Life in the Mainstream

Wendy Brehm and Nancy Holdren

What do we know about learning through an interpreter?

Dr. Brenda Seal (2004) estimates that 24,000 K-12 students use an interpreter.

85% of children between the ages of 6 and 21 years old attend mainstream schools, partially and/or full time (Schick, Skalicky, Edwards, & Kushalnagar, 2013)

True or False?Indicate your choice by showing:

Thumbs up for TrueThumbs sideways for I’m not sureThumbs down for False

⦿ Once communication barriers have been removed in the classroom, kids who are deaf or hard of hearing will learn just like hearing kids do.

⦿ False. “A variety of studies over the past decade have demonstrated that D/HH students often evidence knowledge, conceptual organization and cognitive/perceptual strategies different from their hearing peers, differences that may put them at an academic disadvantage in mainstream classrooms, compared to settings designed to accommodate that variability.”

Marschark, M. & Hauser, P.. "Cognitive underpinnings of learning by deaf and hard-of-hearing students: Differences, diversity, and directions.", 01/01/2008-12/31/2008, , M. Marschark & P. C. Hauser"Deaf cognition: Foundations and outcomes", 2008, "(pp. 3-23). New York: Oxford University Press.".

True or False?Indicate your choice by showing:

Thumbs up for TrueThumbs sideways for I’m not sureThumbs down for False

A D/HH student can learn English and sign language through an interpreter, because the interpreter is a language model.

False. Language, either spoken or signed, may only be acquired through natural, spontaneous interaction with a variety of native language users. Communication through an interpreter is not natural, not spontaneous, not interaction, and the interpreter is usually not a native user of any natural signed language. Additionally, the interpreter is only one person. A variety of speakers may be represented by her, but she is the only person signing.

Language myths in interpreted education: First language, second language, what languageC Monikowski - Educational interpreting: How it can succeed, 2004

Learning content through 2 languages, neither of

which have been acquired

“... deaf students often do not fundamentally ‘know’ any language; they simply know bits and pieces, but they have no strong foundation on which to build. For example, trying to learn about the Civil War when one does not know the language used to convey the facts is not only difficult but unrealistic, and expecting children to learn in this type of scenario borders on cruelty.” Monikowski

Language Acquisition

Since DofH are commonly delayed in exposure to their first language, all educational processes that are mediated by language will be negatively impacted.

True or False?Indicate your choice by showing:

Thumbs up for TrueThumbs sideways for I’m not sureThumbs down for False

⦿ An interpretation is never the same as the original text.

⦿ True. “An effective interpretation strives to make the interpretation similar in meaning to the original, but no matter how expert, how effective and dynamic, it will still be mediated and different.” (Winston, 2004)

US Department of EducationInstitute of Education Sciences National Center

for Special Education Researchhttp://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20113003/pdf/20113003.pdf

...there has been very little information nationally on the classroom experiences and academic performance of this population of students. For example, little is known nationally about the types of courses students with hearing impairments take, the instructional settings of those courses, the instructional practices they experience, or the accommodations and supports they are provided.

NLTS2 February, 2011

Constraints of Interpreting“…the educational system ignores this basic feature of interpreting– that it is always mediated by a third person (the interpreter) with all the language seen or heard by the participants as being, at least in part, the interpreter’s language influenced by his or her own filters, knowledge and experience.” (Winston, 2004)

Constraints of interpreting

• These are aspects of interpreting that cannot be changed.

• True even when the interpreter is highly qualified.

• The consequences will always be borne by the student.

⦿ Secondhand quality of interpreted information

• Not direct and not word for word. Similar to the education received by hearing students but never the same.

• Every sign the student sees and every word the teacher and class hears is the interpreter’s.

• Interpreting has an effect on every piece of knowledge and language that goes through the interpreter.

Constraints of interpreting

• These are aspects of interpreting that cannot be changed.

• True even when the interpreter is highly qualified.

• The consequences will always be borne by the student.

⦿ Visual accessibility and multitasking• Simultaneous presentation of information by talking and showing is a common

teaching strategy which works well for hearing students.

• Interpreting provides access to half of the information and impedes access to the other half.⚫ Do I watch the interpreter or write notes? See the demonstration? Watch the video? Grade my

neighbor’s paper? Look at the powerpoint? Get out my book?

Only the teacher has the power to manage the flow of information, to make a simultaneous presentation into a sequential one.

Constraints of interpreting

• These are aspects of interpreting that cannot be changed.

• True even when the interpreter is highly qualified.

• The consequences will always be borne by the student.

⦿ Multiple channels of input. An interpreter can produce only one message at a time.

• Teacher/student, adult/child power structures dictate who may speak and when. The interpreter may remind the teacher “one speaker at a time,” but only a teacher has the power to manage the class.

• More than one speaker at a time means the interpreter must decide what is interpreted and what is not. Rarely is guidance given.

• Unlike the hearing members of the class, the student is only privy to what the interpreter has chosen to sign and not the entire discussion which could lead to an entirely different understanding of the day’s lesson.

• Incomplete representation of classmate’s remarks may lead to consequences for a child’s developing social cognition.

Constraints of interpreting

• These are aspects of interpreting that cannot be changed.

• True even when the interpreter is highly qualified.

• The consequences will always be borne by the student.

⦿ Interpreter’s processing time• The amount of time the interpreter lags behind the source speaker to analyze

and produce a meaningful message in the target language.• Greater processing time equals fewer mistakes and a better product – value

added.• Processing time results in decreased ability for a D/HH student to participate in

class discussions, ask relevant questions, or have a normal interaction.• Only the teacher has the power and authority to change interactions to

accommodate interpreting.

Social Isolationhttp://www.texastribune.org/2015/02/11/proposal-downsize-texas-school-deaf-stirs-ange

...That isolation came from living in a hearing world, one that she didn't know

how to communicate with. … (at TSD) she could constantly communicate with

people.

"Oh, I can tease with other kids," Hummel says. "I can flirt. I can pick on my

teachers. I can talk back to teachers. I can become friends with my staff and

teachers here. I got out of my rabbit hole so to speak."

"I want to play football. I want to be in a drama performance like the students

in my public school. But I don't have that same opportunity," Bugen says.

Ramsey, 1997

⦿ “In this context, deaf students must struggle to find their own identities as genuine peers of the hearing students who have direct and immediate access to the teacher. For some, this identity remains out of reach, discouraging participation in class and making integrated settings uncomfortable.” (Ramsey, 1997)

Sometimes technology fails...

Parenting a Deaf and Gifted Child https://parentingdeafandgifted.wordpress.com/2015/09/21/my-implants-were-

like-a-bridge-but-then-poof/#more-315

“And some of the kids would just be like, ‘It’s OK, just forget it,’ when I asked them to write things down. It just showed me they didn’t want to be my friend, or the kind of friend who would work as hard as I would.”

Resources and links

From Odyssey Magazine:

Interpreting for Children, How It’s DifferentBy Brenda Schickhttps://www.gallaudet.edu/Documents/Clerc/Odyssey-2001-v2i2-full.PDF

visual inaccessibility,the elephant (blocking the view)in interpreted education, By Elizabeth A. Winston https://www.gallaudet.edu/Documents/Clerc/Odyssey-2001-v2i2-full.PDF

an issue of learning the effect of visual split attention in classes for deaf and Hard of Hearing students, By Susan M. Mather and M. Diane Clark http://www.gallaudet.edu/Images/Clerc/articles/Odyssey_SPR_2012_MatherClark.pdf

beneath the surface THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS SHED LIGHT ON EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETING, By Claire Ramseyhttps://www.gallaudet.edu/Documents/Clerc/Odyssey-2001-v2i2-full.PDF

A sampling of Literature Linksd/Deaf authors and/or characters

VL2 Storybook APPs http://vl2storybookapps.com/

Deaf Studies Digital Journal dsdj.gallaudet.edu Love the Literature and Visual Arts sections for examples of poetry, stories, artwork, etc. from a Deaf-centric world view.

A collection of adolescent books with Deaf Characters, websites, author interviews and book reviews. http://pajka.blogspot.com

Great Pinterest page with loads of book suggestions from different perspectives at different reading levels https://www.pinterest.com/saieeda/deaf-literature/

El Deafo, by Cece Bell https://cecebell.wordpress.com/http://www.npr.org/2014/12/14/369599042/el-deafo-how-a-girl-turned-her-disability-into-a-superpower

KnowThat?! Humans Smell! (ASL) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNkuR-IoAQA

Caterpillar, by Ian Sanborne https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTgGQnxX5Uw

Nice blog post for librarians on serving DHH patrons… I love how she explains how to use technology on hand (like an iPad) to communicate! http://yalsa.ala.org/blog/2013/04/15/serving-deaf-or-hard-of-hearing-teen-patrons/

suggested reading● Language planning for the 21st century: Revisiting bilingual language policy for deaf children. H

Knoors, M Marschark Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education

● Marschark, Marc; Sapere, Patricia; and Convertino, Carol, "Educational interpreting: access and outcomes" (2005). Oxford University Press, Perspectives on Deafness; http://scholarworks.rit.edu/article/632

● Educational Interpreting: How it Can Succeed, Elizabeth Winston, Editor http://gupress.gallaudet.edu/bookpage/EIbookpage.htmlFor a discussion of language and language acquisition -

○ Language Myths in Interpreted Education: First Language, Second Language, What Language? Christine Monikowski

○ Language Accessibility in a Transliterated Education: English Signing Systems Kelly Stack

Learning through an interpreter:

○ How Might Learning through an Interpreter Influence Cognitive Development? Brenda Schick

○ Interpretability and Accessibility of Mainstream Classrooms Elizabeth A. WinstonMy favorite article Theoretical Tools for Educational Interpreters or “The True Confessions of an Ex-Educational Interpreter” Claire Ramsey

Academic ASL Modules from Gallaudet http://www.gallaudet.edu/center-for-bilingual-teaching-and-learning/academic-asl/academic-asl-modules.html

Redefining D-E-A-F (Great video! It’s not really for children; however, Commerson’s narration is an excellent example of Academic ASL in action. Notice how easy it is to follow his thoughts and understand his explanations. A good place to start for that is at 4:50) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JH0n342f9lA

Dr. Sue Mather on Split Visual Attention https://www.gallaudet.edu/gallaudet-technology-services/workshops-and-webinars/past-workshops/how-to-reduce-split-attention-using-technology-in-classroom-.html

Effects of Linguisticism and Audism on the Developing Deaf Person | Peter Hauser | TEDxGallaudet https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=73zUW76OOxg

Fallacy: Deaf as Economic Burden | Wanda Riddle | TEDxGallaudet https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1NEPdLZbfs

On Becoming Hearing: Lessons in Limitations, Loss, and Respect | Dirksen Bauman | TEDxGallaudet https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yCuNYGk3oj8

A few more...

The Audacity to Exist audacitytoexist.com

John Walker: 10 things deaf children learn at mainstream school, The Limping Chicken http://limpingchicken.

com/2014/04/14/john-walker-10-things-deaf-children-learn-at-mainstream-school/

Schools for All, or Separate but Equal?; An Interpreter Isn't Enough, By Leah Hager Cohen; February 22, 1994 htp://www.nytimes.

com/1994/02/22/opinion/schools-for-all-or-separate-but-equal-an-interpreter-isn-t-enough.html

Parenting a Deaf and Gifted Child, a blog https://parentingdeafandgifted.wordpress.com/2015/09/21/my-implants-

were-like-a-bridge-but-then-poof/#more-315