophie, Paris, 2005, p. 134–135, quotesanalogous assertions of Pasteur Vallery-Radot, with references to Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Pasteur inconnu, p. 232,and André George, Pasteur, Paris, 1958, p. 187. According to Maurice Vallery-Radot (Pasteur, 1994, p. 378), thefalse quotation appeared for the first time in the Semaine religieuse .... du diocèse de Versailles, October 6, 1895,p. 153, shortly after the death of Pasteur.

15.

^ (Vallery-Radot 1911, vol. 2, p. 240)16.^ Vallery-Radot, Maurice (1994). Pasteur. Paris: Perrin. pp. 377–407.17.^ Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Letter to Paul Dupuy, 1939, quoted by Hilaire Cuny, Pasteur et le mystère de la vie,Paris, Seghers, 1963, p. 53–54.

18.

^ Pasteur, 1994, p. 378.19.^ In Pasteur's Semaine religieuse .... du diocèse de Versailles, October 6, 1895, p. 153.20.^ Joseph McCabe (1945). A Biographical Dictionary of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Freethinkers(http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/dictionary.html) . Haldeman-Julius Publications.Retrieved 11 August 2012. "The anonymous Catholic author quotes as his authority the standard biography byVallery-Radot, yet this describes Pasteur as a freethinker; and this is confirmed in the preface to the Englishtranslation by Sir W. Osler, who knew Pasteur personally. Vallery-Radot was himself a Catholic yet admits thatPasteur believed only in "an Infinite" and "hoped" for a future life. Pasteur publicly stated this himself in hisAcademy speech in 1822 (in V.R.). He said: "The idea of God is a form of the idea of the Infinite whether it iscalled Brahma, Allah, Jehova, or Jesus." The biographer says that in his last days he turned to the Church but theonly "evidence" he gives is that he liked to read the life of St. Vincent de Paul, and he admits that he did notreceive the sacraments at death. Relatives put rosary beads in his hands, and the Catholic Encyclopedia claimshim as a Catholic in virtue of the fact and of an anonymous and inconclusive statement about him. Wheeler saysin his Dictionary of Freethinkers that in his prime Pasteur was Vice-President of the British Secular (Atheist)Union; and Wheeler was the chief Secularist writer of the time. The evidence is overwhelming. Yet the Catholicscientist Sir Bertram Windle assures his readers that "no person who knows anything about him can doubt thesincerity of his attachment to the Catholic Church," and all Catholic writers use much the same scandalouslanguage."

21.

^ Patrice Debré (2000). Louis Pasteur. JHU Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780801865299. Retrieved 11 August 2012."Does this mean that Pasteur was bound to a religious ideal? His attitude was that of a believer, not of a sectarian.One of his most brilliant disciples, Elie Metchnikoff, was to attest that he spoke of religion only in general terms.In fact, Pasteur evaded the question by claiming quite simply that religion has no more place in science thanscience has in religion. ...A biologist more than a chemist, a spiritual more than a religious man, Pasteur was heldback only by the lack of more powerful technical means and therefore had to limit himself to identifying germsand explaining their generation."

22.

^ Brendon Barnett (May 31, 2011). "Louis Pasteur: A Religious Man?" (http://www.pasteurbrewing.com/Articles/life-of-pasteur/louis-pasteur-a-religious-man.html) . Pasteur Brewing. http://www.pasteurbrewing.com/Articles/life-of-pasteur/louis-pasteur-a-religious-man.html. Retrieved 11 August 2012. "However, unlike many others,Pasteur asserted the preeminence of hypotheses over religious or metaphysical prejudices and always seemed

23.


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willing to abandon theories that were outdated or useless in practicality. Pasteur often saw religion as ahinderance to scientific progress. In 1874, presiding over the award ceremony at the Collège of Arbois, he clearlystated his position: "I know that the word free thinker is written somewhere within our walls as a challenge and anaffront. Do you know what most of the free thinkers want? Some want the freedom not to think at all and to befettered by ignorance; others want the freedom to think badly; and others still, the freedom to be dominated bywhat is suggested to them by instinct and to despise all authority and all tradition. Freedom of thought in theCartesian sense, freedom to work hard, freedom to pursue research, the right to arrive at such truth as isaccessible to evidence and to conform one's conduct to these exigencies--oh! let us vow a cult to this freedom; forthis is what has created modern society in its highest and most fruitful aspects." Pasteur had great respect for theunknown and the infinite, but did not allow himself to become a victim of superstition and fanatical religiousexplanations."^ Brendon Barnett (May 31, 2011). "Louis Pasteur: A Religious Man?" (http://www.pasteurbrewing.com/Articles/life-of-pasteur/louis-pasteur-a-religious-man.html) . Pasteur Brewing. http://www.pasteurbrewing.com/Articles/life-of-pasteur/louis-pasteur-a-religious-man.html. Retrieved 11 August 2012. "Louis Pasteur did not denyreligion, but was compelled to say that, "religion has no more place in science than science has in religion." Therole of religion in his mind was clear: "In each one of us there are two men, the scientist and the man of faith or ofdoubt. These two spheres are separate, and woe to those who want to make them encroach upon one another inthe present state of our knowledge!""

24.

^ Patrice Debré (2000). Louis Pasteur. JHU Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780801865299. Retrieved 11 August 2012.25.^ Sevan Nişanyan: Yanlış Cumhuriyet İstanbul: Kırmızı Yayınları 2009, S. 263.26.^ "Louis Pasteur, (sculpture)" (http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?&profile=all&source=~!siartinventories&uri=full=3100001~!310287~!0#focus) . Save Outdoor Sculpture!. SmithsonianAmerican Art Museum. http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?&profile=all&source=~!siartinventories&uri=full=3100001~!310287~!0#focus. Retrieved 12 May 2012.

27.

^ Pasteur Foundation, Pasteur Memorials USA (http://www.pasteurfoundation.org/MAHarvardAvePasteur.shtml)28.^ See Gerald Geison, The Private Science of Louis Pasteur, Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN0-691-01552-X. May 1995 NY Times [2] (http://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/07/books/experiments-in-deceit.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm) [3] (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DD173DF935A25756C0A963958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all)

29.

^ Dec. 21, 1995 NY Review of Books [4] (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1995/dec/21/the-pioneer-defended/) , letters [5] (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1996/apr/04/pasteur-and-the-culture-wars-an-exchange/) [6] (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1997/feb/06/pasteurs-private-science/)

30.

Further readingDebré, P.; E. Forster (1998). Louis Pasteur. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN 0-8018-5808-9.Duclaux, E.Translated by Erwin F. Smith and Florence Hedges (1920). Louis Pasteur: The History of a Mind.Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: W. B. Saunders Company.Geison, Gerald L. (1995). The Private Science of Louis Pasteur. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UniversityPress. ISBN 0-691-03442-7.Latour, Bruno (1988). The Pasteurization of France. Boston: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65761-6.Reynolds, Moira Davison. How Pasteur Changed History: The Story of Louis Pasteur and the Pasteur Institute(1994)Williams, Roger L. (1957). Gaslight and Shadow: The World of Napoleon III, 1851-1870. NY: MacmillanCompany. ISBN 0-8371-9821-6.

External links

The Institut Pasteur (http://www.pasteur.fr/english.html) – Foundation Dedicated to the prevention andtreatment of diseases through biological research, education and public health activitiesThe Pasteur Foundation (http://www.pasteurfoundation.org) – A US nonprofit organization dedicatedto promoting the mission of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. Full archive of newsletters available onlinecontaining examples of US Tributes to Louis Pasteur.Pasteur's Papers on the Germ Theory (http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/articles/pasteur.htm)


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The Life and Work of Louis Pasteur (http://www.pasteurbrewing.com) , Pasteur BrewingThe Pasteur Galaxy (http://php.pasteur.net/index.php?newlang=english)Louis Pasteur featured on the 5 French Franc banknote from 1966. (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money5.htm)Germ Theory and Its Applications to Medicine and Surgery, 1878 (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878pasteur-germ.html)Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) (http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/Louis_Pasteur.html) profile,AccessExcellence.org

The complete work of Pasteur, BNF (Bibliothèque nationale de France)

Pasteur Œuvre tome 1 – Dissymétrie moléculaire (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7356c) PDF(French)Pasteur Œuvre tome 2 – Fermentations et générations dites spontanées (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7357p) PDF (French)Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences (http://math-doc.ujf-grenoble.fr/RBSM/cr-gallica.html)Articles published by Pasteur (French)

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