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A GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A UNIFORM
AND SUSTAINABLE RESILIENCY DEVELOPMENT THEORY
by
Leslie Carol McQuilkin
Copyright 2014
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership
The University of Phoenix
The Dissertation Committee for Leslie Carol McQuilkin certifies approval of the
following dissertation
A GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A UNIFORM
AND SUSTAINABLE RESILIENCY DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Committee:
Elisabeth E. Weinbaum, PhD, Chair
Alfred Van Cleave, PhD, Committee Member
Robert Vecchiotti, PhD, Committee Member
__________________________
Elisabeth E. Weinbaum
__________________________
Alfred Van Cleave
__________________________
Robert Vecchiotti
__________________________
Jeremy Moreland, PhD
Executive Dean, School of Advanced Studies
Date Approved: December 2, 2014
iii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the qualitative grounded theory study was to explore organizational,
educational, and social science paradigms of the resiliency phenomenon. Analysis
focused on discovering the data that could identify traits of resilience that support the
creation of a seminal sustainable resiliency development theory that was functional
across all fields of study. The sustainable resilience development theory (SRDT)
contains eight major themes. Emergent themes were identified as perceived hardiness,
decisiveness, visionary attitude, empathy, will to thrive, emotive strength, internal locus
of control, and dedication. The degree to which each individual possessed each trait
determined the length of time spent achieving the ability to overcome adversity. Outlying
factors impacted the ability for individuals to sustain resilience. The ability to cope with
adversity on a personal level impacted the organization; likewise organizational adversity
impacted the individual ability to cope effectively with stress. More research will be
required to further refine the SRDT however the implications for positive social change
were evident throughout the investigation.
iv
DEDICATION
I dedicate this study to the brave individuals who face adversity on a daily basis.
To have the courage to endure is in and of itself a manifestation of resilience and will
lead you to the path of overcoming if you are willing to see it through until the end.
Second, I dedicate this study to the fight my late grandparents William Frew Brown and
Mary Scott Brown fought, not with cancer but through adversity. You were and continue
to be an inspiration as your spirit lives on through my father Robert. Thank you Dad for
everything you do for us and everything you have sacrificed. Mom, I know it has been
hard being a caretaker for the ill in our family, and I find it hard to ignore your courage,
beauty and contributions; thank you Mom. Taylor and Avalon, I was there when you
were born, for if it were not by the grace of God and the innate resilience you possess,
none of us could have survived the past decade; I love you, thank you and flying hugs.
To my twin sister Jessica, I have seen so much in you that lives in me; this includes a
strong resilient nature. I want you to know I admire your fortitude and most of all I love
you. To my husband Michael, I dedicate this research, for you have seen your fair share
of adversity in this lifetime and have shown me true courage and strength in the best and
worst of times. Finally, I dedicate this research to our future daughter Isabelle; we have
loved her long before she was conceived.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There were many individual who supported, guided, and gave me the push
necessary to overcome some challenges along this doctoral journey. I needed
encouragement to forge ahead and despite the time I spent in research, the time I spent
away from family and friends I could always depend on those around me to help out. I
want to thank my committee, you are amazing. Dr. Weinbaum, my chairperson, you
acted as a beacon, guiding me and encouraging me to finish my journey. I want to thank
Dr. Van Cleave. You were the first professor I had at UoPx and you have made a
difference in my life; your mentorship from day one has changed my life in ways I can
never repay. Dr. Bob, there are no words for how hard and far you have pushed me as a
researcher. You pushed me to always ask myself the hard questions. When I searched for
honesty you were never afraid to share and because of you I am a well-developed scholar,
thank- you. I want to thank all those wonderful respondents who participated in the study.
Your stories are forever engrained in this study, and yes indeed will ultimately change
lives. Finally, to all my doctoral friends I have met along the way. Your journeys have
inspired me and have been the motivational fuel to bring this journey to its ultimate end.
Thank you.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................15
Background ............................................................................................................16
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................18
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................21
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................22
Nature of the Study ................................................................................................23
Research Questions and Subquestions ...................................................................25
Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................26
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. ....................................................................27
Self-efficacy ...............................................................................................28
Framework. ................................................................................................28
Definition of Terms................................................................................................28
Defining resilience in the educational setting ............................................29
Defining resilience as it pertains to organizations .....................................31
Defining success ........................................................................................32
Defining failure ..........................................................................................32
Defining adversity ......................................................................................33
Defining hardiness .....................................................................................34
Defining overcome.....................................................................................35
Defining cope .............................................................................................35
vii
Assumptions ...........................................................................................................36
Scope ......................................................................................................................37
Sample....................................................................................................................38
Limitations .............................................................................................................38
Delimitations ..........................................................................................................40
Summary ................................................................................................................41
Chapter 2 Literature Review ..............................................................................................42
Heading Search ......................................................................................................43
Organizational, Educational and Social Science Contexts ....................................44
Historical Overview of Resilience .........................................................................51
Awareness of the Resilience Phenomenon ............................................................53
Meaning and the sense of coherence (SOC) theory ...................................56
Religious Convictions and Spirituality ......................................................58
The Resilience Paradigm .......................................................................................62
Hardiness in Organizations, Education and Social Services .................................64
Theories on Motivation, Emotional Intelligence, Hardiness and Stress
Response ................................................................................................................68
Affective perseverance ...............................................................................70
Attitude behavior consistency ....................................................................72
Attribution theory.......................................................................................74
Cognitive dissonance theory ......................................................................76
Control theory ............................................................................................78
Drive theory ...............................................................................................80
viii
Expectancy theory ......................................................................................81
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation ..............................................................82
Self-determination theory ..........................................................................83
Self-efficacy ...............................................................................................85
Emotional intelligence ...............................................................................85
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs .....................................................................86
McGregor’s X-Y theory .............................................................................87
Hardiness theory ........................................................................................88
Related Theories: Grief and Logotherapy..............................................................89
Cultural Bias and Resiliency ..................................................................................91
Summary of Literature Review ..............................................................................92
Traits of resilient individuals .....................................................................92
Threats to developing resilience ................................................................92
Research gap ..............................................................................................93
Chapter 3 Method .............................................................................................................95
Appropriateness of the Research Method and Design ...........................................95
Research Questions ..............................................................................................100
Geographic Location and Population ...................................................................102
Sampling ..............................................................................................................103
Informed Consent.................................................................................................104
Confidentiality .....................................................................................................105
Data Collection Procedure ...................................................................................106
Instrumentation ....................................................................................................107
ix
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................107
Internal and external validity ...............................................................................110
Data Triangulation ...................................................................................113
Summary ..............................................................................................................114
Chapter 4 Results ............................................................................................................116
Descriptive Information .......................................................................................118
Demographics ..........................................................................................118
The interview process ..............................................................................119
Data Analysis: Open Coding ...............................................................................122
Data Analysis: Axial Coding, Selective Coding, and Data Triangulation ...........125
Outlier respondent data ............................................................................126
Themes and Subthemes........................................................................................127
Theme 1: Hardiness .............................................................................................128
Theme 2: Decisiveness ............................................................................132
Theme 3: Visionary attitude .....................................................................136
Theme 4: Empathy ...................................................................................140
Theme 5: Will to thrive ............................................................................143
Theme 6: Emotive strength ......................................................................146
Theme 7: Internal locus of control ...........................................................149
Theme 8: Dedication ................................................................................152
Summary ..............................................................................................................156
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................159
Introduction ..........................................................................................................159
x
Interpretations from Literature Review and Data Analysis .................................159
Theme 1: Perceived hardiness .................................................................161
Theme 2: Decisiveness ............................................................................162
Theme 3: Visionary attitude .....................................................................163
Theme 4: Empathy ...................................................................................164
Theme5: Will to thrive .............................................................................165
Theme 6: Emotive strength ......................................................................166
Theme 7: Internal locus of control ...........................................................167
Theme 8: Dedication ................................................................................168
Fields of Practice: Organizational, Social Science, Education ............................169
Research Questions ..............................................................................................175
Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................180
Theory Generation Process ..................................................................................181
Significance to Leadership ...................................................................................182
Organization .............................................................................................185
Social science ...........................................................................................188
Education .................................................................................................190
Summary of Findings ...........................................................................................192
Limitations ...........................................................................................................195
Recommendations ................................................................................................197
Outliers .....................................................................................................197
Implications..........................................................................................................199
Outliers .....................................................................................................199
xi
Weaknesses ..............................................................................................201
Researcher Reflections.........................................................................................202
Summary ..............................................................................................................204
References ........................................................................................................................208
APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT .......................................................................243
APPENDIX B: CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT ...................................................245
APPENDIX C: PRE-STUDY INITIAL MEETING DEMOGRAPHICS .......................246
APPENDIX D: SUBTHEME FREQUENCY DATA .....................................................248
APPENDIX E: THEME FREQUENCY DATA .............................................................250
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Keyword Search: Number of Sources Cited by Topic and Type .........................45
Table 2 Themes Representing Practices, Behaviors, Emotions, and Skill Sets that
Support Resilience ...........................................................................................................124
Table 3 Hardiness: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the Subthemes
that Emphasized the Hardiness Response. .......................................................................128
Table 4 Decisiveness: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the
Subthemes that Emphasized the Decisiveness Response ................................................133
Table 5 Visionary Attitude: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the
Subthemes that Emphasized the Visionary Response .....................................................137
Table 6 Empathy: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the Subthemes that
Emphasized the Empathy Response. ...............................................................................140
Table 7 Will-To-Thrive : Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the
Subthemes that Emphasized the Will-To-Thrive Response ............................................144
Table 8 Emotive Strength: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the
Subthemes that Emphasized the Emotive Strength Response. ........................................146
Table 9 Internal Locus of Control: Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as
the Subthemes that Emphasized the Internal Locus of Control Response.......................150
Table 10 Dedication : Behaviors, Characteristics, and Emotions as well as the Subthemes
that Emphasized the Dedication Response. .....................................................................153
Table 11 Research Question 1: Shared Qualities .............................................................175
Table 12 Research Question 2: Coping Behaviors, Strategies, Environments, Beliefs, &
Practices ...........................................................................................................................176
xiii
Table 13 Research Question 3: Concepts .......................................................................179
Table 14 Research Question 4: Essential Steps of Resilience Development ..................180
Table 15 Themes and Subthemes ...................................................................................195
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Studies in which authors spoke of resilience or focused on resilience numbered
646,000. ............................................................................................................................19
Figure 2. Obtaining a balanced understanding of resilience involved extending data
collection beyond peer-reviewed articles to include individuals’ lived experiences with
adversity to guide grounded theory development.. ............................................................24
Figure 3. Goals of integrative action.. ..............................................................................48
Figure 4: A standard process to assist the researcher with identification and reduction of
bias. ................................................................................................................................117
Figure 5: The research followed a strict design and process to identify a specific
population and ultimately a sample. ..............................................................................117
Figure 6. Descriptive information regarding the respondents is separated by professional
field and gender................................................................................................................119
Figure 7. Evidence resulting from the data analysis produced a set of themes or recurring
characteristics as well as subthemes evident and consistent within each theme. ............123
Figure 8. Outliers: The outlying factors which influence the ability to overcome adversity
and sustain resilience. ......................................................................................................127
Figure 9. Data analysis procedure: from data collection through theoretical coding to
grounded theory. ..............................................................................................................182
15
Chapter 1
Introduction
In viewing the human condition, the ineffable strengths individuals possessed
during manifestations of adversity have scarcely affected the various definitions of
resilience, but the significance of such strengths carries dire implications (Luthar,
Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Masten, 2001; Rutter, 1987). Scholars have grappled with the
definition and origins of resilience in conducting numerous investigations to determine if
the phenomenon is inherent, learned, or a unique blend of the two (Luthar & Cicchetti,
2000). Contrary to popular belief, resilience mirrors neither nurture nor environment
alone (Neff & McGeehee, 2010). Luthar et al. (2000) and Miller and Xiao (2007)
reported case studies in which many individuals retained the propensity for resilience and
despite an adverse environment or lack of a support community, the individual managed
to circumvent emotional collapse. Conversely, academic literature also confirmed the
opposite: those individuals who met a specified criterion for successfully engaging
resilience remained unable to thwart failure (Ogden, Minton, & Pain, 2006). Despite
having unwavering access to resources or support, the probability of emotional collapse
loomed (Ogden et al., 2006).
Beginning in the 1980s, appropriate resiliency modeling identified characteristics
supporting the ability to maintain physical and emotional health, engage life activities,
and regain or maintain the balance necessary to respond to adversity with resilience.
With this understanding, scholars began to recognize the urgency of investigating the
resilience phenomenon (Druss & Douglas, 1988). Decades of research subsequently
documented the likelihood of acquiring abilities evocative of resilience. Preserving this
16
ability and sustaining resilience throughout a lifetime remained probable. Compelling
data and overwhelming scholarly consensus asserted the innumerable benefits,
applications, and significance of sustainable resiliency development.
Despite significant scholarly interest in the phenomenon, examining previous
research revealed a lack of grounded theory development in sustainable resilience, which
supported the need to conduct the study. The grounded theory study engaged a retort to
the lack of a sustainable resilience development theory or framework noted in
organizational, educational, and psychological literature. Organizations, educators, and
counselors have acknowledged the vastness of the resilient mind. Considering two
decades of academic research, investigators identified that varied approaches persist
through the identification of attributes pivotal to surviving adversity. The resilience
phenomenon reflects the capacity to negotiate, lead, and emerge an emotionally healthy
individual as a direct result of one’s choices. Many traits illustrate hardiness, and the
distinct ability to integrate these traits. One’s circumstance, will, and resolve to achieve,
epitomizes the immutable significance of resilience (Brooks & Goldstein 2003; Chu,
2008; Everly, Strouse, & Everly, 2010). Chapter 1 provides an outline that summarizes
the grounded theory study and consists of background of the problem, the statement of
the problem, purpose, significance, and the nature of the study. Following the sectional
outline, chapter one contains the research questions, theoretical framework, definitions,
assumptions, scope, limitations, delimitations, and ending with a summary of the chapter.
Background
Leadership development has seen a drastic shift over the past two decades as a
result of the resilience paradigm integration. The notion of resilience has become a more
17
analytical and integrative concept to appear across a diverse set of academic fields and
aspects of life (Reich, Zautra, & Hall, 2010). Two prevailing aspects have emerged out
of the varied definitions of resilience: initial recovery from imbalance and the ability to
rediscover a sustainable method of achieving healthy interactions along one’s trajectory
in life (Reich et al., 2010). The impact of the resilience ideal finds seminal beginnings
within Thomas Kuhn’s works on the philosophy of science (1962); Kuhn discussed
paradigms and paradigm shifts as it pertained to psychological development and
interpersonal dealings (Kuhn, 1962). Psychologically, mental illness and emotional
collapse have an inherent link to the inability to shift one’s paradigm when the need
arises to overcome adversity (Kuhn, 1962, Reich et al., 2010).
Scholars continued to consider the meaning of resilience and the concept of
personal resilience as an inherent attribute or a teachable trait (Gillespie, Chaboyer, &
Wallis, 2007). Gillespie et al. (2007) reexamined the research regarding underlying
meanings pertaining to the operationalization of the term resilience in the organizational,
educational, and social service academic fields. The need for construction of a valid
standard for the development of sustainable resilience occurred when a clear and coherent
understanding of resilience emerged as well as the characteristics that define this
phenomenon (Gillespie et al., 2007). Professionals in organizations, education, and
mental health recognized the importance of developing and sustaining resilience to
mitigate the effects of stress as well as to support achievement. Principal to success of
the organization, mental health, or educational institution depended on the resilience of
the individual. Individual success was achieved and sustained through short or long term
interventions (Everly et al., 2010, Gillespie et al., 2007).
18
Statement of the Problem
The problem in leadership development is contemporary leadership lacks a
theoretical archetype for sustainable resilience development despite abundant literature
about other aspects of resilience (see Figure 1). As a result, development programs focus
on identifying resilient behaviors rather than teaching resilient coping skills (Jensen,
2009; Thompkins & Schwartz, 2009). According to Graham et al., (2010) emotional
hardiness is the product of self- discovery resulting in an emotional stasis and the ability
to adapt to adversity; the inability to engage resilient behaviors in any environment
inhibits the ability of an individual or an organization to reach an emotional stasis while
facing difficulty (Jensen, 2009; Thompkins & Schwartz, 2009).
The 2008 economic recession in the United States is an example of adversity that
drastically altered factors that could have mitigated emotional stress and the demand on
coping skills in the workplace. Effects of the economic recession spread worldwide
leaving billions of individuals struggling to maintain or recover their security, safety, and
well-being (Graham et al., 2010). Few experiences connected individuals on an
emotional level like the recession did. For the first time many individuals had to devise
ways to cope with income loss and emotional needs while attempting to keep their
families above the poverty line as long as they could (Graham et al., 2010). Suicides, and
murder and other criminal activity saw a stark increase as individuals discovered they
lacked the ability to cope with the added stress of an economically unstable environment
(Graham et al., 2010).
19
The overwhelming majority of individuals faced or may face a violent, life
threatening, life altering, or loss trauma in the course of their lifetimes (Norris & Slone,
2013). As individuals grow older their risk of a trauma increases as they begin to
confront the loss of loved ones, illness, a life-changing event, injury, etc. Bonanno
(2004) and Hernández, Engstrom, and Gangsei (2010) discovered that individuals, such
as professionals, students, children, counselors, public service workers, and medical
professionals each possessed different abilities to cope and reacted differently to adverse
events. One can identify where an individual would be located within a range of
sustainable and effective coping behaviors (Bonanno, 2004, Hernández et al., 2010).
There are those who crumbled beneath perceived minor traumas and those who initially
thrived later succumbed to illness and depression; the aforesaid did not possess
sustainable and effective coping skills when compared to peers within a similar context
(Bonanno, 2004, Hernández et al., 2010).
2% Organizational
Resilience 3% Individual
Resilience
36% Case
Studies
28% Definitions of
Resilience
31% Miscelleneous
0% Sustainable
Resilience Theory
Figure 1. Studies in which authors spoke of resilience or focused on resilience numbered
646,000. Percentage of available studies by topic and type were identified from a 2011 search
of the Google Scholar® database search engine.
20
Those who suffered and continued to thrive despite repeated hurdles and those
who seemed to remain unaffected against any trauma or challenge defined individuals
who possessed above-normal coping mechanisms when compared to peers in a similar
context (Bonanno, 2004, Hernández et al., 2010). Researchers had not identified how or
why individuals differed in these respects. More pressing was that the defining
parameters of resilience remained broad (Bonanno, 2004, Hernández et al., 2010).
Difficult, traumatic or adverse events remain uniquely subject to individual perspectives
and therefore scientific inquiry is limited to an individual’s discussion of the trauma as
reported. This perspective has lead researchers to spotlight one type of trauma versus an
abundance of diverse experiences (Bonanno, 2004, Hernández et al., 2010).
In education, teaching without proper access to theoretical constructs of resilient
behavior development may leave leaders without the ability to guarantee the availability
or achievement of instruction, coursework, and scholastic standards (Jensen, 2009;
Thompkins & Schwartz, 2009). Data from this grounded theory study helped to create a
theory for sustainable resiliency through the identification of traits common to
individuals who overcame adversity as well as the shared qualities that manifested
throughout the process (Brooks & Goldstein 2003; Brunwasser, et al., 2009; Everly et al.,
2010; Thompkins & Schwartz, 2009.). The initial populations were individuals who
overcame adversity, derived from business professionals and students attending
vocational colleges, public, private, or community colleges, and universities within the
same counties within the state of Florida.
21
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative grounded theory study was to identify the shared
traits and behaviors common to individuals who have overcome adversity and to produce
a foundation and applicable construct for sustainable resilience development across the
organizational, social service, and educational fields. The primary objective of research
with a grounded theory approach is to reveal how obtained data pertains to the
development of a construct in which concepts, categories, and propositions comprise a
theory arising from the data; a grounded theory (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). As Montpetit
et al. (2010) described, resilience is a trait and a process containing attributes that abet
sustainable success against adversity. With research linking previous studies in resilience
or characteristics similar to resilience, researchers possess the potential to investigate the
creation of a sustainable resilience development theory through narrowing resiliency
definitions to an acceptable and generally applicable understanding (Montpetit et al.,
2010; Windle, Bennett, & Noyes, 2011).
An extensive review of academic case study data spanning two decades,
interviews, and field data collection assisted with the reliable compilation, analysis, and
application of the collected data. A qualitative method was appropriate to this study
because it encouraged the creation of a formal theory for sustainable resilience
development in leadership through a systematic collection and analysis of verbal, written
research, and relevant data (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010). Paramount to successful
application of the study, the identification of assumptions, mitigation of bias, and
organization of data from a disciplinary perspective fortified the reliability and validity of
research (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010).
22
Significance of the Study
For organizational leaders, the unseen and positive effects that sustainable,
resilient behaviors have on their organization exemplify the significance and urgency of
developing a sustainable resilience construct. Fundamental shifts in organizational
environments, unstable economic markets, academic pressures, and personal crises have
propelled the need for sustainable resilience development in a changing global
community (Reich et al., 2010). The concept of resilience underwent a dynamic shift in
the 2000s but definitions varied and emerging ideals revealed sustainable traits and their
influence on overcoming adversity (Reich et al., 2010). The inherent need to improve the
psychology and emotional strength of organizations, their human capital, educators,
students, and the individual revealed the need to engage research that generated the
discovery of a new theory (Kuhn, 1962; Reich et al., 2010).
U.S. Bureau of Labor data indicated in 2010 that adversity, if not handled in a
manner that reduces stress levels, cost organizations approximately $400 billion annually
as a direct result of turnover, absenteeism, workers’ compensation claims, disability, and
reduced productivity (Cigna Behavioral, 2010). Health care practitioners report that high
stress levels in the workplace cause personal health care spending to increase by 50%
compared to the employee who reports lower levels of stress (Cigna Behavioral, 2010).
Leaders in organizations that mitigate workplace stress may also find significance in the
ability of their employees, clients, or students to overcome any adverse situation that may
occur at work or in their personal lives (Everly et al., 2007). Flexible paradigms afforded
the researcher a unique and more meaningful insight to provide the scholarly community
23
with a construct that can adapt to different fields of study, which far-extends the social
service, educational, and organizational concept (Ogden et al., 2006).
Nature of the Study
Recognizing the lack of a theoretical construct for sustainable resiliency
development, a qualitative grounded theory method and design was chosen to study
resilience in the educational, organizational, and social service setting in two Florida
counties. A qualitative grounded theory approach was appropriate because this inductive
research method permitted the potential creation of a sustainable resilience development
theory (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010). Focused on generating an emergent theory, a
grounded theory developed from collected data; coded and analyzed for the purpose of
grounded theory construction. An extensive review of composed academic case study
data from 1990 through 2012 and purposive sampling of open-ended interviews assisted
the reliable compilation, analysis and application of collected data.
Unique to the study, the research extended beyond peer-reviewed articles for
collecting base assumptions to guide grounded theory development, and delved into
obtaining individuals’ lived experiences. Interviews permitted the collection of
sensations, emotions, and the immediacy of overcoming adversity to create a
representation of events, circumstances, and experiences providing stable and relevant
data balanced with findings from previous scholarship, as depicted in Figure 2 (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2008; Ogden et al., 2006). Using initial demographics to identify participants,
the investigation yielded discoveries that formed a foundation for creating a sustainable
resilience development theory.
24
Figure 2. Obtaining a balanced understanding of resilience involved extending data
collection beyond peer-reviewed articles to include individuals’ lived experiences with
adversity to guide grounded theory development. Adapted from Trauma and the body: A
sensorimotor approach to psychotherapy by P. Ogden, K. Minton, & C. Pain (2006), New
York, NY: W. W. Norton. Copyright 2006 by Pat Ogden/Norton. Used with permission.
Data analysis procedures involved open coding and axial coding to refine the
categories and determine data commonalities, whereby assumptions were derived (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). In accordance with the guiding practices of
grounded theory, the study followed a stringent set of proven practices to develop
models, notions, specific classes, and distinctive traits obtained through a concomitant,
reproducible collection of data and analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln,
2008; Glaser & Strauss, 1967/1999). The iterative nature of the grounded theory design
permitted discovery of relationships, propositions, and constructs through methods of
inductive research regarding resilience development (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). The
process enabled the grounded theory to materialize through data collection and analysis
rather than beginning with pre-fabricated assumptions, and emergence of the grounded
theory expressed the resulting assemblage of data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008).
INTANGIBLE
DATA
SCHOLARLY
RESEARCH
Ideas
Relevant Theories
Case Studies
Images
Feelings
Sensations
25
Specific to grounded theory, categories spontaneously emerged from the collected
data as well as through analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, Denzin & Lincoln, 2008;
Glaser & Strauss, 1967/1999). Once sufficient interviews produced data saturation, the
researcher had the opportunity to develop specific generalizations pertinent to
establishing theoretical constructs (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008;
Glaser & Straus, 1967/1999). The open-ended nature of grounded theory inquiry
permitted a substantial amount of data collection associated with the phenomenon
researched (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Glaser & Strauss,
1967/1999). The deductions and infusion of new concepts and ideas created the
opportunity to identify and develop the frameworks that led to a new theory.
Research Questions and Subquestions
Guided by the foundation and ideology of grounded theory research, the study
sought to identify traits that supported formation of a sustainable resilience development
theory, one primary research question, one secondary research question, and four
subquestions were put forward.
Research question 1. What shared concepts will emerge that facilitate the
development of sustainable resilience across organizational, social science, and
educational boundaries?
Research question 2. What shared traits will emerge that facilitate the
development of sustainable resilience across organizational, social science, and
educational boundaries?
Research subquestions. Four subquestions guided the study:
26
1. What shared qualities were exhibited among the respondents that facilitated the
respondents’ ability to overcome adversity?
2. What coping behaviors, strategies, environments, beliefs, or practices foster
effectual resilient practices which promote the ability to overcome adversity?
3. What concepts emerge that may foster the ability for leaders to develop
sustainable resilient practices across the social science, organization and educational
fields?
4. What steps are essential to facilitate the maturity, execution and sustainability of
resilience development?
Theoretical Framework
Multiple leading theories of motivation, positive coping strategies, assessment,
stress-response, hardiness, and emotional intelligence have coexisted for decades
alongside diverse concepts of resilience. Scholars have employed those ideals to
construct valuable meaning in organizational, educational, and social applications
(Brown & Ryan, 2003; Hoge, Austin, & Pollack, 2007). Grounded theory researchers
apply theoretical frameworks to elicit an understanding of subjective phenomena
applying individual’s responses and behaviors to build authenticity (Glaser & Strauss,
1967/1999). Subjective phenomena can be abstracted into conceptual statements
regarding the relationship to the established framework and the data collected from the
individual’s experience and behavior (Glaser & Strauss, 1967/1999).
The theoretical frameworks comprised a series of theories that functioned to
illuminate the relevance of the investigational perspective and how the findings were
interpreted. Encompassing both inductive and deductive processes, the
27
conceptualizations apply pragmatic investigations avoiding preconceived or prefabricated
hypotheses (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The notion of resilience has persisted and evolved
for over 75 years, and experienced resurgence over the past two decades (Brown & Ryan,
2003; Hoge et al., 2007). Multifaceted, the study’s theoretical framework finds a
foundation in 1943 with the derivation of the hierarchy of needs as well as Bandura’s
theory on self-efficacy in 1977.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. First discussed in 1943, Maslow revealed that
human needs displayed a tendency to organize in a hierarchy of effectiveness in which
each need was dependent upon a lower-level need to achieve satisfaction for the next
higher need to culminate. Individual health and emotional welfare were dependent upon
specific external and internal factors; for those reasons, adversity, trauma, and several
socio-economic factors influenced one’s ability to cope and work through life issues
(Gorman, 2010; Maslow, 1943; Yeo & Li, 2011). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs acted as
a means of creating a tangible map of milestones to assist a person in achieving the most
from his aptitude or reach a state of self-actualization despite their current environment.
Studies confirmed that individual hardiness or ability to cope directly affected
one’s ability to navigate the hierarchy, likewise without an achievement of the varying
milestones of the hierarchy, the individual was less likely to maintain a resilient nature
(Gorman, 2010; Maslow, 1943; Yeo & Li, 2011). The hierarchy of needs contained a set
of evolutionary, basic human motivations rooted in survival. A complex phenomenon,
over 70 years of ensuing research suggests that the human mind possesses the drive to
endure and each person possesses that same opportunity to unveil this phenomenon with
assistance.
28
Self-efficacy. Bandura (1977) described self-efficacy as the individual ability to
discover and call upon skills, and motivate oneself to perform at high performance levels
resulting in achievement. Despite circumstance, self-efficacy ultimately drives the
process that determines how the individual responds to adversity. Several factors
encompass the makeup of self-efficacy to include individual ethic, attitude, feeling, and
motivation (Bandura, 1977). Vital to success over adversity, self-efficacy effectively
changes how a person deals with adversity. Extrinsic motivations, and more
significantly, intrinsic motivations increase sustainability, dedication, and loyalty to face
challenge; permitting timely recovery.
Framework. Overlap existed among many of the theories related to resilience
(Hoge et al., 2007). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs contained components self-efficacy
and motivation. The varied paradigms and implications concerning resilience
encouraged and validated the call for additional research to advance understanding of
resilience and sustainable resilience development (Hoge et al.). Several implications
resulting from Maslow’s and subsequent scholarly research arose. Scholars suggested
that the human psyche was capable of more for as long as individuals could understand,
describe, classify, and achieve specific human motivations throughout a lifetime
(Gorman, 2010, Maslow, 1943; Yeo & Li, 2011). Significant to a positive outcome, e.g.,
overcoming adversity, adaptable paradigms drive the mitigation or elimination of the
potential for the individual to succumb to adverse situations (Bandura, 1977).
Definition of Terms
The development of a grounded theory requires a strong understanding of the
conceptions and classifications that will be studied (Creswell, 2002). Defining resilience,
29
success, and failure with consistency and within the scope of the grounded theory
research is significant. Definitions may vary within the professional and personal
paradigms; a foundation for understanding is pivotal to the grounded theory investigation.
For the purpose of this research, crucial terms are defined below:
Defining resilience in the educational setting. For the purposes of this research
study, the identification of resilience as it pertains to organizational, educational, and
social services settings is substantial. Peck, Roeser, Zarret, and Eccles (2008) defined
educational resilience as the unforeseen and positive achievements acquired among
students who faced several diverse risk factors that include social, economic, and
emotional adversity. According to Peck et al. (2008), a focus on academic achievement
as a means of determining success is not enough; rather the value of sustained mental
health, and the social aspects of educational resilience are paramount to achieving the
educational resilience of youth.
Defining resilience as it pertains to the social services. Social science and
psychological definitions of resilience are similar in character: the ability to endure,
overcome, and thrive despite hardship, physically, emotionally, and socially. According
to Walsh (2002), individuals and families experience a self-motivated practice where the
individuals address adversity and develop coping methods that permit them to endure
hardships. Echterling, Presbury, and McKee (2005) discovered that despite significant
risk, accessible and supportive resources contribute to the potential of an individual to
address hindrances and sustain a resilient nature. Psychologists and neuroscientists agree
there are some people who respond to adversity in a manner that permits the ability to
thrive, whereas some who face the same adversity do not (Ogden et al., 2006).
30
The answers, according to psychological research, indicate that a person’s
disposition (pre-determined by the limbic system) and experience (knowledge and
understanding) affect an individual’s ability to thrive in the face of adversity (Ogden et
al., 2006). The ability to adapt, or flexibility, makes humans unique because adaptation
requires possession of the capacity to choose how one responds to the environment and
the adversity encountered. The resulting resilience is a function of the neo-cortex, a
structure within the brain that deals with behavioral and emotional response (Ogden et
al., 2006). The neo-cortex integrates stimuli with previously obtained information
(experience and education) and derives meaning. Meaning drives the innate ability to
persevere through adversity or provides the logical thought to evoke a particular
emotional response. The phenomenon known as resilience permits individuals to develop
sustainable and continual coping processes; the processes support adaptation, survival,
and the ability to overcome (Ogden et al., 2006).
Fraught with exceptions, the mind’s ability to overcome finds hindrances and
disruptions preventing resilience. Powerful emotions can disrupt an adult’s ability to
overcome and may cause the person to regress or react in a more automatic and primitive
manner (Ogden et al., 2006). Exceptions appear throughout psychological literature;
traumatized individuals are at times least likely to identify signals within themselves and
cope with adversity while some traumatized individuals appear to possess a high degree
of self-awareness and awareness of the world around them (Ogden et al., 2006).
Darwinian theory may explain why some individuals appear to thrive while others do not.
Crucial to species survival, only those that learn to adapt may thrive in an unpredictable
and adverse environment (Ogden et al., 2006).
31
Defining resilience as it pertains to organizations. Organizational resilience
has raised many questions in the leadership and organizational management fields to
consider whether a significant affiliation exists between planning for hardship and
effectual coping behaviors (Crichton et al., 2009; McManus, Seville, Vargo, & Brunsdon,
2008; Somers, 2009). Ogden et al. (2006) revealed through their studies that the more an
individual perceives futility in one’s actions, the less likely one would evoke an effective
emotional response to the adversity. Somers (2009) discovered that a relationship exists
between organizational success and resilient behavior, suggesting a shift from passive
management to a proactive emotional leadership development paradigm; the shift could
strengthen organizational resilience potentially yielding sustainable results. The
collective culture of an environment drives individual responses. Fundamental to
resilience is the ability to limit unproductive coping behaviors and to enhance the human
mind’s capability to respond in a productive manner (Ogden et al. 2006). McManus et al.
(2008) defined organizational resilience as the capacity for an organization to maintain
social perceptiveness, conditional awareness, an adaptive temperament, and the ability to
identify, confront, and manage organizationally unique susceptibility (Somers 2009).
Ogden, et al. (2006) found that organizational support through interpersonal
training to reduce boundary violations, enhance coping skills, increase the individual’s
autonomy and ability to self-regulate amidst chaos, enhance emotional safety, increases
resilience, and organizational success. An inability to apply consistent positive emotional
coping behaviors decreases the likelihood of achieving resilience amidst adverse
circumstance. Cultural barriers provide an added hurdle for many individuals where
norms dictate behavioral practice or inhibit resilience development in such organizations,
32
the individuals who comprise the organization begin to become compliant and
submissive to adverse events and become repeatedly brutalized by the chaos and
immobile with their competitive markets (Ogden et al., 2006).
Defining success. Success is defined as personal satisfaction with the outcome of
a specified goal (Reich et al., 2010; Rudestam & Newton, 2007; Rutter, 2007; Sherman &
Kim, 2002). Whether the satisfaction is focused on achieving a goal or competitive
success, individuals’ understanding of success depends upon their experience with
success (Reich et al., 2010; Rudestam & Newton, 2007; Rutter, 2007, Sherman & Kim,
2002). For the purposes of this study, success was defined as either achieving a goal or
learning from the inability to achieve a goal. An example of this definition in action can
be the college student that fails an algebra test because he or she did not study, and
subsequently chooses to study for the next exam. Learning from one’s mistake makes the
failure a true success.
Defining failure. Failure, in contrast to success, has been defined as a personal
dissatisfaction with an outcome or the act of fracturing beneath stress (Reich et al., 2010;
Rudestam & Newton, 2007; Rutter, 2007; Sherman & Kim, 2002). Individuals, by
nature, define both failure and success in diverse forms. For the purposes of the study,
failure was defined as the conscious choice to give up, give in, or quit when faced with a
stressful event. An example of a true failure as defined for the study happens when a
married couple chooses divorce because they refused to learn to communicate with each
other or seek positive means to learn from their mistakes. The couple chooses to give up
rather than learn from their mistakes as a married couple.
33
Defining adversity. The Merriam-Webster dictionary (2005) definitions of success are
(a) a favorable outcome or (b) the attainment of a specified goal. Failure is defined as
fracturing under stress, either extreme or perceived (Success, 2005). Individuals, by
nature, define both failure and success in diverse forms. Although paradigm driven,
individual definitions of success or failure affect personal motivation to endure adversity.
Adversity can be defined as a hostile condition that affected achievement of specified
goals in a positive or negative fashion (Reich et al., 2010, Rudestam & Newton, 2007;
Rutter, 2007, Sherman & Kim, 2002). Individuals face adversity in diverse manners due
to varying coping abilities (Rudestam & Newton, 2007, Rutter, 2007, Sherman & Kim,
2002).
Quantifying adversity, the significance of a trauma, or the power of loss could be
conceived as difficult due to the subjectivity of the experience to the individual or the
organization. Simply, the impact can shift due to the coping skills, understanding,
available resilience models, and training tools. For the purposes of the study, adversity
shall be defined as a stressful time or event perceived or extreme in nature. In the
EBSCO online database more than 129,000 scholarly documents appeared defining
success, failure and adversity as a definitive parameter, revealing detailed explanations of
success, failure and adversity in relation to organizational, educational and psychological
resilience.
Beginning in the 1970s, Van Der Kolk proposed that advances in neuroscience
permitted the discovery of how the human mind processed adversity (as cited in Ogden et
al., 2006). All living creatures large and small have automated responses to inward
bound stimuli from their environment, therefore creating an expected pattern of
34
reactionary behavior. The human mind has the capability beyond the primitive
reactionary response; the brain can create relationships that regulate responses based
upon observation, interpretation, organization and practiced regulation (habit) of the
activating stimulus (Ogden et al., 2006). Though capabilities exist, the mind may not
always have the ability to sustain coping abilities that are extinguishing, allowing
unacceptable behaviors over logic to exhibit in habit or impulse when extreme adversity
appears (Ogden et al., 2006).
The human mind has more of an ability to rationalize rather than eliminate
unacceptable behavior as a matter of survival (Ogden et al., 2006). Manifestations of this
reactionary response are trepidation, apprehension, despondency, vulnerability and the
inability to overcome. Human beings, genetically, have a natural drive to flourish. The
behavior results as a form of evolution and a paradigm shift is the only way to re-activate
the primal urge to thrive. Unique to the individual, the mind creates an understanding of
the world based upon experiences and knowledge. The brain makes connections between
stimuli and the interpretive segments of the brain, thereby organizing responses to the
world and the events that comprise that world. Ultimately, the individual paradigmatic
definitions of adversity, success, and failure guide the individual to the evolutionary rite
of resilient survival (Ogden et al., 2006).
Defining hardiness. Ability to endure unfavorable circumstances despite the
physical and or emotional pain has defined hardiness (Rutter, 2007; Sherman & Kim,
2002). For the purposes of this grounded theory study, hardiness was defined as the
ability to withstand a difficult event, persevering until the need to remain steadfast is no
longer present. Soldiers that endure months of harsh terrain and danger to preserve
35
freedoms until they are released from active duty find the ability to focus on the goal and
deal with the stresses of combat.
Defining overcome. The term overcome has been defined as the ability to prevail
when working through an adverse situation. Psychological research has revealed that
individuals facing adversity attempt to cope in several different manners (Rudestam &
Newton, 2007; Rutter, 2007; Sherman & Kim, 2002). A variety of types of individuals
discover that the ability to overcome is straightforward; for others the ability to overcome
brings about more adversity than they had been prepared to meet (Rudestam & Newton,
2007, Rutter, 2007; Sherman & Kim, 2002). For the purposes of the study, the term
overcome shall be defined as emerging from a difficult event with success despite any
hurdles one may face. An example is the cancer patient facing months of chemotherapy
and radiation that maintains the will to thrive through such tumultuous times despite
becoming very ill and wanting to give up.
Defining cope. Coping is the inner, emotional component of managing a crisis or
adverse event (Rudestam & Newton, 2007; Rutter, 2007; Sherman & Kim, 2002). When
discussing resilience, researchers have revealed that genetic predispositions to overcome
are not the sole determining factors of success. Development of emotional management
of emotional coping skills increases the likelihood of overcoming adversity. Skills to
emotionally manage oneself in the face of intense adversity mitigate the stressors which
cause an individual to emotionally fracture beneath the pressure of the adverse event
(Rudestam & Newton, 2007; Rutter, 2007; Sherman & Kim, 2002). For the purposes of
this study, cope was defined as effective emotional management of adversity. An
appropriate example of this definition as it pertains to the study is the sexual assault
36
victim who discovers new ways to manage posttraumatic stress. If the individual is
unable to manage difficult emotions, he or she seeks help from a certified therapist
instead of giving into the emotional turmoil.
Assumptions
Dissimilar from quantitative research, qualitative research does not engage or
necessitate a requisite identification of theory. The researcher in a qualitative study
collects data on a discrete phenomenon and all analyses relate to that study rather than
generalizing data. Qualitative research focuses on the respondents, their experiences,
their perceptions as well as their interpretation of the studied phenomenon. Rather than
quantifying data, qualitative research applies coding processes to provide descriptive data
for analysis.
The study required the use of technology such as e-mail, telephone interviews, as
well as a computerized secure network to keep and code data. The first assumption was
the respondents would participate fully and honestly throughout the duration of the study;
the grounded theory investigation relied upon a trust that the information shared during
the interview was true. Pivotal to the investigation, the researcher and the respondent
shared a mutual trust; the trust directed the researcher to proceed with interviews based
upon the assumption that the respondents understood their rights, role, and the
confidentiality agreement as well. The second assumption considered that the
organizational leader respondents would value and willingly contribute to the knowledge
base as well as a case study collection.
I centered researcher assumptions upon the literature review concerning human
behavior within the organizational, educational, and social science settings. It was
37
assumed that all the respondents would honestly review their interview transcripts, make
corrections as needed, and approve the information before the transcript was entered into
the record. As the research advanced, I identified a third set of assumptions wherefrom I
worked under. I assumed that the respondents would share their lived experiences and
perspectives with clarity and honesty. I assumed trust was pivotal to the ability to foster
an emotionally safe environment where individuals could share information without the
fear of judgment or pain. The ability to share information candidly assisted the
respondent with feeling connected to the research and promoted voluntary information
sharing. I founded my assumptions upon the respondents understanding of their inner
strengths, weaknesses, goals as well as the goal of the study. Final assumptions within
this study indicated that respondents would (a) evolve to develop inner strengths
beneficial to their personal goals, and (b) have a clear understanding of the definitions
and goal of the study as well.
Scope
The study encompassed adversity-related methods, strategies, practices, and belief
systems engaged by organizational leaders, mental health practitioners, and students.
Identification of themes, traits, strategies, bias, limitations, and methods that specified
meaning toward the resilience phenomenon defined the essence of the study scope. Each
individual respondent must have resided within the selected counties within the State of
Florida. Selection criteria for inclusion in the study were: the individual must have stated
they have overcome adversity and willing to possess hardiness through the interview
process, are willing participants, business leaders with at least 10 years’ experience that
are willing to share their organizational case studies in a candid manner, students enrolled
38
in a local community college, vocational program, or university, educators, mental health
professionals, and any individuals who work within social science, educational, or
business field.
Sample
Sampling was purposive and consisted of individuals self-identified as having
overcome adversity successfully. Respondents were college students at private, public,
community, and vocational colleges and universities, and local business leaders in select
counties within the state of Florida. According to City-Data records (2011), the selected
counties contained 14,556 businesses representing diverse fields including education,
engineering, computer science, medical, and mechanical trades. The study utilized a
purposive sampling technique; data collection ceased when data saturation had been
reached at 87 interviews. Although atypical, the large number of interviews that occurred
to reach data saturation had resulted from the diverse lived experiences of each
respondent. Due to the phenomenon studied, the purposive sample continued until the
data failed to yield substantial and new insights. Purposive sampling was most
appropriate because the study required a sample that focused upon specific components
of the research. The non- probability sample ensured that the grounded theory study
focused upon particular characteristics pertinent resilience and adversity (Guest, Bunce,
& Johnson, 2006).
Limitations
Individuals who have faced adversity may have displayed a broad and varied
range of emotion, coping strategies, behaviors, and beliefs. The potential for limitations
may have existed and were addressed through the study design, the self- reported survey,
39
interviews, and observation of the intricacy of detail (Reich et al., 2010; Rudestam &
Newton, 2007). The investigator interviewed individuals who self-disclosed having
overcome adversity and the study was limited by an individual’s choice to discuss one’s
experiences openly. Adversity manifested in many forms and appeared in trauma,
illness, death, experience, brutality, poverty, divorce, and other forms of loss. The
limitations may have reduced the diverse collection of lived experience because of
individual attitudes and refusal to share precise details of the adversity they had
overcome. The delimitation of respondents’ reticence could not be resolved, but the
limitation was acknowledged throughout data collection, analysis, and by development of
mitigating actions upon completion of the study (Rudestam & Newton, 2007).
The researcher possessed the belief that resilience was teachable; however,
through research, and suspension of personal beliefs, the limitation was remedied. A
practical limitation existed within the study due to the potential for bias in purposive
sampling. The respondents were deliberately selected for the purpose of investigating the
characteristics that comprise resilience therefore the respondents were those who have
faced adversity and overcome. Purposive sampling is selective; therefore the risk of
skewing the sample due subconscious researcher bias does exist. Irrespective, the
potential limitation of the purposive sampling was minimal when acknowledged and
beneficial to the investigation of sustainable resilience development. Resilient individuals
or those that had navigated adversity and overcame could have looked toward the
interviewer for direction when they provided answers. Caution was applied and
maintained to preserve the interviewer’s impartiality during the interview. The threat of
researcher bias and the limitation were reduced through two strategies. Each respondent
40
received a transcription of the interview and had the opportunity to review and change
answers and approved the transcript before the researcher began coding collected data.
The researcher employed the service of the Dedoose qualitative coding software to avoid
contaminating the coding process, mitigating biased conclusions.
Time and the sample size were limitations. The practical limitation of time
constraints created a conceptual limitation that was remedied through continuing data
collection until data saturation had occurred (Reich et al., 2010; Rudestam & Newton,
2007). Several facets encompassed the internal validity of the study. Restricted by size,
the outcome became limited due to the scope of the study, though this is a common
customary limitation of a qualitative study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The scope of the
study required purposive sampling to achieve data saturation pertinent to the research;
that process addressed the conceptual limitation.
Delimitations
The study’s initial sample population was a convenience sample in which
participants were required to meet specific criteria because of time constraints. The
scope of the study tapered to address the study’s limitations and was restricted to
interviewing individuals who had self-disclosed experiencing adversity that kindled the
events leading to overcoming the adversity. The research, therefore, did not address
those who have faced adversity and failed to overcome. The research was delimited to
social services, education, and organizational resilience, therefore research findings may
not apply to larger and more specific demographics without further study.
41
Summary
The goal of chapter 1 was to present the concept of resilience and the implications
of resilience in varied settings through introducing the purpose and background of the
problem, and the nature of this grounded theory study. Reviewing research indicated a
lack of a sustainable resiliency development theory; Chu (2008) and Jensen (2009)
revealed a deficiency and varied definitions of resilience. Scholars and leaders
throughout the organization development, social science, and educational fields have
focused on the identification rather than the development of resilient coping skills which
leaves employers, social workers, and educators without a construct of sustainable
resilience (Avey et al., 2009; Chu, 2008; Miller, 2008; Jensen, 2009; Tugade &
Fredrickson, 2004). The population of the study was limited to individuals who self-
disclosed having overcome adversity, being at least 18 years old, a business leader in
Lake or Sumter County, or being an enrolled student at a private, public, community, or
vocational college or university. After conducting 87 interviews of lived experience of
adversity, responses were analyzed and coded using DeDoose® software, and then
triangulated.
Chapter 2 integrates an examination of the literature relevant to the sequence of
resilience definitions and characteristics, and the implications for understanding the traits
of resiliency across the educational, organizational, and social science fields. Varying
standards and perspectives of selected research on organizational, educational, and
psychological theory between 1940 and 2011 comprise much of Chapter 2. Topics
include resilience, hardiness, emotional development, and motivation.
42
Chapter 2
Literature Review
The purpose of the qualitative grounded theory study was to explore
organizational, educational and social science paradigms of the resiliency phenomenon.
Analysis focused on discovering if the data, collected at home and abroad, would support
creation of a seminal sustainable resiliency development theory that was functional
across all fields of study. Conventionally defined as an essential coping mechanism, the
resilience concept has been applied to those individuals who, despite arduous hardships,
managed to thrive and evade the negative consequences that arose as a result of adversity
(Da Ros-Voseles & Moss, 2007; Bernshausen & Cunningham, 2001; Binet & Simon,
1908/1916; Black & Howard- Jones, 2000). According to Leipold and Greve (2009), the
resilience phenomenon is an alleviating condition that bridges both coping and growth
through perceived adverse circumstances. Previous academic studies indicated the need
to create assimilative processes that encouraged sustainable resiliency development; but
without a consistent theory, the connection between coping skills and individual growth
has remained elusive (Leipold & Greve, 2009).
Ogden et al., (2006) addressed the interpersonal impact of neurobiology when
considering the functions of trauma, adversity and resilience in relation to one’s
emotional welfare. Neurobiology, for the purpose of this grounded theory study, was
defined as the adaptive processes that the human brain engaged to function and regulate
stability in all environments. Integrating diverse systems included the social state,
psychological state, lived experiences, concepts, theories and scholarly studies to provide
43
a more flexible, adjustable, motivated, and stable paradigm for encouraging the
development of resilience (Ford, 2012; Folkman, 2008; Ogden et al., 2006, Cheng, 2001).
Heading Search
The heading search consisted of 257 references comprised of 189 peer reviewed
journal articles, 3 popular works, 33 germinal/seminal works, 41 reputed academic books
and 10 academic studies. The review of current literature derived information from the
University of Phoenix library and several upstanding scholarly databases (see Table 15).
Preliminary search terms included resilience, resiliency, hardiness, educational coping,
organizational resilience, motivational theory, education, motivational theory and
leadership, motivation, coping skills, adversity, stress, organizational stress and resilient
leadership between 2007 and 2012. Subsequently, the search term criteria expanded to
include seminal research from 1940-2006 for strengthening the reliability of the study.
Chapter 2 research headings include (a) organizational, educational and social science
context, (b) historical overview of resilience, (c) awareness of the resilience phenomenon,
(d) the resilience paradigm, (e) hardiness in organizations, education and social services,
(f) theories on motivation, emotional intelligence, hardiness and stress response, (g)
related theories: grief and logotherapy, (h) cultural bias and resiliency, and a (i) summary
of the literature review. The extensive review assisted with the identification of the
characteristics and coping strategies necessary to create a foundation theory of
sustainable resiliency development across the fields of leadership, organizations, social
sciences and education.
44
Organizational, Educational and Social Science Contexts
Organization. Substantiation of organizational traits and coping skills that
accounted for the ability to remain resilient through tumultuous circumstances appeared
in an array of academic studies and often revealed factors significant to all organizational
fields of study (McManus et al., 2008). While varying issues contributed to
organizational hardiness McManus et al., (2008) discovered two key factors that impact
hardiness; the two factors include primal emotional strength to the development of
supportive relationships inside and outside the organization. Overall, development of key
skills on the job increased the likeliness of resilience to include communication, financial
independence and ethic, problem solving, and positive behavior. Fostering resilience
increased the potential for achieving organizational goals, increased financial gain,
employee happiness, increased productiveness, increased customer relations and the
ability to stand out among competitors within their respective markets (McManus et al.,
2008; Hira & Loibl, 2005).
Contextually, the most significant result of a resilient organization was the ability
to rebuild after a debilitating crisis. A resilient organization survived; it managed to
thrive despite the hardships retaining some of the best people within their respective
fields. Recruiting, developing, and retaining high quality individuals who could endure
the chaos of tumultuous times was essential to the growth, financial stability, and overall
happiness of the workforce. Stress free environments developed as a result of low
turnover; low turnover was one positive result of a resilient organization (Bass, 2008,
Dickinson & Comstock, 2009).
45
Decision makers affected by perpetual debilitating states as well as inflexible and
chaotic paradigms in the organization could become entrapped in a survival state far
beyond the initial adverse event, depleting the organization’s ability to overcome. The
application of impartial, logical, coherent and productive problem solving processes
allowed for a smooth assimilative organizational progression through the chaotic
experience (Holosko, 2009; Heppner, 2008; Ogden et al., 2006). General Motors (GM),
established in 1908, fell prey to adverse events 101 years later (Adler, 2009; Townsend,
Cavusgil, & Baba, 2010). Once a powerhouse in the automotive market, poor leadership
and a culture of avoidance accelerated the failure of GM in 2009 (Adler, 2009; Townsend
et al., 2010). To the shock of many investigators, six factors that had characterized GM’s
previous success were chronically ignored which perpetuated failure. Integrity,
Table 1
Keyword Search: Number of Sources Cited by Topic and Type
Topic
Peer
Reviewed
Articles
Dissertations Books Empirical
Studies
Popular
Works TOTAL
Adversity 5 0 2 1 0 8
Business Field 21 3 7 1 0 32
Coping Skills 9 0 0 1 0 10
Educational Field 17 6 3 2 0 28
Germinal Research 29 0 3 1 0 33
Motivation 9 0 2 0 0 11
Resilience 41 2 5 2 1 51
Social Science Field 27 0 8 2 0 37
Stress 17 1 0 0 2 20
Theory 14 0 11 0 0 25
TOTAL 189 12 41 10 3 257
46
adaptation, vision, innovation, open paradigms and personal initiative marked the
successful global market domination of GM and a lack thereof marked the fall of GM as
well (Boss, 1994; Adler, 2009; Townsend et al., 2010).
General Motors declared bankruptcy under Chapter 11, reorganizing over a period
of two years because the culture and leadership had lost the skills to face tough economic
conditions (Adler, 2009; Townsend et al., 2009). Since 2009, a dynamic restructure
within the core or infrastructure of GM has assisted the organization to regain a
competitive edge in the automotive market (Adler, 2009; Townsend et al., 2010).
Redevelopment of the culture at GM created an environment in which the six key skills
supported a resilient or thriving organization in the face of adversity, therefore mitigating
previously perpetuated dynamic and debilitating states (Adler, 2009; Townsend et al.,
2010).
Education. Students’ resilience and hardiness correlates to academic
achievement and the ability to harness the motivation necessary to engage the challenges
of the educational environment. Many individuals, whether the individuals are the
educators or the students, feel obliged to position themselves to react in a particular
manner to hurdles or adversity. In the educational setting impulsivity inhibits resilient,
resilience requires a proactive approach (Peck et al., 2008; Plunkett, Henry, Houltberg,
Sands, Abarca-Mortenson, 2008; Sacker & Schoon, 2007). Challenges increase if the
student exhibits traits of a learning disability, has grown up in an educationally
disadvantaged background and has little support at home (Plunkett et al, 2008; Sacker &
Schoon, 2007).
47
These hurdles did not necessarily mean the student would fail in the face of
adversity. Many of these students use these hurdles as a means of propelling themselves
into successful endeavors (Daydov, Stewart, Ritchie & Chaudieu, 2010; Peck et al., 2008;
Plunkett et al., 2008; Sacker & Schoon, 2007). Coping skills and traits such as hardiness
or resilience prevail in research concerning reduction of attrition and dropout rates and
the ability of a student to overcome personal and academic tragedy. Integrating whole-
body and perception-based systems (shown in Figure 3) affords the classroom teacher an
opportunity to link implicit and explicit memory regarding adversity with mindfulness or
whole-brain processing to promote an individual’s ability to overcome (Bernhausen &
Cunningham, 2001; Binet & Simon, 1908/1916; Black & Howard-Jones, 2000).
Ultimately the process leaves educators with the potential to develop
psychological resilience within their students. The nature of orienting students and
educators to these types of changes and opportunities requires a significant amount of
data to be collected, analyzed and applied through carefully guided actions (Blanton et
al., 2006; Bobek, 2002; Bondy et al., 2007; Blashak, 2010). Consideration of teacher
education has begun to be the focus of school districts as test scores drop, student crime
rises, and the ability for students to achieve success is hindered by societal influence
(Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 2006).
48
Mindfulness is the ability to focus on the current moment through the processing
of physical sensations as well as emotions. Implicit and explicit memories are facets of
an individual’s long term memory or ability to recollect. Located in the unconscious
brain (reaction-based), implicit memories aid in one’s ability to perform while explicit
memories are the individual’s mindful attempt to integrate previous experiences into their
current circumstance (Blanton et al., 2006; Bobek, 2002; Bondy et al., 2007). Multiple
researchers found that educators who trained students to develop and apply the students’
explicit memories to solve problems were more likely to succeed in the academic setting.
Educators have to find innovative ways to blend the technology into the problem solving
activities to retrain the brains of their students to develop a more resilient generation
(Boyd, 2005, Breslin, 2005; Burden & Byrd, 2007; Burke, 2000).
EXPERIENCES
Conscious (explicit memories)
Unconscious (implicit
memories)
AWARENESS
Mindful and whole-brain
processing
DEVELOPMENT OF RESILIENCE Healing
Coping
Figure 3. Goals of integrative action. Adapted from Trauma and the body: A sensorimotor
approach to psychotherapy by P. Ogden, K. Minton, & C. Pain (2006), New York, NY:
W. W. Norton. Copyright 2006 by Pat Ogden/Norton. Adapted with permission.
49
Researchers had signified that school leadership faced a prevailing trend of
leaders who lacked the coping skills to overcome adversity in the educational
environment (Farmer, 2010). Communally inequitable, modern school reform and current
educational strategies left a force of leaders unable to sustain positive change or deal with
change effectively. The discovery and development of positive coping strategies,
sustainable resiliency development may assist school leaders with driving positive reform
that influence the growth of educators as well as the growth of students (Bernhausen &
Cunningham, 2001; Binet & Simon, 1908./1916; Daigneault, Cyr, & Tourigny, 2007).
Adversity tends to jeopardize one’s ability to integrate experiences intentionally
and the unconscious mind creates immediate and uncontrolled responses to adverse
events based upon implicit memories. This concept is easily explained by an individual’s
upbringing, if one is raised in an environment where danger lurks after dark then the
individual will associate bad events with the evening hour (Hayes, Strosahl & Wilson,
1999; Boyd, 2005; Breslin, 2005; Burden & Byrd, 2007; Burke, 2000). In the education
context, leaders identified that an opportunity existed with the creation and development
of resiliency programs in the academic environment. Educational leadership is taxed
with discovering innovative ways of integrating resilience lessons and opportunities into
established, mandated curriculum. With little money and leeway to stray from protocol,
strict policy restricts leadership from enacting many initiatives without state approval.
Leadership must become creative and has learned to collaborate with educators and the
community (Collison, Killeavy, & Stephenson, 1999; Combes-Malcom, 2007; Justice &
Espinoza, 2007; Mohr, Wickstrom, Bernhausen, Mathis & Patterson, 2003; Peck et al.,
2008; Plunkett et al., 2008; Sacker & Schoon, 2007). School resiliency programs
50
encouraged student success academically, socially, and emotionally when implemented
and supported among educators, families, and district leaders.
Social Science. Research regarding individual resilience in human development
over 20 years has produced the understanding that the phenomenon takes on many forms
depending upon the trauma. Clients and mental health personnel alike are barraged with
stimuli from their environment; the information they must process, understand, endure
and make sense of comes in the form of an inundation rather than in a smooth endurable
pace (Lyttle, Ostrove, & Cassady, 2011; Masten & Obradovic, 2008). Resilience
encompasses the deflection of stress, and endurance, motivation, recovery and growth.
Countering deflection, sifting out too much stimuli or information may force the
individual onto a path where the person cannot respond to the crisis appropriately.
Sorting information in a traumatized state is essential, whether the adversity is
happening in the current moment or the past; orienting the conscious self to the strengths,
environment, and current needs may permit the ability to overcome. Many factors
affecting individual experiences form in the unconscious mind, influencing individual
resilience and how the individual chooses to interact with a perceived trauma (Lyttle et
al., 2011; Masten & Obradovic, 2008; Baum & Nowicki, 1998). The less flexible an
individual paradigm becomes, the less likely that the individual could consciously
(explicitly) engage appropriate coping skills to allow the implicit mind to connect past
experiences.
Connecting past experiences is significant for facilitating survival, emotionally
and physically (Ogden et al., 2006, Bar- On, 2000; Folkman & Lazurys, 1988). In
context, a resiliency theory could provide mental health practitioners with the tools
51
necessary to develop resilience in their clients who do not possess the skills to overcome
a multitude of atrocities (Lyttle et al., 2011; Barbee, Antle, Sullivan, Huebner, Fox, &
Hall, 2009; Masten & Obradovic, 2008).
Historical Overview of Resilience
As early as the 1970s, resilience appeared in numerous works of academic
literature. Early definitions of resilience described the phenomena as a measure of
sustainable systems and their capability to adapt while maintaining necessary
relationships through varying disturbances (Holling, 1973; Eschelman, Bowing &
Alarcon, 2010). The definition expanded from the celled organism to include
organizational structures, emotional strength and educational phenomena. Significant to
resilience, even cell structures have learned to become hardy.
Human beings possess an advanced adaptive feature, emotional capacity. Many
individuals appear to have an inherent link to hardy behavior while many must learn;
some must have those skills supported while many live their lives under oppression and
continue to overcome (Holling, 1973; Lang & Bliese, 2009; Luther & Cicchetti, 2000;
Schwalbe, 2008). Despite the expansion of the definitions, resilience remained consistent
in definition within the defining characteristics.
The perception of resilience appears to take many forms depending upon the
individual, organizational, or educational capacity to understand or apply modifying
coping behaviors throughout chaotic experiences. The capability to become freely
acquainted with the generalizations of resilience i.e., the ability to overcome has created a
consensus among scholars (Holling, 1973; Berowitz, 1989; Bachman & Comeau, 2010).
The resulting works have created a steadfast resolve to avoid a capricious understanding
52
of resilience and adaptable consideration that crosses a multitude of academic fields
(Lang & Bliese, 2009, Schwalbe, 2008; Luther et. al, 1973).
Sir Winston Churchill once stated that the key difference between humankind’s
successes and failures was perseverance that manifests itself repeatedly as resolve or the
willingness to endure (Stewart, 2007). Perseverance appears to be an historical
cornerstone of the concept now characterized as resilience. Innumerable stories and
investigations regarding perseverance have intrigued researchers and non-research
personnel alike in the pursuit of understanding the strength that some individuals
possessed in comparison to others (Jensen, 2009; Katz, Kravitz & Grynbaum, 2005;
Kato, 2012). The interest in resilience has peaked since the 1980’s through 2012 from
the layperson and professional alike. The significance of the resilience phenomenon
surpassed interest in all other popular coping techniques available because resilience
appeared impermeable to adversity. Adversity made individuals stronger and more
dedicated in their attempts to thrive (Folkman, 1997; Cheng, Yang, Jun, & Hutton, 2007;
Fisher, 2009).
History has shown the multiple natures of the human race and individuals’
capabilities. Humans are in constant conflict with their environment in all dimensions:
spiritual, physical, interpersonal, intellectual, emotional, and environmental. Often
people mystified themselves with how consistent their behaviors and interactions
remained, yet times existed in which one was able to achieve far beyond perceivable
expectations (Chenot, Benton, & Kim, 2009; Coates, 1998). From Biblical times to the
present day, humanity has been able to harness the emotional power of good nature,
dedication, and faith to construct a resolve that could overcome any hurdle despite
53
incredible odds. Human nature however, led people to underestimate the strength of
resilience. The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud suggested that the human brain works in a
consistent state of awareness and understanding, but without reasonable explanation, the
brain fails to compute the significance of exposing oneself to risk.
Awareness of the Resilience Phenomenon
Scholars sought the answer to one question: What predicts positive outcomes for
trauma survivors? The answer resounded with the development of resilience, the
sustainable method people have used to survive adversity, and reclaim and maintain a
positive quality of life. Personality indicators and individual susceptibilities determined
the intensity and sustainability of both positive and negative outcomes (Antonovsky,
1979; Reich et al., 2010). Resilience is a term that individuals and researchers may mask
with ideal concepts such as hardiness or emotional strength (Holling, 1973; Lang &
Bliese, 2009; Atkinson, Martin, & Rankin, 2009; Luther & Cicchetti, 2000; Schwalbe,
2008). Literature regarding survivors of the Holocaust, prisoners of war, victims of
violent crime, adults or children from abusive backgrounds, etc. comprised the majority
of focal studies about survival. Although often secondary, resilience or a similar concept
appeared to be a common ability of those individuals who survived hardships versus
individuals who could not overcome (Holling, 1973; Lang & Bliese, 2009; Luther &
Cicchetti, 2000; Schwalbe, 2008).
After a long-standing debate in the academic community about whether resilience
is learned or the result of genetic traits, studies have affirmed that resilience is both a
genetic predisposition and a learned trait. Psychologically, the human brain has the
propensity to retain, judge, and determine connecting significance between what has
54
happened, and what actions must follow to achieve safety (Afifi, Asmundson, Taylor, &
Lang, 2010; Cohen, 2006; Zautra, Hall, & Murray, 2008). Pivotal to resilience,
adaptation in the presence of adversity is a key behavior and resilient behavior is more
common than expected. However, a false belief existed that resilient individuals did not
experience the struggles, hardships and agony that non- resilient individuals suffered.
Emotional distress frequented all individuals whether a resilient nature existed within
their capabilities or not (Kallgren & Wood, 1986; Liptak, 2005). Because resilience did
not require an innate trait to exist, a person could learn how to exhibit the behaviors and
coping skills that comprise the phenomenon.
Researchers conducted studies on twin siblings and resilience as it pertained to
bouncing back or thriving in the face of adversity. Twin studies suggested that whereas
resilience may result from a predisposed genetic trait, it may also have the potential for
development. Peak performance regarding emotional coping appeared to involve both
the physical and the emotional aspects of the human condition. Memories are triggered;
satisfying moments appeared to release a meditative state that activated both a
psychological and physiological reaction allowing adaption to the environment (Affifi et
al., 2010; Zautra et al., 2008). Academics appeared to embrace the significance of
developing resilient individuals, including leaders, through learning, whether the
academic field of study is social science, education, or the organization. While the
concepts varied regarding resilience and the methods of development were vast, the goal
appeared to move toward a behavioral system of success. An action-based system
produced more successful outcomes than passive, reactive based systems or “after the
fact” interventions (Daus & Ashkanasy; 2005; Kirkhaug, 2010; Knight, 2007).
55
A grounded theory study conducted regarding shame and resilience in adulthood
(Van Vliet, 2008) discussed the emotional functions and advancement of the individual
throughout their adult life. Several implications existed within the study suggesting a
diverse set of mental health issues impacted the development of resilience when shame
interfered with daily living. Van Vliet (2008) discussed the clinical impact resulting from
prolonged feelings of indignity and shame; post-traumatic stress disorder, depression,
suicidal ideations are a few of the psychological disorders which inhibit the capacity to
engage resilient behavior. The ability to recover from the trauma of shame and re-develop
a resilient mindset became more difficult for the individual as well as for the mental
health professional to achieve. The data collected was based on the experiences of 13
respondents and their individual experiences with trauma. The researcher discovered that
self-concept, support, and a loss or sense of control influenced resilience. Based upon the
research the Shame resilience theory suggested an approach of connection with self and
others, changing ones mindset, acceptance of oneself and situation, and the ability to
understand and resist the feelings of shame. Implications for further research and
psychotherapy were discussed within the study as well (Van Vliet, 2008).
Grafton, Gillespie, and Henderson (2010) conducted a study to advance the
understanding of the resilience phenomenon as an inner force and vigor with the potential
to reduce workplace stress. The study focused upon the workplace stress of oncology
nurses and the significance of handling the day to day strain. Resilience, as the
researchers discovered, existed to some degree in each individual in an innate form
revealing the phenomenon through particular characteristics and abilities to cope. Some
individuals displayed higher degrees of resilience while others did not display high
56
degrees of resilience as they faced adversity. The research concluded that innate
resilience could be advanced or brought about through extensive cognitive processes
where psychological transformation, practice, knowledge, and support are available on a
consistent basis. Without consistency, amending the effects of trauma, adversity, or
workplace stress may not be possible.
The Journal of Clinical Psychology released a study conducted in 2002 regarding
a resilience meta- theory. The theory was presented in three separate breaks; the first
break discussed the qualities associated with resilience developed through adversity such
as optimism, self- control and morality. The second break or wave investigated how the
resilient qualities could be developed or gained. Richardson (2002) proposed that there is
a biological, psychological, and spiritual connection to the development of resilience.
Adversity and change is disruptive; because adversity is disruptive, it influences more
than one aspect of life suggesting descriptive ways to reintegrate resilient behaviors into
everyday practice. The final stage or wave highlighted the varying views of the resilience
phenomenon in contemporary research. The power that drives a person to grow through
adversity and the disruption that ensues became the collective understanding.
Meaning and the sense of coherence (SOC) theory. Antonovsky (1979)
developed SOC, positing that durability of hardy behavior depended upon three elements:
comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness. Less than 40 years old, the SOC
theory provides many insightful paths to understanding how some individuals managed
to thrive through difficulties. Extensively studied, individuals who display higher levels
of SOC possess strong emotional health and are more likely to sustain resilient behavior
through extreme stressors (Antonovsky, 1979, Reich et al., 2010).
57
Individuals cope with a variety of stressors in a number of ways that inherently
determine whether response to a trauma would reveal itself in the manner of less effectual
coping behaviors (Antonovsky; 1979, Reich et al., 2010). Clinical findings indicated that
individuals who have the most difficulty processing stressors lack the ability to fuse their
experiences into meaning. Researchers revealed that spirituality or religious conviction
operate as a parallel strategy to the individual capacity to derive meaning from a
challenging circumstance (Antonovsky, 1979; Floyd & Widaman, 1995; Reich et al.,
2010). The derivation of meaning remains a primary facet of overcoming adversity and
sustaining resilience. Built into the human genome is the inherent need to discover
meaning in all circumstances, good and bad. While a wide range of cognitive and
behavioral outcomes varied among survivors of trauma, the implications suggested that a
religious belief or spirituality facilitated the assimilation of sustainable resilient behaviors
and the reduction of intense emotional stress and destruction (Antonovsky, 1979; Reich
et al., 2010).
Feeling connected, a crucial factor in the development and sustainability of
resilient behavior, is how individuals process the adversity and the meaning they derive
from surviving the circumstance (Antonovsky, 1979; Bondy & Ross, 2008; Reich et al.,
2010). Otherwise known as optimism, these beliefs and behaviors, in comparison to
pessimism and feelings of hopelessness, have broad benefits which reduce the
development of coronary disease; therefore affecting individual mortality. An important
aspect of many world cultures, spirituality has been shown to aid the individual to pursue
meaning amidst adversity (Antonovsky, 1979, Reich, Zautra, & Hall, 2010).
58
Religious Convictions and Spirituality. Peres, Moreira-Ameida, Nasello, &
Koenig, (2007) evaluated the connection between religious conviction, spirituality,
resilience, and other factors affecting the ability to overcome traumatic adversity.
Findings showed a positive relationship between resilience and those who reported
maintaining a spiritual belief. Discoveries did not imply that individuals without strong
religious convictions were more likely to succumb to adversity (Peres et al., 2007).
Religious conviction and spirituality represent different notions. Religious
convictions often encompass degree of spirituality within their belief system; however
spirituality could encompass atheistic or agnostic belief systems as well (Ecklund &
Long, 2011). Research has revealed that God and the supernatural are not always
relevant to spirituality or mutually exclusive (Ecklund & Long, 2011). Although the
definitions and pursuit of spirituality differ, the significance of spirituality to resilient
behavior is absolute (Ecklund & Long, 2011). Spirituality leads the individual to discover
a connectedness between themselves, the adversity, as well as the universe as a whole
(Ecklund & Long, 2011). Whether the individual favors their spirituality as an exact
experience or regards their spirituality as a supernatural experience, the connectedness to
ones’ belief system directly affected resilience (Ecklund & Long, 2011; Conner,
Davidson, & Lee,
Finding personal meaning in adversity became a fundamental and important force
when knowledge, experience, and adversity collided (Peres et al., 2007; Connor,
Davidson, & Lee, 2003; Hamel & Valikangas, 2003). The defining characteristic of
adolescent youth resilience is the identification of direction or purpose. Students who
discovered purpose had a strong tendency to overcome and sustain themselves as
59
opposed to youth that lacked individual desire and purpose (Peck et al.). When a
person’s spiritual beliefs and support systems waned, the more the person was likely to
make a negative correlation between adverse events and potential life meaning (Connor,
Davidson, & Lee, 2003; Hamel & Valikangas, 2003; Peres et al., 2007). Without
meaning, many individuals found life and circumstances to become more unpredictable
and frightening compared to individuals who maintained a strong spiritual connection
(Ecklund & Long, 2011).
Peres et al. (2007), Connor et al. (2003), and Hamel and Valikangas (2003)
concluded that spiritual individuals are more likely to sustain a resilient nature when
facing adversity. Internal stimuli inspire or evoke a negative response in the face of
adversity, especially if the individual is facing spiritual questions. Perception appeared to
engage the interaction to the perceived hurdle; whether or not a person held a spiritual
belief, perception of this belief often influence how they faced adversity. Pessimism,
hope, fear, unsure, fearful, etc. effected the attachment or connectedness; many faced
hurdles in their spiritual beliefs (or non-beliefs) as well with their adversity. Trust in their
strengths, ability, and inspirations remained a constant; if the individual could focus upon
those three points they may thrive amidst chaos regardless of their belief system (Peres et
al., 2007, Connor, Davidson, & Lee, 2003, Hamel & Valikangas, 2003).
Although the study data revealed a positive trend between religious conviction
and resilience, several other factors directly affected sustainable resilience. The risk
factors that affected sustainable resilience are anger, degree of trauma, existence of
support systems, strength of inherent beliefs, emotional coping ability, hatred,
forgiveness, and acceptance of change (Peres et al., 2007; Connor et al., 2003; Hamel &
60
Valikangas, 2003). The investigators discovered that individuals without religious
convictions displayed and sustained resilience through adversity when they maintained
strong spiritual beliefs, support systems, possessed emotional coping skills, and were
more open to change, as opposed to individuals who lacked similar skills. Likewise,
spiritual individuals were less likely to sustain resilience through adversity when the
trauma(s) they experienced were repetitive and or the individuals possessed diminished
coping abilities and/or did not possess a strong support system (Peres et al., 2007; Connor
et al., 2003; Hamel & Valikangas, 2003).
Important to address is the knowledge that spiritual coping does not always lead
to positive outcomes after adverse situations for all spiritual individuals. Repeated
exposure, questioning ones’ spiritual beliefs and the feeling of abandonment decreases
the likelihood of psychological adjustment to stress and increases mortality in the ill
(Antonovsky, 1979; Reich et al., 2010). Studies involving war veterans who suffered
extreme posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) resulting from war experiences (e.g.,
killing others, mortal injuries of friends) experienced greater severity of symptoms when
their faith became challenged (Antonovsky, 1979; Reich et al., 2010).
Suffering, loss of control, and feelings of hopelessness provided an additional
challenge for the spiritual individual when human experience and the finitude of life
became apparent; those who possessed a spiritual belief helped dispel the additional
vulnerability experienced and meaning emerged (Hobfoll et al., 2008). Academic studies
failed to address several areas of belief. Non theistic religion, agnosticism, spiritual
agnosticism, traditional atheism, spiritual atheistic belief and the propensity for these
groups to display sustainable resilient behavior through adversity were missing from
61
academic literature. While the aforementioned studies addressed benevolence, emotional
strength, and coping behaviors paramount to surviving and thriving in adversity, the
studies did not mention individuals who lacked specific religious or spiritual belief
systems (Bradley & Davino, 2007; Reich et al., 2010).
Post 9-11 studies (referring to the September 11, 2001 attack on U.S. domestic
targets) amassed data suggesting that, of individuals’ two most frequent responses,
religious coping (e.g., prayer, religion, spiritual beliefs) was the second most common
way of dealing with the events of 9-11. Seeking emotional support was the most
widespread coping strategy, but findings indicated religious coping increased in the years
following the attacks (Antonovsky, 1979; Reich et al., 2010). One study into the
behaviors following the events on 9-11 discussed individuals who engaged resilient-like
behaviors and sustained those behaviors with or without having religious conviction or
spirituality (Reich et al., 2010). Ordinary individuals chose to apply a coping behavior
common to all individuals regardless of their spiritual beliefs: the need to belong
(Antonovsky, 1979; Reich et al., 2010).
Bands of individuals, many identifying from a humanist perspective rather than a
theistic footing, worked day and night to ferry people off Manhattan, feed volunteers,
counsel victims, give medical treatment, and engage the search and rescue in the name of
goodwill and healing (Reich et al., 2010). Perseverance, a connection to a greater good,
the desire to do what is right, patriotic duty and indomitable spirit appears to remain a set
of characteristics common to sustainable and positive resilience amidst chaos, fear,
sadness and destruction (Antonovsky, 1979, Reich, Zautra, & Hall, 2010). Results
warranted the development and pursuit of more studies; however, data suggested that
62
though religion and spirituality was a factor for many. A lack of religion or spirituality
nevertheless, did not diminish the presence of resilience through tribulation (Antonovsky,
1979; Reich et al., 2010).
The Resilience Paradigm
Educators, organizational leaders, individuals, and psychologists have agreed that
within a resilient individual, the pivotal method of pushing change is the paradigm shift
of one’s point of view about the traumatic experience. The paradigm- shift focuses on
the organizations, educational establishments, and social service practices (as well as the
individual) pertaining to the ability to overcome adversity (Davis, 2006; Desjean-
Perrotta, 2006; Gu & Day, 2006; Farmer, 2010; Leipold & Greve, 2009). Secondly the
paradigm- shift requires academic researchers to reconsider their opinion regarding
resilience and releasing investigative bias. The shifts permit researchers to investigate
the applications of resilient practices and uncover potential discoveries significant to the
ability to sustain resilient behavior. Resilience models deviated from contemporaneous
research; practical strategies toward emphasizing achievement of goals whether they
were organizational or personal remained necessary to survival (Farmer, 2010, Lang &
Bliese, 2009, Leipold & Greve, 2009; Bennis & Nannus, 2005; Bentein et al., 2005).
The concept of resilience put much focus on the person and the development of
inner strength rather than following a perceived model of success because inner strength
was sustainable despite any hurdle of survival (Baker, 2009; Amah, 2009; Barnes, 2007).
Resilience can be a natural ability and, for survival, often an expected trait in the 21st
century organizational environment. Without adequate nurturing, resilience becomes less
probable. In education, the resilience paradigm is an essential tool for student
63
achievement (especially when faced with economic, familial, and learning hurdles) and
one of the only skills recognized by counseling professionals as pivotal to fostering post
traumatic survival (Farmer, 2010; Lang & Bliese, 2009; Leipold & Greve, 2009; Chung-
Kai & Chia- Hung, 2009; Chu, 2008).
The accepted view among scholars has been that over-exposure to trauma and
adverse events inhibits one’s ability to cope and is a strong risk for the individual
developing severe psychological disorders. Theorists believed the earlier in one’s
development that exposure to severe trauma or repeated exposure to adversity occurs, the
lower probability one may develop resilient traits (Benard, 1993; Luther & Cucchetti,
2000). Individuals who did not fit the expected pattern by possessing strong resilient
behaviors, despite trauma and adversity occurring at any age, perplexed the academic
community. Resilient attitudes and behaviors of people labeled inherently resilient
include positive manners, hope, emotional strength, determination and vision (goals for
the future). Individuals applying the resilience paradigm see value in challenge and
possess a flexibility permitting the person to identify meaning and positive challenge
through the adverse event (Fresco, Williams & Nugent, 2006; Gillespie et al., 2007;
Goodman, & West, 2008).
Social workers, psychologists, business leaders, politicians, educators and
academics acknowledged the deviation from focusing upon susceptibilities to problems
and shifting to the development of personal accountability and inward strength as a way
of emerging from severe adversity (Dutton & Greene, 2010; Collins, 2010). Some
seasoned academics resisted acceptance of the paradigm shift because the viewpoint
deviated from a comfortable norm and required a degree of inexorable courage and risk
64
for the individual. Regardless, the challenge of developing unwavering resolve to
establish emotional strength remains the value the individual places upon the paradigm
shift to overcome adversity (Atkinson, Martin &Rankin, 2009; Barankin & Khanlou,
2005; Arehart & Treichal, 2005).
Hardiness in Organizations, Education and Social Services
Advancement of belief systems surrounding resilience has strengthened the
understanding of the phenomenon within the organizational, educational and social
science fields of study (Lyttle, Ostrove, & Cassady, 2011; McManus et al., 2008; Ogden
et al., 2006). The emerging clarity has provided leaders with the opportunity to build a
more resilient community wherefrom the coping skills learned could culminate with the
development of individual resilience as well (McManus et al., 2008; Ogden et al., 2006).
Learning to rebound from perceived failure or adversity has been the focal point of
research within the organizational, educational and social science communities; the
ability to adapt and develop the views, skills, and behaviors necessary to achieve
sustainable resilience has positive implications in all aspects of an individual’s life
(Ogden et al., 2006).
Organizations. Kouzes and Posner (2002) identified that leaders perform their
best when they challenge the process. Leaders challenge current practices and theory
through research and development, moving their followers to advance. In successful
organizations hardiness is a key factor in the individual’s and organization’s ability to
work through chaos and move beyond the status quo (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).
Possessing psychological hardiness encourages the individual to choose a shift in attitude
or perspective Hardy individuals discover meaning in challenge and understand the
65
significance of the process as it evolves (Boehm & Yoels, 2009; Acker, 2008; Kouzes &
Posner, 2002; Allen & Meyer, 1990). Eid, Johnsen, Bartone and Nissestad (2008)
asserted that organizational leaders who view their role as a lifelong growth opportunity
inspire those they led to develop hardy-like behaviors. Hardiness facilitates
organizational and individual development toward the ability to thrive in a high stress
environment and the ability to thrive indicates a high degree of adaptability (Boerner,
Eisenbeiss & Griesser, 2007).
Hague and Leggat (2010) explored the hardiness phenomenon as it pertained to
senior health care executives and discussed how hardiness development among the
workforce could increase their ability to cope with and manage the negative force of
stress. In two decades of research, investigators discovered the benefits of the hardiness
phenomenon to the physical and emotional health of the workforce. Hague and Leggat
(2010) and Boston (2009) discovered that organizations with hardy employees were often
high performing and results of extensive interviews supported the need for a model for
hardiness development.
Education. The state of the learning environment is one of diversity in ethnicity,
culture, beliefs, skills, and experience (Cavanaugh & Palmer, 2007; Gable & Haidt, 2005;
Sheldon & King, 2001; Bernghausen & Cunningham, 2001). Studies from 134
universities indicated the relevance of considering hardiness as a concomitant factor in
student success at the post-secondary level. Educational institutions are capable of
increasing academic performance and completion rates for all students who attend if a
viable construct is available for practical application in the post-secondary environment
66
(Bernshausen & Cunningham, 2001; Gable & Haidt, 2005; Sagor, 1996; Sheldon & King,
2001).
Schuetz (2008) discussed the role hardiness plays in a student’s ability to succeed
in the educational and social environment in the 21st century world. Positive psychology
epitomized the ebb and flow of the emotional state as the individual endured chaos and
adversity in the educational and societal settings, whereas hardiness appeared to mitigate
the effects of stress on individual achievement. Decades of study indicate consistent
definitions of hardiness and the significance of hardiness development, though a
contemporary construct has been missing among scholarly studies (Satami, 2007; Gable
& Haidt, 2005; Sheldon & King, 2001). Emotional health, happiness confidence,
capacity to adapt, mindfulness, interpersonal strengths, optimism, accountability, altruism
and duty appear to be facets of and indicators of hardiness as it pertains to success in the
classroom and social environment (Cavanaugh & Palmer, 2007; Gable & Haidt, 2005;
Kaufhold & Johnson, 2005; Malloy & Allen, 2007; Schuetz, 2008; Sheldon & King,
2001; Trapp, 2010).
Social Services. Combatting trauma-induced stressors and vital life changes
appears as common ground in the identification of prolonged psychological hurdles to
individual health and emotional growth (Bartone, Roland, & Picano, 2008; Cole & Lynn,
2011; Eschleman, Bowling, & Alarcon, 2010). Counselors who treated disorders
stemming from similar instances such as post-traumatic stress (PTSD) found that
individuals most likely to adapt to therapeutic intervention are those that possess a
resilient or hardiness trait in their personality. Studies indicated that hardy individuals
possess a purposeful outlook regarding their circumstance and the future. Being
67
internally driven, finding meaning in the experience and the drive to survive are the
cornerstones to successful coping during adverse events (Dutton & Greene, 2010;
D’Zurilla, 1986; Gerber, Boals & Schuettler, 2011). Traumatic events challenge
individuals to cope and thrive in everyday life. Subsequent development of PTSD further
hinders individuals’ ability to navigate common and nonthreatening occurrences (Bartone
et al., 2008; Davis, 2006; Desjean-Perrotta, 2006; Downey, 2008; Gu & Day, 2006).
Although studies indicate the need for a construct explaining the development of
resilience or hardiness traits, psychologists have agreed that in practice, professionals
possessing this trait have an easier time assisting their clients with developing the
fundamental coping skill of hardiness (Compass, Forsythe & Wagner, 1988; Conte, 2005;
Drew, 2007; Gleiser, Ford & Fosha, 2008; Eschleman, Bowling, & Alarcon, 2010). In
studies of combat veterans, rape survivors, and violent crime survivors, hardy individuals
had a significantly lower suicide rate, and an increased rate of goal attainment in
comparison to their non-hardy peers. Unfortunately, researchers have revealed an
increase in combat veteran suicide rates after the war against terror began in 2001 and an
increased trend of youth suicide since 2005 because of cyber-bullying (Bartone et al.,
2008; Cole & Lynn, 2011; Eschleman et al., 2010). Psychologists identified hardiness
traits or resilience as the one consistent condition that existed in individuals who have not
taken their own lives. While implicated in hundreds of research studies, a formal
construct is lacking and psychologists agreed that without consistent and measurable
development, individuals facing adversity might not possess all the skills necessary to
overcome (Bartone et al., 2008; Cash & Bridge, 2010; Cole & Lynn, 2011; Eschleman et
al., 2010).
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Ogden et al. (2006) identified that integrating the implicit and explicit memory
with attentive behavior or mindfulness could mitigate the stress of adverse circumstances
and increase one’s ability to develop resilience and thrive. Processing memories in an
integrative fashion permits the individual to process all of one’s experiences and
sensations to foster growth. The processing therefore encourages a conscious and curious
understanding of the adversity, openness to facing the event, openness to a change in
personal paradigms, and increased adaptability that encourages the ability to thrive
(Ogden et al., 2006). Adversity can cause a loss of control, which inhibits one’s ability to
choose advantageous behavior in order to thrive, and thereby jeopardizing or preventing a
successful outcome. Mindful integration permits a conscious choice in attitude, and
behavior, and encourages value derivation through any circumstance (Dolan & White,
1988; Ogden et al, 2006).
Theories on Motivation, Emotional Intelligence, Hardiness and Stress Response
Several theories influence and define emotional strength and resilience; each
theory contains diverse perspectives that are reminiscent of resilient behavior. The
resilience phenomenon has evolved over a period of 75 years (Brown & Ryan, 2003;
Hoge et al., 2007). With a resurgence of interest over the past two decades, the ability to
engage the inductive and deductive process allows the researcher to conceptualize the
phenomenon avoiding preconceived notions of resilience. Through research, an ample
amount of theories emerged regarding the resilience construct. The theories address
adversity and emotional coping behaviors familiar to resilience while addressing multiple
fields of study; though diverse, investigations revealed their significance and role in
human behavior.
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Acquired needs theory. An individual’s needs according to McClelland (1975,
1983) affect motivation as well the drive to excel. The specific needs are categorized as
the need for achievement, affiliation, or power; in theory, one’s effectiveness during any
task remained influenced by these needs (McClelland, 1975, 1983). The need for
achievement (nAch) obliges the individual to excel at any task one chooses (McClelland,
1975, 1983; McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Roeser & Peck, 2009). Individuals with the
need to achieve avoid low stake or low risk opportunities because they do not place value
on an accomplishment that others can achieve easily. Rather, individuals with the need to
achieve choose to focus on higher risk opportunities that hold a reasonable likelihood of
triumph (McClelland, 1975, 1983; McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Roeser & Peck, 2009).
Those with nAch prefer either to work alone or to work with other individuals with nAch.
Honest and timely feedback provides nAch achievers with the best opportunity to
succeed (McClelland, 1975, 1983; McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Roeser & Peck, 2009).
The need for affiliation (nAff) refers to individuals that require meaningful
relationships and acceptance from others to succeed in a variety of environments
(McClelland, 1975, 1983; McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Roeser & Peck, 2009).
Compliance with social norms characterizes the behavior of the individual with nAff in
the organizational environment. Without this connection, the nAff person cannot
develop. The need for power (nPow) compels the individual to achieve goals for the sake
of achieving goals, whether the goals are theirs or belong to others. These individuals do
not desire accolades or approval from others; only obedience from those surrounding
them to attain success and nothing more (McClelland, 1975, 1983; McClelland &
Burnham, 1976; Roeser & Peck, 2009).
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Affective perseverance. Sherman and Kim (2002) introduced the affect
perseverance theory as an explanation of the relationship between human behavior and
emotion in the face of adversity. Affect perseverance happens when a preference for
one’s emotional state persists (such as hardiness, affection, belief, focus, etc.) despite
changes in the environment or circumstance (Sherman & Kim, 2002; Williams &
DeStefano, 2008). One’s feelings remain independent of the change or rational
substantiation through facts, evidence, or impassioned pleas from loved ones (Williams
& DeStefano, 2008). The affect can serve the emotional state in a positive manner
allowing a person to thrive through tough circumstance or the affect could become
maladaptive (Sherman & Kim, 2002). An adaptive example of this theory would be the
cancer patient who was told he or she was not going to live and pursuing treatment would
shorten his or her life. The patient decides that despite the medical advice and proof that
the doctors were wrong, not only would he or she seek treatment but that he or she would
live. This form of adaptive behavior is positive and allowed the patient have the mindset
to persevere through the pain and fear (Sherman & Kim, 2002; Williams & DeStefano,
2008). A maladaptive example of the affect would happen when a medic on a war torn
battlefield comes across a soldier he or she cannot save, for the first time after saving
100’s of soldiers he or she believes despite absolute proof the soldier can be saved. The
medic continues to try and save the soldier who has passed away; nothing his or her
commander or peers could say could change his or her will to persevere through the
adversity. The maladaptive form can come with substantial psychological risk and at
times risk the lives of others, depending upon the situation (Sherman & Kim, 2002;
Williams & DeStefano, 2008). Adaptive functioning could explain the relevance of
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affect perseverance and individual motivation to choose to engage complex
circumstances (Sherman & Kim, 2002).
In relationships, this phenomenon manifests in instances where one partner falls
in love with the other because of the kindness afforded by the other partner through their
interactions (Azjen & Fishbein, 1977, 1980; Burns et al., 2008; Sherman & Kim, 2002).
The love persists despite changes in the partner like abusive behavior, illegal behavior, or
blatant infidelity. Likewise, in social interactions individuals who possess this
motivational affect tend to believe they will overcome major obstacles despite the
mounting evidence and approach of imminent failure. These individuals will stay with
their goal even if it may result in consequences, shame, and at times, death. Affect
perseverance does not always carry a negative implication; the motivational belief system
permits this individual or a set of individuals to overcome great adversity because they
hold such beliefs.
Innumerable accounts in which survival or the ability to thrive appeared
impossible have been amassed as stories of success (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977, 1980;
Burns et al., 2008; Sherman & Kim, 2002). Individuals that survived or thrived were
under intense scrutiny from others who could not grasp the reality that an ability to hold
onto a truth, whether it appears biased or illogical, could produce a successful outcome
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977, 1980; Burns et al., 2008; Sherman & Kim, 2002). Instances of
resilience in the classroom emerged in the form of students that thrived. These students
went on to live successful lives despite the hurdles placed before them such as learning
disabilities, illness, lack of support, and poverty, proving that attitude and ingenuity
played a larger role in determining success than once expected (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977,
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1980; Burns et al., 2008; Sherman & Kim, 2002). Women who have stared down the
barrel of a gun, been sexually assaulted, or beaten severely enough for admission to an
intensive care unit, managed to keep the hope that survival was possible and attainable.
Overcoming their circumstances, they fought their way out of adversity to discover help;
managing to thrive afterwards despite the deep psychological and physical impact of the
assault.
Underestimating the value and motivation of the human spirit appears foolish
when considering the positive implications and value it may have in organizational,
individual, and educational realms. Psychodynamic theorists since the beginning of the
20th century have discovered a series of instinctual behaviors that compelled individual
desire; those instincts became popularly known as basic human motivations and are based
in the subconscious (Azjen & Fishbein, 1977, 1980; Burns et al., 2008; Reiss, 2011;
Sherman & Kim, 2002). Motivations to accomplish goals or to achieve were the manner
by which the human mind assisted in overcoming the hurdles to success.
By the mid-1950s motivational psychology became central to mental health
practice and study; affect perseverance subsequently became one of many concepts that
grew from germinal theories in the early 20th century. Closely related to resilience, affect
perseverance became one of several concepts which could be cultivated to build one’s
ability to harness the motivation to succeed in the presence of great adversity (Azjen &
Fishbein, 1977, 1980; Burns et al., 2008; Reiss, 2011; Sherman & Kim, 2002).
Attitude behavior consistency. Attitudes are predictions of human behavior
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Kallgren & Wood, 1986). In the attitude-behavior consistency
theory, scholars discussed the resulting inclination for alignment of attitude and behavior
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as a product of conditional factors. The conditional factors determine whether or not
behaviors will align with the circumstances surrounding the belief or attitude, repetition
of the behavior and communication of attitude. Other factors that influence the alignment
of attitude and behavior are attitudes based upon individual experiences, attitudes based
upon the experiences of others, presence of communal pressure to react, and the attitude
is also a fundamental belief. Individuals who engaged consistent behaviors held strong
values and personal morals. Not easily swayed by societal belief or group pressures, the
individual displayed characteristic engagement of individually specific trauma or
hardship (Kallgren & Wood, 1986; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The attitude- behavior
relationship received vast interpretation and remained a heavily studied phenomenon;
arguments existed regarding the causal relation of the attitude-behavior consistency
theory because of the current self-reported collection of data.
Investigations reveal that attitudes impact behavior (Berkowitz, 1989).
Furthermore, Berkowitz (1989) asserted that an understanding of attitudes could assist the
prediction of future behaviors in similar circumstances. Academics believed a causal
relationship existed and the association weighed significantly upon an individual’s
decision to confront adversity (McBroom & Reed, 1992; Rabinovich, Morton, &
Postmes, 2010). One of the more challenging aspects of engaging adversity resulted
from the attitudes individuals chose when facing major life challenges (Berkowitz, 1989).
Historical evidence in psychological research has repeatedly shown the significant role
attitude has played in survival, the ability to thrive, and the ability to achieve established
benchmarks (Berkowitz, 1989). Resilience was shown to play an equally influential role
with behavioral and attitude choices because resilience often drove decisions and made
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the difference between a person’s ability to endure the hardship and succumbing to
hardship (Berkowitz, 1989).
Attribution theory. The attribution theory is a compilation of several concepts
researched by social psychologists Heider (1958) and Kelley (1967). Other founding
theorists of attribution theory were Weiner, Jones, and Davis (as cited in McArthur,
2011). Attribution theory began as a concept in which the individual perceives
circumstances in a manner that implies reasons for why a person or a set of people could
succeed during a goal endeavor or how an individual’s behavior affects another (Heider,
1958). Heider posited that the individual applied, examined, and clarified behavior or
circumstance through rationalizations. The core assumptions the founding theorists made
concerning the attributions an individual could make were internal and external (Heider,
1958; Kelly, 1967; McArthur, 2011). Internal attributions are the belief that an individual
behaves a specific way because of an attitude, experience, or a matter of character or
personality. External attributions are the beliefs that an individual behaves a specific way
due to the situation they are experiencing by chance (Heider, 1958; Kelly, 1967;
McArthur, 2011.
Emotions and motivation influence attributions, whether the individual attributes
his or her behavior to another person to avoid self-reproach or the need to guard against a
potential attack (perceived or actual) (Heider, 1958; Kelly, 1967; McArthur, 2011).
Legitimizing attributions allows the individual to create a figurative emotional distance to
cope. The practice is self-serving and necessary (McArthur, 2011). Heider (1958) and
Kelley (1967) believed that individuals view themselves as complicated with behaviors
that are not consistent due to the significant amount of time and energy an individual
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spends contemplating what comprises their motivations, emotions and ultimately their
behavior.
Internal and external attributions, according to Heider (1958), create two opposing
perceptions that affect human behavior and achievement. Jones & Davis (as cited in
McArthur, 2011) expanded upon Heider’s initial attribution theory with a concept termed
correspondent inference (or correspondence bias). The concept was developed to
explain the human behavior of making inferences about a choice or action when the
individual is not driven by force, or the action produced an unanticipated or a less than
enviable outcome (Heider, 1958; Kelly, 1967; McArthur, 2011). When an individual
applies the correspondent inference theory he or she interprets information in a specific
pattern and draws inferences based upon the information gathered regardless of whether
the behavior is attributed to an outlook or a temperament (Heider, 1958; Kelly, 1967;
McArthur, 2011). Initially, the individual would make the concerted attempt to discover
if the behavior was intentional (Bauman & Skitka, 2010).
Theorists Ross and Nesbitt, and Kitayama and Markus, (as cited in Bauman &
Skitka, 2010) discussed that an individual easily draws a correspondence inference if a
person’s behavior is perceived as intentional. An example of this would be motivations.
Consider if two individuals were to collide into one another while walking, and one
individual fell to the ground while the other individual apologized. The person who fell
may decide the collision was a mistake and then make the inference that the apology was
intentional and genuine (Bauman & Skitka, 2010).
Another way an individual decides if a correspondence exists can occur when a
behavior is deemed socially unacceptable or unwelcome (Bauman & Skitka, 2010). An
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example of this would be when an individual witnesses taunting of another person; the
individual immediately determines that the person taunting is unkind (Heider, 1958;
Kelly, 1967; McArthur, 2011). Another example would be any social situation where
little is learned about an individual within a social group. Inferring a person’s behavior
requires a correspondence to disposition (Bauman & Skitka, 2010; Heider, 1958; Kelly,
1967; McArthur, 2011). While making inferences about a person’s behavior requires
more information and consideration, the theory suggests another facet of attribution
(Bauman & Skitka, 2010). No matter the model or theory, attribution theory has a causal
relationship to human behavior, motivation and achievement of goals (Kelley, 1967;
McArthur, 2011).
Cognitive dissonance theory. Festinger (1957) investigated knowledge, attitude,
behavior, personal values and the relationships that co-mingle with human understanding
(Egan, Santos, & Bloom, 2007). Varying cognitive conditions exist within one person at
any given moment. These cognitions influence decisions and perceptions of the
environment and consequently, how that individual chooses to engage that environment
(Egan et al., 2007). Cognitions have the potential to enable the development of both
rational and irrational attitudes and behaviors (Egan et al., 2007).
The basic assumption, according to Festinger (1957) was the decision a person
will make can change one’s behaviors, beliefs and feelings to reduce any discord present
at the time of engagement (Egan et al., 2007). Festinger based his findings upon the view
that human beings have the inherent desire to maintain consistency with their behaviors
and attitudes. Conflict arises when previous experiences and judgments cloud
understanding. The human mind naturally develops judgments as a means of survival as
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well as a way to make informed decisions. Adversity leads to a disruption in logic and
may cause a person to create a futile or dangerous circumstance and engage the
circumstance for the sake of achievement (Egan et al., 2007).
Resilience, as researchers had established in Festinger’s time, required a person to
consider and shift one’s paradigm as the moment required. Educators, psychologists,
business leaders and individuals found themselves trapped by an inflexible paradigm
(Egan et al., 2007). Accustomed to success or failure, individuals became comfortable
with their understanding and view of the world as well as their role within that system.
Safety and comfort were two of the most basic needs a person requires to achieve a self-
actualized existence within the established system (Egan et al., 2007). In terms of
cognitive dissonance, Festinger (1957) recognized the problem of the closed paradigm
and discovered through investigations that perceptions compelled an individual to engage
his circumstance, good or bad (Egan et al., 2007).
In the cognitive consistency theory, Haber et al., (1982) posited that individual
motivation undoubtedly changes in accordance with the individual’s belief system,
values, and individual paradigmatic perceptions when disagreement surfaces between
evidentiary facets of knowledge. Misgivings or doubt emerges because of the
disagreement and hinders the ability for the individual to make a sound judgment or
commit to an action. An individual solves the disagreement or dissonance by rating the
factors and often decide upon behaviors favorable toward their more popular belief,
value, and ethical systems (Haber et al., 1982). Individuals have the potential to change
their behavior based on many factors, not limited to strengthening factors like aspiration
or circumstantial factors such as environment (Haber et al., 1982). The theory exposed
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the observation that an individual’s decision to act is not the immediate solution to the
problem but rather the catalyst to the committal process.
Motivation is affected by various factors that continue to ignite the incongruity
existing between conflicting cognitions and as a result, the individual alters behavior to
include a change in temperament and belief systems (Haber, Leach, Schudy & Sideleau,
1982; Collinson, Killeavy & Stephenson, 1999; DiFranks, 2008). Though the theory had
many limitations regarding explanatory research to identify significant relationships
between understanding, attitude, and behavior, the theorists did recognize that individuals
have the potential to bear the disparity between understanding and an engaged behavior.
Festinger (1957) discovered that several factors shape human behavior that makes valid
prediction of choice difficult. Similar to the cognitive dissonance and other previous
theories regarding human behavior and motivation, the cognitive consistency theory also
acknowledged the impact one’s belief system had upon the ability to endure, survive, and
thrive in a tumultuous environment (Haber et al., 1982).
Control theory. Self-control and factors that mitigated deviance were
investigated by 20th century theorists Reckless and Hirschi (as cited in Church, Wharton,
& Taylor, 2009; Leipold & Greve, 2009). Deviance could describe any behavior that
cascades outside of a societal norm; personal values, belief, and ethics often prevents a
person from acting outside of a social norm in terms of self-control (Church et al., 2009;
Leipold & Werner, 2009). Resilience is deviance from the norm in many cultures as
circumstances often warrant compliance rather than seeking change. Leipold and Greve
(2009) discussed resilience as a form of coping and a method of mitigating unpleasant
outcomes during adverse situations. Social norms and belief systems often compel
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resilient behavior yet resilience could conflict with a social norm when conformity
destabilizes the environment (Church et al., 2009; Leipold & Greve, 2009).
Though the control theory focused more on the predictability of deviant behavior,
the same perspective applied when predicting a deviance from a social norm that was
more positive; such as resilience (Carver & Scheirer, 1982; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos,
& Calvo, 2007). Originally, theorists sought to understand why individuals choose to
depart from a social norm. The reasons grew from a perceived weakness regarding the
norm and the need to emerge from the social pattern governing behaviors (Carver &
Scheirer, 1982; Eysenck et al., 2007). According to Reckless and Hirschi, (as cited in
Church et al., 2009) individuals have an inherent desire to work outside the norm, though
socially, individuals had a tendency to adapt to preserve the group function. Attachment,
commitment, and time were variables that shape social control which influence how,
when, and if the individual will deviate from established norms (Carver & Scheirer,
1982; Eysenck et al., 2007).
Social control theory could labor to be a motivational as well as anti-motivational
tool when applied in an extreme form. Motivation according to Hirschi (1957, as cited in
Carver & Scheirer, 1982; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007) remained an
inherent human trait and therefore, deviance became explainable by impulse or desire.
Criminal behavior was depicted most often as encompassing diverse motivations for
behavior such as releasing frustration, aggression, for pleasure, or survival. Though the
paradigm could predict motives, the control theory could not determine if all control
motives derived from a delinquency motive as opposed to a benevolent perspective. A
mother stealing bread and milk to feed her starving children remained an example of this
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paradigm that did not fit into the criminal or delinquent model (Carver & Scheirer, 1982;
Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007).
Drive theory. When a failure to achieve a satisfaction of needs persisted,
emotional conflicts emerged; pertinent to understanding motivational needs, the drive
theory defined a broad set of conceptualizations that addressed the conflicts (Conway &
Terry, 1992; Uziel, 2007; Vollhardt, 2009; Zajonc, 1965). Attainment of individual
needs mitigates drive whereas hurdles to achievement increase one’s drive to realize
determined goals. Altruism despite adversity or demonstrated during a time of suffering
describes the contemporary perspective of positive psychology, pro-social behavior, and
drive theory relevant to resilience (Goodboy & McCroskey, 2008; Uziel, 2007; Vollhardt,
2009; Zajonc, 1965). Once, academics only encouraged and validated research of pro-
social behavior because of positive experiences but current research suggests that pro-
social behavior such as altruism can be enhanced through adversity and the drive to
overcome (Coomber & Barriball, 2007; Vollhardt, 2009; Zajonc, 1965).
Concerning drive, two types of behavior emerged over the past 20 years of
scholarly research: (a) actions compelled through negative motivation and (b) positive
motivation as a prevalent pattern (Uziel, 2007; Vollhardt, 2009; Zajonc, 1965). Those
individuals with a negative perception of self, orientation, and confidence often failed
when endeavoring to achieve a goal while facing adversity. Individuals with positive-
driven behavior such as confidence, high self-esteem, and positive coping skills
possessed the predisposition to welcome the challenge of adversity as a method of
personal development (Uziel, 2007; Vollhardt, 2009; Zajonc, 1965). Resulting research
obliged contemporary endeavors to facilitate and understand the presence of positive pro-
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social behavior, resilience, or drive in the face of adversity (Crainer, 2000; Uziel, 2007;
Vollhardt, 2009; Zajonc, 1965).
Expectancy theory. Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964) involved
anticipated outcomes rather than a needs-based motivation. Effort and passion, according
to the theory, depended upon the expectations the individual possessed regarding
anticipated outcomes (Perry, Engbers, & Jun, 2008; Vroom, 1964). In the workforce, for
instance, expectancy theory showed that reward (valence) motivates the employee to
achieve according to the probability the behavior may reap reward, and the employee’s
intrinsic belief that the intended work performance may lead to a reward (Perry et al.,
2008; Vroom, 1964). Anticipated reward may compel some individuals to endure and
overcome adversity professionally and personally, resulting in increased performance and
achievement (Ellett, Ellis, Westbrook, & Dews, 2007; Elpers & Westhuis, 2008; Uziel,
2007; Vollhardt, 2009; Zajonc, 1965). Skill set, determination, resources and knowledge
influences the expectancy outcome professionally.
Vroom (1964) identified instrumentality as a function of the expectancy theory.
Instrumentality describes the application of the expectancy theoretical concept in
situations when the individual considers, posits, and believes that a positive outcome will
occur. The expectancy theory encompassed a relationship between effort and
performance, performance and reward, and reward and a personal goal. Essentially these
relationships describe the probability that others will recognize one’s effort; positive
action compelled positive reward, and a perceived magnetism of the assumed reward
(Perry et al., 2008, Vroom, 1964; Delahaij, Van Dam, Gaillard & Soeters, 2011).
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Several advantages of behaviors emphasized in the expectancy theory were
object-goal attainment throughout one’s professional career, possessing tangible yet
attainable expectations, and recognizing availability of methods for those willing to
achieve fulfillment by using individual drive (Perry et al., 2008; Vroom, 1964).
Impractical in design, the limits of the expectancy theory existed due to the subjective
application. The expectancy theory identifies correlations between one’s performance
and resulting gains from such performance (Perry et al., 2008). Studies have yet to
validate correlations between workplace rewards and positive performance appraisals
(Campbell, 2008; Perry et al., 2008; Vroom, 1964).
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation defines all items not
found within that produce a drive. Intrinsic motivation permits the individual to
overcome perceived hurdles socially, personally, educationally, and professionally from
an emotional place.). Not limited to tangible items, extrinsic motivators may exist within
verbal praise or public accolades. Intrinsic motivators define intangible or an
emotionally driven strength (Lin, 2007; Prendergast, 2008). Love, faith, and hope
describe a few intrinsic motivators responsible for successful navigation of personal
hurdles. Outside influences alone do not support successful attainment of goals. Studies
suggested that extrinsic motivation, while a part of individual drive, could only work to
encourage continued goal attainment by mitigating fatigue. Hardiness or resilience
required internal drive; extrinsic motivators assisted the individual to remain driven
despite hard times (Lin, 2007; Prendergast, 2008).
In terms of this grounded theory study, intrinsic motivation applies to the
motivations required to engage circumstance, adversity, and challenge to achieve a goal,
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a set of goals, or to enrich one’s self-concept (Grant, 2008; Patall, Cooper, & Robinson,
2008; Pinder, 2008). Intrinsic motivation sustained because it could not easily dissolve in
chaos such as can occur with external motivators. Grant (2008) discovered that the
impact of extrinsic behavior likened to the coercion individuals may experience in
adverse circumstance; regardless of external motivation many would likely engage poor
coping behaviors if emotional strength waned.
Research has shown that for short-term agreement and engagement, extrinsic
motivators succeeded in engaging the individual’s desire to achieve (Grant, 2008; Patall
et al.,, 2008, Pinder, 2008). Over time however, the interest and desire to achieve
reduced and eventually disappeared unless supported by alternative intrinsic motivators.
Internalization of motivations became essential to enduring adversity and required a
significant amount of internal desire to achieve successful attainment of a specific goal
(Grant, 2008; Patall et al., 2008; Pinder, 2008).
Self-determination theory (SDT). Self-determination theory focuses on the
significance of intrinsic drive to an individual’s ability to produce and maintain survival-
effective behaviors. Van den Broeck et al. (2008) explained the relational value of the
self-determination theory to how individuals choose to engage their work environment,
burnout, and the responsibilities of the job chosen. Basic psychological need satisfaction,
according to Van den Broeck et al. was paramount above all to achieving workplace
emotional agreement as well as success. An imperative to achieving need satisfaction is
the individual’s choice of a career based on the characteristics of the role and a need to
achieve (Deci & Ryan, 2000, 2008). A description of self-determined affect could be
individuals who are emotionally driven, guided by personal ethics, and who display
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strong belief systems, inherent hardiness traits, and faith- or belief-driven confidence
(Byron, 2001; Greenhaus, Callahan & Godshalk, 2009).
Researchers considering the self-determination theory thoroughly examined the
responses, conditions and psychological evolutions which nurtured strong emotional
development and effective coping skills among a diverse set of individuals
(Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thogersen- Ntoumani, 2011). Self-determination theorists
embraced the study of human motivation as well as the human personality. The SDT
context expressed the value and role that intrinsic or extrinsic motivators played within
an individual’s ability to call forth and sustain positive coping behaviors (Bartholomew,
Ntoumanis, & Thogersen- Ntoumani, 2011).
Various social-cultural factors influence the preferences and enterprise an
individual may assume throughout a lifetime that inadvertently impacts performance
academically, professionally, and socially. Influenced by many factors, SDT reflected a
multitude of aspects cognitively, behaviorally, and value-based. Autonomous growth
opportunities coincided with SDT because without autonomous growth, the individual’s
path towards achievement would be spoiled (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thogersen-
Ntoumani, 2011). Several smaller theories comprised the development of SDT, but
common traits emerged such as awareness of self, effective coping, validation of self,
approval, control, value in challenge, competence, motivation, and relatedness. Overall,
the worth of SDT as it pertained to resilience resulted in its fundamental result: the ability
to focus and sustain the drive necessary to produce a positive coping behavior
(Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thogersen- Ntoumani, 2011).
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Self-efficacy. As defined by founding theorist Bandura (1977), self-efficacy is
the individual’s ability to draw up one’s skill set and motivations to perform at high
levels; therefore implementing significant authority over circumstances that affect one’s
life. Efficacy compels the process that determines how the individual responds to
adversity. The process encompasses individual ethics, attitudes, motivation and feelings
as factors that influence self-efficacy. Because self-efficacy augments accomplishment
and emotional health, individuals with high self-efficacy confront difficulty rather than
avoid the challenge (Bandura, 1977; Goldenberg, Matheson & Mantler, 2006).
Paramount to success, intrinsic motivation increases dedication and loyalty to the process
through difficult times. Showing consistent and willful engagement of a challenge, the
self-efficacious individual recovers quickly from failure and sets adjustable goals to
increase the likelihood of sustainable success (Bandura, 1977; Chen & Scannapieco,
2010).
Pivotal to self-efficacy, exercising control over one’s circumstance increases the
individual’s ability to function in a productive manner throughout adverse situations
(Gleiser, et al., 2008; Gul & Oktay, 2008). Subsequent to positive outcomes, adaptable
paradigms affect decisions that mitigate or eliminate the potential for the individual to
succumb to chaos. Subject to change, individual efficacy evolves as circumstances and
individual beliefs, motivations and judgments change throughout a lifetime.
Emotional intelligence. The emotional intelligence (EI) attribute is determined
by the individual capacity to filter emotional stimuli, identify and interpret relevant
information, and produce positive coping behavior that supports sustained and vigilant
circumspection throughout perceived psychological adversity (Goleman, 1995; Mayer,
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Salovey, & Caruso, 2008). Possessing sufficient EI also enables the individual to manage
one’s own emotions as well as others’ and guide others to cope and behave positively to
achieve goals despite difficulties or amidst chaos. Perceptions guide the emotional
intelligence of individuals; the more an individual can apply an open perspective, the
more likely one can learn to understand one’s own and others’ behaviors and the reason
behind actions (Goleman, 1995; Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004. Individuals with
well-developed EI can exploit positive emotions such as empathy or hardiness when
called upon. By understanding one’s emotions, an individual is more likely to
compartmentalize negative emotions for the sake of overcoming present hurdles to
success. Common to success, socially relevant outcomes result from an individual’s
capacity to engage emotionally intelligent behavior at all times (Estep, 2 005, Mayer et
al., 2008).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. An individual’s mental health and emotional
welfare depend on several factors, including internal needs, strengths, and external
factors such as adversity, traumas, or socioeconomic status (Gorman, 2010; Maslow,
1943; Yeo & Li, 2011). Internal motivation, sometimes manifesting as hardiness or
resilience, complicated theorists’ development of a theory of needs because hardiness or
resilience were more difficult to describe due to varying interpretations (Gorman, 2010;
Maslow, 1943; Yeo & Li, 2011). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, proposed in 1943,
described human motivation in terms that classified individual needs and motivations to
achieve specified goals.
Most commonly shaped in the form of a pyramid, the hierarchy of needs
described the fundamental needs progressing upward to the highest order need of self-
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actualization (Gorman, 2010; Maslow, 1943; Yeo & Li, 2011). Deficiencies in basic
needs prevent the individual from achieving other fundamental needs. The physiology
need refers to an individual’s need to eat, drink and breathe; without those needs met, the
individual could not develop. Likewise, once the individuals meet their physiological
needs they would then move to have safety needs met; safety from harm or financial
security. For as long as one could move forward, the individual could work on achieving
belonging, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization (Gorman, 2010; Maslow, 1943; Yeo
& Li, 2011). Current research depicts organizational, educational, and social work
practitioners as endeavoring to identify where individuals’ needs wane and seek to satisfy
their essential needs as a means of positive intervention (Gorman, 2010; Yeo & Li,
2011).
McGregor’s X-Y theory. In 1960, McGregor built his theory of X-Y on the
foundation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Human motivation, according to McGregor,
differentiated attitudes that compelled workforce motivation. Leaders of organizations
choose to initiate one approach or the other (X or Y). Driven by trust, organizational
leaders decide to control and to manage the employee (theory X) or they decide to assist
the employee to reach his or her professional goals (theory Y). Theory X resulted in
leaders who disliked their role, reduced productivity, decreased happiness, eliminated
ambition, and reduced initiative. Leaders found the needed to control their subordinates
through threats, coercion and punishment to achieve organizational goals. Employees led
through theory X were more likely to seek employment elsewhere (Fiman, 2006;
McGregor, 1960; Kopelman, Prottas, & Falk, 2010).
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In the other perspective (theory Y), was the leader who attempted to assist their
employees to self-actualize (Fiman, 2006; McGregor, 1960; Kopelman et al., 2010).
Individuals managed by theory Y take initiative, value their roles, seek ways to develop,
show commitment to the organization, value responsibility and creativity, and exercise a
high degree of self- control (Fiman, 2006; McGregor, 1960; Kopelman et al., 2010). The
primary role of managers in theory Y was to discover what motivated their employees;
concurrently the manager was to develop all employees to arrive at their individual
potentials while achieving the organizational mission (Fiman, 2006; McGregor, 1960;
Kopelman et al., 2010). Research suggests that while both theories engendered
organizational success, leaders could achieve more productive and happy workers
through employing theory Y (Fiman, 2006; McGregor, 1960; Kopelman et al., 2010).
Hardiness theory. Kobasa (1979) first addressed the concept of hardiness in
relation to the evolving organizational environment (Bartone, Roland, Picano, &
Williams, 2008; Maddi et al., 2011). In studies of organizations, Kobasa uncovered a set
of consistent characteristics that separated workers who succumbed to stress and those
who did not, labeling these patterns as an intrinsic phenomenon called hardiness (Bartone
et al., 2008; Maddi et al., 2011). Tested in a high stakes and high stress environment, the
U.S. Army has investigated the concept of hardiness through identifying soldiers with
resilient personality traits (Harvey & Tummala- Narra, 2007; Maddi et. al, 2011).
Among individuals identified as resilient, researchers determined that hardiness appeared
to be a paramount characteristic of stress tolerance and achievement of goals during high-
demand missions Harvey, Weston, Lebowitz, Saunders, Avi- Yonah & Harney, 2007).
Two decades of research conceptualized hardiness as a unified combination of several
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traits including commitment, self-control, intrinsic motivation, spiritual beliefs and
audacity. These conceptualizations, by many academics, have illuminated the course
toward becoming resilient (Hausknecht, Rodda, & Howard, 2009; Maddi et. al, 2011).
Related Theories: Grief and Logotherapy
Grief. Grief is a process naturally experienced by all individuals and is not
restricted to death and dying. Grief encompasses other forms of intense feelings of loss
as well (Kübler-Ross & Kessler, 2005). In 1969, Kübler-Ross introduced the five stages
of grief or the Kübler-Ross model (Kübler-Ross & Kessler, 2005). Developed from more
than 500 interviews with dying patients and their families, the model described specific
stages in the patients’ coping skills that manifested in distinct processes. The grief stages
were not linear; stages of grief did not need to occur in a specific order or be restricted by
time. Denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance define the grief model
concerning behavior (Kübler-Ross & Kessler, 2005).
In organizations, increased workplace hostility, workplace stress and
organizational chaos brought the grief model to the forefront of the organizational
process (McClendon & Kadis, 1991; Schoolfield & Orduna, 2001; Shepard, Covin, &
Kuratko, 2009). The nature of personnel’s response to grief determines the ability of the
organization to recover successfully from a variety of market hurdles. How well an
individual or organization manages loss depends upon the ability to bounce back from
loss as well as identify meaning through adversity (Bono, Foldes, Vinson, & Muros,
2007; Boyas & Wind, 2010).
Logotherapy. Developed by psychiatrist Viktor Frankl in the 1940s, logotherapy
and existential analysis broke through as a meaning-focused method of psychotherapy
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(Frankl, 1969). Primarily, Frankl (1969) developed his theory because of his experiences
as a prisoner in several of Nazi Germany’s internment or death camps during WWII
(Frankl, 1969). Frankl found when separated from his family and friends he experienced
a challenge to his fundamental belief systems and will to live (Frankl, 1969). Bound by
an insatiable desire to survive, he found that the difference between men and women who
survived the death camps and those who did not, were expressed in the form of choice
rather than individual health or circumstance (Frankl, 1969). In suffering, meaning
became the primary drive if not the epitome that motivated prisoners to survive in the
most atrocious of circumstances (Frankl, 1969). Three theoretical and psychologically-
based concepts at the core of logotherapy, freedom of will, will to meaning, and meaning
in life, were the primary motivations of the human capacity to overcome adversity
(Frankl, 1969).
The belief or primary confidence of logotherapy encompassed the ideal that
humans, not driven by their external condition, had freely chosen their attitude in the face
of any adverse condition; termed freedom of will (Frankl, 1969). Frankl (1969)
determined that people define their life, not their misfortune. Through defining one’s
life, the individual had the choice to decide how one developed despite their condition.
The definition of one’s life relied heavily upon how one (psychologically) perceived
personal strengths, attitude, and meaning in the face of atrocity. Freedom of will
afforded the individual a degree of absolute internal control amidst adverse circumstance
(Frankl, 1969).
Will to meaning referred to one’s ability to choose personal goals and define
one’s purpose (Frankl, 1969). Without a will to meaning a person experienced only a
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dreadful sense of futility and worthlessness. Goals and vision assisted the drive to
survive because without goals, individuals had nothing to look forward to after emerging
from the negative circumstance. Based on the ideal that meaning was an integral facet of
survival, the pursuit of meaning in suffering required individuals to find a positive
purpose for their existence to continue to thrive after the event (Frankl, 1969). Processes
within the logotherapy construct remained subjective according to the individual and the
circumstances the person may have faced. Essentially driven by choice, individuals must
have chosen their attitude amidst adversity and decide to do what they must to survive
(Frankl, 1969).
Cultural Bias and Resiliency
Tummala-Nara (2007) investigated the multicultural implications or the effect
ethnic diversity may have on the resilience phenomenon. Tran and Lee (2010) and
Tummala-Nara (2007) posited that individuals from diverse backgrounds face a stronger
bias regarding the understanding, application, and development of strategies to build
sustainable resilience traits. Expression of resilience may not rest within one individual.
Societal norms vary in different cultures and ethnic groups, suggesting that resilience
may manifest differently from what the psychological community views as a traditional
norm (Tran & Lee, 2010; Tummala-Nara, 2007).
Considering the varying coping styles and views of resilience within these groups
is significant to understand what shapes the ideals that encourage resilience. Unlike
seminal research, contemporary researchers have begun to study the effect of cultural
bias and the identification and development of resilience or stress-hardiness traits in
individuals of diverse background. A cultural disparity exists in research today and
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remains a consideration in the development of resilience models and paradigms that
motivated this grounded theory study (Dulewicz, Higgs, & Slaski, 2003, Donoghue,
2007).
Summary of Literature Review
Traits of resilient individuals. The literature review addressed various
resilience, emotional, educational, psychological, organizational and motivational
perspectives and aspects of resilience pertaining to the educational, social service, and
organizational fields. Though the development of and beliefs regarding inherent traits
differed, patterns emerged suggesting that the development and strengthening of the
characteristics may lead to a more resilient life style (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977, 1980;
Ogden et al., 2006; Prendergast, 2008; Reiss, 2004). One of the more primal or
foundational traits of resilience has been identified as a will or a drive to thrive (Avey et
al., 2009; Frankl, 1967, Ogden et al., 2006). Traits of resilient individuals that emerged
from the literature review were positive self-concept, positive worldview, goals,
autonomy, perceived purpose, adaptability, social perceptiveness, introspection,
circumspection, organization, initiative, ingenuity and willingness (Dutton & Greene,
2010, Farmer, 2010, Ferris et al., 2005). Upon reflective study, some factors became
more conspicuous than others for supporting resilience. Cognition, autonomy, emotion,
interpersonal skills, social skills, and internal locus of control are factors that suggest an
individual is more likely to engage resilient behavior in a successful manner (Collins,
2010, Farmer, 2010, Ferris et al., 2005).
Threats to developing resilience. Intrinsic motivation strengthens the resolve to
thrive and overcome adversity. Extrinsic motivators play a role in supporting an
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individual through adversity, but in many studies findings indicated external motivators
were not a significant factor (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Grant, 2008; Kelley, 1967; Lin, 2007;
McClelland, 1983; Patall et al., 2008). The concept of bouncing back has been a research
focus for more than two decades (Frankl, 1969, Fredrickson, 2001). Mental health
professionals, educators and organizational leaders have since begun to investigate the
implications and found that without adequate support, the individual becomes physically
and emotionally depleted; thereby suppressing the resilience drive (Bondy et al., 2007;
Briguglio et al., 2009; Brooks & Goldstein, 2003; Collins, 2010; Combes-Malcom, 2007;
Crichton et al., 2009). Socio-economic factors and the degree of traumatization had not
skewed the discoveries, however the review suggested that culture and belief systems
influence the ability of an individual or a set of individuals to embrace a resilient practice
(Albee & Piveral, 2003; Arehart-Treichel, 2005; Crichton et al., 2009; Ogden et al.,
2006;).
Research gap. Abundant studies were identified about resilience but a large gap
was discovered in research on the development of a resilience construct. An insufficient
number of studies existed about the specific problem and purpose of this grounded theory
research, but a large number of studies addressed the definition, understanding and
potential implications that resilience development may pose within the educational, social
services and organizational environments. The literature review mapped out the germinal
theories and concepts that comprised resilience while studies within the past five years
showed positive implications toward the development of a resilience construct. The
objective of the grounded theory study was to create and suggest a theory that stimulates
the possibility of developing resilience among mental health professionals, educators,
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students, leaders, organizations and individuals as it sustains effective victory over
adversity. In addition, the study anticipated advancing the development and
sustainability of resilient behavior through the development of specific traits, paradigms
and collective authenticity regarding adversity by way of a grounded theory. Unlike
previous studies, the research did not intend to redefine resilience or suggest further
implications of studying resilience; rather the study sought to create a grounded theory
with broad applicability to sectors of research beyond education, social services and
organizations. Chapter 3 contains discussions of the grounded theory research strategy
and methodology unique to the qualitative investigation, using interviews to obtain the
perspective and lived experiences of those who have faced and overcome adversity. As
necessary, follow- up interviews continued until data saturation had been achieved.
Educational, organizational and psychological case studies had been reviewed to obtain,
record and code the obtained data.
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Chapter 3
Method
The purpose of the current qualitative grounded theory study was to identify the
shared traits and behaviors common to individuals who have overcome adversity and to
produce a foundation and applicable construct for sustainable resilience development
across the organizational, social service, and educational fields. A thorough review of the
literature failed to yield theories regarding sustainable resilience development. The
research questions and subquestions sought to identify which concepts and shared traits
would emerge that facilitated the development of sustainable resilience across
organizational, social science, and educational boundaries. The qualitative research
method was appropriate for the study and was used to accomplish the goal of revealing
how obtained data pertained to the development of a construct in which concepts,
categories, and propositions comprised a theory arising from the data; a grounded theory
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). According to Glaser and Strauss (1967), a qualitative method
permits investigators to display how and why a phenomenon happens. The study goals
justified the use of the grounded theory design because the design afforded the ability to
integrate resilience, the core phenomenon in the research with consistency, precision, and
opportunity (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
Appropriateness of the Research Method and Design
Research method. Research methods used in academic investigations include
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Qualitative
inquiry permitted for a more iterative method of stimulating and classifying responses
throughout the in-depth interview process. The research purpose was to examine a broad
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research questions and pursue understanding of an intangible phenomenon, the resilience
characteristic, by applying inductive approaches to data analysis. The qualitative method
explored data through a continual process of data collection, analysis, and questions
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2008). The research method was determined
appropriate because the research problem required review, exploration, and an
understanding of the resilience phenomenon within substantive fields of study (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2008).
Research design. The current grounded theory research study explored the
individual experiences with overcoming adversity personally and professionally. As
opposed to beginning with assumptions about the chosen phenomenon, a grounded theory
process consists of investigating relationships and constructs through methods of
inductive research; a process that permits the grounded theory to materialize through
analysis of the data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Open coding was the initial conceptual
filter or construct implemented to analyze collected data obtained from field transcripts
and investigative notes. The process of coding was extensive because it involved
conceptualizing how and why an event happened, and the factors involved. Coding was
the primary function to focus the theory within the study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
Axial coding involves the conceptual breakdown of foundational themes through
a process of integrating contextual situations and evident relationships as a means of
establishing viable codes to integrate into a theory (Strauss & Corbin, 2008). Using the
initial demographics and interview data, the investigation yielded discoveries that
established a significant foundation for creating sustainable resiliency development
theory. As scope and conditions related to the phenomenon are developed, the theory
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appears when the researcher engages the revelatory process called selective coding
(Glaser, 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The grounded theory
design used in the study was applied to generate a potential theory from the collected data
in a systematic process.
Method and design appropriateness. Phenomenology, case- study, historical,
ethnography as well as grounded theory encompass the array of qualitative designs.
While several designs exist, a grounded theory study was chosen over all other qualitative
designs because the inductive method of discovery allowed for a theory to be constructed
while grounding the theory in experiential data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967/1999; Bryant &
Charmaz, 2010). The comprehensive systematic method of analysis permitted the
researcher to investigate the areas of research while patterns and issues arose in real time.
Resilience has been heavily investigated over several decades, evidenced by the
prevalence of resiliency definitions in 134,000 scholarly studies on the EBSCO HOST
database in 2011. Resiliency development theories, in contrast, were absent. Research
implicated the need for a resilience development theory both sustainable and applicable
across diverse fields of study. Decades of investigation and research led to the definition
of resilience and identification of shared traits, but the lack of available research about
how resilience develops, and the intangible nature of the phenomenon, supported
choosing a qualitative methodology as best for the study.
The qualitative method suited study requirements because qualitative inquiry
assisted with deriving meaning and understanding from observable phenomena (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008; Trochim, 2001). Several classification techniques exist in the
qualitative method that assisted in the development of a sustainable resiliency
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development theory. Quantitative methods focus on descriptive and explanatory
relationships through experimental control and the generation of hypotheses (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008), and was the least appropriate approach for this study because of the lack
of quantification of data. Mixed methods research is a research design that utilizes both
qualitative and quantitative methods to afford an improved understanding of the research
when one method of research is insufficient to address the research problem (Koskey &
Stewart, 2013). Mixed methodology is pragmatic when the research necessitates diverse
viewpoints of the subjective and objective (Koskey & Stewart, 2013). A mixed methods
approach was not suitable for the study because a sustainable resilience development
theory did not exist; therefore a qualitative method was more appropriate to the study.
Grounded theory was most suitable for the study above all other qualitative
designs because the research problem sought to identify traits that supported the
formation of a sustainable resilience development theory. While other qualitative designs
address aspects of the problem, the outcomes were not similar. The grounded theory
study served to expand the relevant background and potential application of a sustainable
resiliency development construct (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The purpose of the study
was not to quantify relationships or hypothesize the nuances of the resilient mind, but to
filter current academic data into one versatile theory of sustainable resiliency
development. To form a grounded theory, an extensive review of composed academic
case study data from the past two decades, complemented with a purposive sampling of
interviews and field data collection, assisted the reliable compilation and analysis of
collected data. Interviews using the self-reported survey determined if the respondent
had overcome adversity in the past. The process resulted in identification of a focal
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theory, factors, and ideas that scholars and respondents considered significant regarding
the understanding and application of resilience in the educational, organizational, and
social service setting.
One struggle with grounded theory was the inability for the researcher to
conceptualize emergent patterns and look beyond the pure descriptive stage of
development. Open, axial and selective coding assisted the researcher in departing from
the descriptive tendencies associated with some grounded theory studies. Second,
theorists maintain a responsibility to the academic community to evaluate all potential
sources of relevant data to mitigate bias and any information that may negatively skew
the coding process. Because it was the researcher’s goal to develop a grounded theory,
the researcher faced the task of mitigating potential bias as she analyzed the collected
data, whether she preferred the outcome or not. As advised by Corbin and Strauss
(2008), paramount to coding accurate data and identifying emergent patterns was the
researcher’s ability to maintain notes during interviews and case study investigations.
The researcher was required to investigate all avenues of meaning to prevent assumptive
reasoning from guiding data collection (Corbin & Strauss).
The research purpose of investigating lived experiences to understand resiliency
development guided the method for the study. Because a quantitative method required a
tapered focal point, a qualitative method was requisite to investigate implications and
direction for further study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2005). The qualitative
method and grounded theory design were appropriate for this study because they
permitted the potential creation of a sustainable resilience development theory (Bryant &
Charmaz, 2010). Focused on generating an emergent theory, grounded theory developed
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from collected data; coded and analyzed for the purpose of theory construction; a
grounded theory. Open, axial, and selective coding assisted the investigator with
clarifying and processing associations of data about a specified phenomenon over time.
Arising from the lack of a theoretical construct for sustainable resiliency development,
the appropriateness of a qualitative grounded theory design emerged.
Research Questions
A fundamental shift in organizational environments, unstable economic markets,
academic pressures and personal crises had propelled the need for sustainable resilience
development in a changing global community (Reich et al., 2010). The concept of
resilience underwent a dynamic shift in the decade of the 2000s; definitions varied
though the emerging ideas revealed sustainable traits and their impact on overcoming
adversity. The inherent need to improve the psychology and emotional strength of
organizations, their human capital, educators, students, and the individual has revealed
the need to engage research that may potentiate the discovery of new theory about how
resiliency develops (Kuhn, 1962; Reich et al., 2010).
The study followed a stringent set of proven grounded theory practices to develop
models, notions, specific classes and distinctive traits obtained through concomitant,
reproducible collections of data and analyses (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Denzin &
Lincoln, 2008; Glaser & Straus, 1967/1999). The iterative nature of the grounded theory
design enabled the theory to materialize through the collected and analyzed data as
opposed to beginning with pre-fabricated assumptions so that the grounded theory that
emerged mutually expressed the resulting assemblage of data (Denzin& Lincoln, 2008).
Specific to grounded theory, categories spontaneously emerged from the collected data
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and case study analyses. Once enough data produced saturation, the researcher had the
opportunity to develop specific generalizations regarding information pertinent to
establishing potential theoretical constructs (Glaser & Straus, 1967; Corbin & Strauss,
2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). The eventual deductions and infusion of new concepts
and ideas created the opportunity to identify and develop the frameworks that led to a
new theory (Glaser & Straus, 1967/1999, Corbin & Strauss, 2008, Denzin & Lincoln,
2008). Guided by the foundation and ideology of grounded theory, the following
research questions aided identification of the traits that abetted the growth of a
sustainable resilience development theory:
Primary research question. What shared concepts will emerge that facilitate the
development of sustainable resilience across organizational, social science, and
educational boundaries?
Secondary research question. What shared traits will emerge that facilitate the
development of sustainable resilience across organizational, social science, and
educational boundaries?
Research subquestions. Four subquestions derived from the primary and
secondary question:
RQ1. What shared qualities were exhibited among the respondents that facilitated
the respondents’ ability to overcome adversity?
RQ2. What coping behaviors, strategies, environments, beliefs, and practices
foster effectual resilient practices which promote the ability to overcome adversity?
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RQ3. Which concepts emerge that may foster the ability for leaders to develop
sustainable resilient practices across the social science, organization and educational
fields?
RQ4. What steps are essential to facilitate the maturity, execution and
sustainability of resilience development?
Geographic Location and Population
Geographic location. Limited to two counties in Florida, the investigation
focused upon identifying business professionals, leaders, and post- secondary institutions.
The study solicited a broad range of organizations to include business that employed
fewer than 50 individuals to those that employed more than 3,000. According to City-
Data records (2011), 14,556 businesses representing diverse fields including education,
engineering, computer science, medical, and mechanical trades resided within the
sampled counties in the state of Florida. The study targeted colleges and universities
within the same respective counties as well.
Population. The population of the study was individuals who were business
professionals or enrolled students attending private, public, community, and vocational
colleges and universities. Upon collection, the data revealed 24 individuals who
participated came from organizations, 20 individuals were educators, 32 worked in social
services, and 11 were students. Up to six months of interview and field collection of data
assisted with the reliable compilation, analysis and application of collected data (Bryant
& Charmaz, 2010). In accordance with recognized grounded theory practices, study data
were also collected through an extensive review of composed academic case studies from
two decades of human experience with adversity and resilience.
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Sampling
A sampling frame, as defined by Creswell (2009) and Babbie (2010), derived
from a probability-sampling list or a list of individuals whom possessed common
characteristics. All of the initial participants in the study were individuals who have
indicated that they have overcome adversity. The study respondents were separated into
two groups; one group was organizational leaders and the other group was students from
private, public, community and vocational colleges and universities. Identifying a
purposive sample involved recruitment of volunteers to provide self-reported resilience
data. Participants were recruited through a series of volunteer solicitations during
organizational meetings, chamber of commerce luncheons and off-campus activity
events. Advantageous to the short recruitment period for the study, the purposive sample
method over the probability sampling method was most likely to recruit participants in an
efficient manner (Cozby, 2007).
The survey was dispensed in large quantity to the target population, resulting in
acquiring respondents for the study. Once it had been determined that the individuals
overcame adversity and were 18 years of age or older, the researcher conducted
preliminary interviews to determine suitability. The preliminary interviews discussed the
respondent’s rights, the confidentiality agreement, study requirements and details, as well
as to determine if the respondent was a member of an at-risk category. Finally, the
respondents were assigned an identification code, given contact information, and
scheduled for an in- depth interview. A sampling bias may have occurred due to the
restrictive sampling requirements of the study and the respondents may not be
representative of the local population. Because the study required purposive sampling to
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occur until saturation had peaked, the sampling bias was addressed and apportioned,
resulting in a more representative sample.
Sample size. Several factors were considered when determining the sample size
for the study (Babbie, 2010). Purposive sampling targeted a specific group of individuals
who were difficult to recruit (Babbie, 2010). Because a theory for resilience did not
exist, the presentation of information to predict the saturation of collected data remained
absent (Babbie, 2010). Data collection during the interview process ceased when data
saturation had been achieved, which characteristically should have occurred at no more
than 50 interviews, but purposive sampling continued until the saturation occurred (Guest
et al., 2006). The study sampled a total of 87 respondents; though the typical acceptable
sample is smaller in number the data continued to collect until saturation had been
achieved and therefore appropriate. Mason (2010) discussed within his study that while
grounded theory research and qualitative research finds mean sample sizes between 25
and 50, a pre-determined method to sampling is not entirely compatible to the needs of
every study. According to Mason (2010) several factors influence sample size and data
saturation and data collection must continue until true saturation has been met or the data
fails to yield new insights. The grounded theory study interviewed respondents and
continued to collect interview data until no new relevant information emerged and no
unexplained phenomena persisted.
Informed Consent
The University of Phoenix institutional review board (IRB) guaranteed federal
governing agencies that the IRB would ensure all research met the federal designations of
human subjects research prior to approval. The potential for a more than nominal risk
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required a rigorous review because the study involved the collection of sensitive
information. Full IRB approval was achieved when the board had determined the
investigation parameters protected the interest of the human subjects involved.
All participation in the study was voluntary. Each respondent received a written
synopsis of the study as well as a written and oral representation of the confidentiality
declaration. To certify confidentiality and respondent privacy, respondents were asked to
sign an informed consent agreement (Appendix B). The consent form contained a written
description of the study’s purpose, obtained contact information, included the possible
risks and benefits associated with participation, an assurance of voluntary participation
and an assurance that the study maintained confidentiality. The respondents were
informed that they may choose to withdraw from the study at any time, guaranteeing that
their information and identifying data would be shredded.
Confidentiality
The surveys the respondents completed were collected in person or mailed in a
self-addressed stamped envelope and will be stored in a locked filing cabinet for three
years. The names of the respondents were not used in the study and each respondent was
assigned a study identification number for the purpose of communication. After three
years, the data will be shredded and the information will be removed from the electronic
database. Confidentiality was maintained throughout the study by the use of the
respondent identification numbers. Because the study required interviews to take place
and personal contact information was maintained, only the researcher was privy to the
confidential information. The contact data will be destroyed after three years unless the
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respondent withdrew from the study; if the respondents chose to withdraw, all of their
information was destroyed and removed from the data base immediately.
Data Collection Procedure
Limited to two counties in Florida, the investigation focused upon identifying
business professionals, leaders, and post- secondary institutions. The study solicited a
broad range of organizations to include business that employed less than 50 individuals to
those that employed more than 3,000. According to City-Data records (2011), the
sampled counties contained 14,556 businesses representing diverse fields including
education, engineering, computer science, medical, and mechanical trades. The study
targeted colleges and universities within the same respective counties as well.
Respondents received a primary communication, once their interest in
participating had been determined, requesting a face-to-face meeting or web meeting to
discuss the study and their potential role. The communication contained details of the
study as well as the researcher’s confidentiality statement. During the initial meeting, the
respondents answered willingly the initial self-reported resilience data questions, and
were given informed consent forms to review, including information about the rights of
the respondent, and the time that may be required to participate in the study. The
respondents were informed of their right to withdraw at any time and were given the
period by which the initial forms and surveys must be returned. Once the respondent
signed the informed consent agreement and the completed survey, the researcher
determined if the respondent qualified as a study participant. If the respondent met the
established participation criteria, the respondent was contacted to establish a time and
date for the interview.
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Due to the specific needs of the study, the respondent must have met several
criteria. The respondent must have been at least 18 years old, a business leader, or an
enrolled student at a private, public, community and vocational college or university. A
critical criterion was having willfully acknowledged facing and overcoming adversity in
the past. A person’s gender, relationship status, economic background, culture, ethnicity,
or color had not affected the ability to participate and was collected for representative
data purposes only. During the initial meeting, the respondent received an identification
code and was asked to give an email address, home address and/or telephone number for
contacting purposes. The respondent was informed of the procedure for contact and
informed that only the researcher was privy to personal information. All personal
identity information and signed information were stored in a locked cabinet and a
password and encryption protected hard drive. Once the study was completed, the
information was kept under lock for three years and then destroyed.
Instrumentation
Following collection of initial demographic data, the study encompassed one
major assessment. The assessment was a self-reported response to whether the individual
felt he or she had faced adversity and overcome the adversity before the current date. If
the individual self-reported having faced and overcome the adversity, then the individual
moved on to the interview process. The self- report method was useful to the grounded
theory study because it asked directed questions specific to the requirements of the study.
Self-reporting was significant because interviewing individuals who did not meet the
needs of the study would not yield data relevant to the study. During the interview the
researcher asked open-ended questions designed to observe and obtain the lived
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experiences of the individuals studied; the self- report method focused the research and
permitted the collection of relevant and abundant data throughout the interview process.
Data Analysis
Qualitative grounded theory research is a comparative method and design where
equivalent data are clustered and perceptively labeled through the open coding process.
The data is then further classified and the categories are connected and ordered by
association through the axial coding method. As scope and conditions related to the
phenomenon are developed, the theory appears when the researcher engages the
revelatory process called selective coding (Glaser, 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss
& Corbin, 1990). Triangulation of data was employed as well throughout the analysis
process in order to identify areas of agreement and divergence.
The data collection process resulted in amassing 306 codes through the open
coding process; further refinement of the data was determined by linking the
classifications by relationship. The axial coding process resulted in the identification of
55 codes. Through the process of selective coding eight themes and 12 sub themes
emerged thus exposing the new theory. While some of the dynamic assertions or themes
related to sustainable resilience development were overt, most of the expressions of the
theme were subtle. Indigenous categories emerged through these processes as well, for
instance the use of common phrases or words in an uncommon manner; the word
suffering was often used, however the term in many instances referred to purposeful
endurance. Interview responses were analyzed line by line using systematic comparisons
to assist with the coding as well. The themes and sub themes became more visible
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throughout the application of the theoretical coding processes. Data saturation occurred at
87 interviews when new and substantial insights ceased.
Participants’ responses to the interview questions, self- reported survey,
observable behaviors and personal accounts provided data for the study. Case studies
provided by organizational leaders, social workers and educators offered data in addition
to data collected from the past two decades of practice and research. Criteria for
inclusion were specific to the needs of the study according to the scope which
encompassed the methods, strategies, practices and belief systems of the sample
population. The sample consisted of organizational leaders, licensed mental health
practitioners, and students at private, public, community and vocational colleges and
universities within the same counties. Selection criteria of participating organizations
and individuals depended upon growth of the organization and employees at said
organization, community leaders, licensed mental health practitioners with at least 10
years of experience, or current enrollment at the local community college, vocational
program, state or public college, and state or public university.
Respondents’ willingness to share candidly in the initial assessment and
subsequent interview regarding resilient characteristics and background formed part of
the scope of the study. Business leaders must have had a willingness to share case
studies and speak candidly about the case and the organization, as well as showing
resilience during the interview process. Identification of themes, traits, strategies, biases,
limitations and methods that specify meaning toward the resilience phenomenon defined
the essence of the study scope. Interviews occurred after respondents completed the self-
reported survey and had met the established study criteria. The interviews were semi-
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structured and respondent-directed to ensure that the individuals were not inadvertently
led to answer in a specific manner. The goal of the interview was to record and analyze
the lived experiences of those who faced and overcame adversity in the past.
Open coding was the first conceptual filter or construct implemented to analyze
collected data and data obtained from field transcripts or investigative notes (Strauss &
Corbin, 2008). The process of coding was extensive because it involved conceptualizing
how and why an event happened, and the factors involved. This process was the primary
function to focusing the theory within the study (Strauss & Corbin, 2008). Axial coding,
specific to grounded theory studies, is the breakdown of foundational themes through a
process of integrating contextual situations and evident relationships as a means of
establishing viable codes to integrate into the theory (Strauss & Corbin, 2008).
Grounded theory investigations encompass an inquisitional-based method where the
immediate focus is on the observable phenomenon. The focus of this study was to take
the acquired data and run it through an open and axial coding system to identify in an
analytical manner, the traits and strategies most viable for the creation of a sustainable
resilience development construct.
Internal and external validity
To achieve cogent research and attain valid outcomes the research employed
facets of qualitative research concepts such as credibility, transferability, reliability, and
objectivity. The credibility of a research study depended upon the accuracy of the
findings; the goal was to obtain quality information versus an overabundance of data.
The study involved the interviews of 87 respondents; the large number of interviews
occurred as a result of the phenomenon researched and the individual experiences of the
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respondents. To increase the credibility of the research, data collection ceased when the
data failed to yield new and substantial insights.
Addressing transferability of the findings within the study required the researcher
to establish that the findings were relevant to other circumstances and individuals. While
the study focused upon organizations, education, social services, individuals, and leaders
within the established fields, the research revealed that the resilience phenomenon was
applicable to other fields of study. Coding the interview and case study data aided in the
discovery of the themes and subthemes which resulted in a plausible construct of
sustainable resilience development. The process was limited by the researchers’ own
experiences, knowledge, and bias. The researcher addressed the bias through systematic
fact checking and understanding; each transcript, prior to coding had been approved by
the respondents and notes were created to explain statements and experiences as they
pertained to the individual.
The reliability of the research was demonstrated through the detailed explanation
of the study parameters, scope, respondent requirements, and the research phenomenon.
The findings exclusively outlined the ever-changing circumstances, environments, and
the outlying factors impacting resilience. The dependability increased the ability for other
researchers to replicate the study within similar and dissimilar environments.
Enhancing the objectivity of the research required the researcher to engage
reflexive analysis throughout the data collection and coding processes. The awareness of
researcher bias and the use of coding software assisted with increasing the ability to
confirm the results. The adaptability of the study output was secured by the triangulation
of data. Triangulation occurred among the individuals who overcame adversity within the
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three fields of study and case study data obtained through interviews among leaders
within their field of practice. The triangulation of the data was then used to identify the
areas of convergence as well as areas of discrepancy.
The purpose of the qualitative grounded theory study was to identify the shared
qualities that existed between resilient traits and the qualities common to individuals who
overcame adversity. Paramount to successful application toward the study, the
identification of assumptions, biases, and organization of data from a disciplinary
perspective fortified the reliability and validity of research (Bryant & Charmaz, 2010).
Several facets encompassed the internal validity of the study. The study engaged
purposive sampling and sampling did continue until the saturation took place (Guest et
al., 2006). Restricted by size, the outcome became limited due to the scope of the study;
however, this restriction is a common, customary limitation of a qualitative study (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008).
Time to conduct the study was a threat to the research; the threat was reduced by
identifying respondents through specific criteria established for the study and concluding
the sample when the data saturation had been achieved. The researcher had an interest in
the study; the personal curiosity could have influenced the interpretation of the collected
data. In discoveries, the interest has the potential of affecting the conclusion. To reduce
the threat and the limitation of researcher bias, each respondent received a transcribed
version of his interview, with an opportunity to review the answers and make changes or
approve the transcript before the researcher moved to code the collected data. The
researcher employed the service of Dedoose qualitative coding software to avoid
contaminating the coding process, mitigating biased conclusions. Generalizing the data
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and the grounded theory to all leaders, mental health professionals and individuals may
not be possible. The paradigms and perceptions could not encompass the six billion
individuals on this planet due to varying personal experiences, a priori knowledge,
willingness and belief systems; the grounded theory study could only offer a construct in
the context of sustainable resilience development.
A grounded theory approach comprises grouping of prospective assertions about
the associations between conceptions (Glaser & Straus, 1967). Acceptability,
significance, applicability and adaptability ought to direct the conclusion of internal and
external validity. The observed behaviors and documented responses were collected and
coded in the study according to their significance and suitability for the development of a
grounded theory. Consistent application reduced perceived validity and reliability
concerns within the study.
Data Triangulation. Triangulation encompassed the application of various
approaches to investigate research questions with sufficient academic rigor (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2011). With consideration of the academic data that was
collected, the significance of understanding saturation in terms of grounded theory
remained essential; data saturation happened when the researcher recognized the lack of
further change among emergent patterns. The study utilized data saturation. In grounded
theory, researchers collect data, separating the data from any preconceived notions, and
conduct an evaluation for true meaning in relation to the theories that existed prior to the
study. To maintain the credibility and integrity of the study, interviews were recorded
and transcribed, interview notes were detailed, and the respondents had the opportunity to
affirm the information prior to data entry and analysis.
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Primarily, the triangulation of data assisted the researcher with addressing
potential weaknesses within the self- reported survey and interviews. Secondly,
triangulation was used to fortify conclusions and diminished the threat of inaccurate or
biased interpretations of the coded data. Considering the nature of grounded theory
research, many characteristics of hardiness and resilience may occur throughout the
collection of data. Multiple perspectives allow the researcher to identify potentially
misleading data from participants.
Summary
Chapter 3 included the cornerstone features of a qualitative method and grounded
theory design. Typical to qualitative methods, a discussion of the research can show why
the phenomenon occurred, what the phenomenon represented, and how it happened
(Babbie, 2010; Creswell, 2009). Qualitative design afforded a broad perspective and
provided a clarity regarding the studied phenomenon of resilience. Though abstract, the
grounded theory design allowed for creation of a seminal resilience development theory
that included, though was not limited to, college students, professionals, individuals,
mental health professionals, educators and organizations (Babbie, 2010; Charmaz, 2006;
Mills, Bonner, & Francis, 2006).
A consideration of potential research designs determined that the grounded theory
research design was most appropriate for the creation for a resilience development theory
(Babbie, 2010, Charmaz, 2006; Mills et al., 2006). Obtaining the lived experiences of
people self-reporting as having experienced resilience through adversity was pivotal to
the grounded theory study. The assessment and interview process determined the
strength and applicability of the research. Through a process of open-ended questions
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and researcher observations, the study yielded the information required to develop a
consistent, reliable and valid resilience construct applicable to multiple fields of study
(Babbie, 2010; Creswell, 2009).
The following stages engaged in the grounded theory study were: face-to-face
interviews with individuals who overcame adversity, social observation of the life
experiences of those who have met the criteria collected from the self- reported survey,
audio transcription of interviews, case study evaluation, reflection upon collected data
and evidentiary analysis (Babbie, 2010, Charmaz, 2006). Dependability and
trustworthiness of the collected information occurred through efficient transcriptions,
measures that increased data security, clarification of information, theoretical sampling
and vigilant examination of collected data that guided the study (Babbie, 2010, Mills et
al., 2006, Babbie, 2006, Charmaz, 2006). All rigid judgments and expectations of the
researcher concerning resilience and adversity were deferred throughout the duration of
the study. Chapter 4 comprises an account of the collected data, a detailed explanation of
the analysis and interview findings, and the study results.
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Chapter 4
Results
The purpose of the qualitative grounded theory study was to explore shared
qualities that were exhibited among the individuals who self-proclaimed having
overcome adversity. Purposive sampling identified potential study respondents through
ads and flyers in local papers and local news boards. A total of 87 respondents
volunteered for the face to face interviews. Through a process of open-ended questions
and researcher observations, the study yielded the information required to develop a
consistent, reliable and valid resilience construct applicable to multiple fields of study
(Babbie, 2010; Creswell, 2009). The process that mitigated researcher bias, and that led
to the conceptualization of the research design is shown in Figures 4 and 5.
The interviews were transcribed, coded, repeated, and analyzed, followed by
identification of emergent themes out of which developed a theory of sustainable
resilience development. Chapter 4 includes (a) a presentation of the respondents’
descriptive information, (b) a description of the interview process, (c) themes and sub
themes with use of open-coding (d), triangulation and reconstruction of themes and
subthemes using axial and selective coding, (e) and a chapter summary.
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Figure 5: The research followed a strict design and process to identify a specific
population and ultimately a sample. The data collected through the self- reported survey
and interviews were coded and interpreted through a process of assumptive reasoning.
The data permitted the construction of answers to the research questions and ultimately,
the development of the grounded theory.
Figure 4. A standard process to assist the researcher with identification and reduction
of bias. The process focuses the research on the problem and goal, while recognizing
the potential for bias within the study. If bias has not been reduced, the researcher
repeats the review process until mitigation has been achieved.
IDENTIFIED PHENOMENON:
Resilience
PROBLEM: Lack of a
Sustainable Resilience
Development Theory
PURPOSE: To create a sustainable
resilience development theory Risk of researcher
bias
LITERATURE REVIEW Theories of resilience
Organizational, educational, and social science settings
Definitions of success, failure, and resilience
Investigation of several avenues of meaning of assumptive reasoning
HAS
RESEARCHER
BIAS BEEN
REDUCED?
YES
NO
Discover Population
Affirm participants have overcome
adversity
Sign Confidentiality
Agreement
Discuss involvement
Conduct Interviews Achieve Data
Saturation Complete Open &
Axial Coding
Apply Assumptive Reasoning
Answer Research Questions
FORMULATE GROUNDED
THEORY
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Descriptive Information
Demographics. Limited to two counties in Florida, the investigation focused
upon identifying business professionals, leaders, and post- secondary institutions. The
study solicited a broad range of organizations to include business that employed less than
50 individuals to those that employed more than 3,000. According to City-Data records
(2011), the sampled counties contained 14,556 businesses representing diverse fields
including education, engineering, computer science, medical, and mechanical trades. The
study targeted colleges and universities within the same respective counties as well.
From a total of 316 responses received, 86 were rejected due to age, 112 were
rejected due to being a member of an at-risk population, and 21 were rejected due to a
failure to advise the researcher via the questionnaire that he or she has faced and
overcome adversity. The study sample consisted of 35 males and 52 females. By
occupation, the sample comprised 22 business leaders, 20 educators, 32 social science
professionals, and 13 post-secondary students. Data saturation was reached at 87 with
the adversity typology differing within a broad range. All of the respondents were above
the age of 18 and were not a part of an at-risk population (see Figure 6).
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0 10 20 30 40
Social Science Professional
Educator
Business Leader
Student
Total Respondents in Each Field
Female
Male
Figure 6. Descriptive information regarding the respondents is separated by professional
field and gender. The first bar represents the total amount of respondents within each
field: 13 were students, 22 were business leaders, 20 were educators, and 32 were social
science professionals participating in the study. The second bar represents the female
gender and the third bar represents the male gender. Of the 87 respondents, 52 were
female and 35 were male.
The interview process. The 87 respondents made it abundantly clear that their
voluntary participation was solely motivated by the potential to help others by sharing
their lived experience of overcoming adversity. Many of the respondents displayed a
degree of happiness and nervousness during the commencement of the interview process.
Despite the initial degree of uneasiness, they each displayed an ability to calm and cope
with the situation in a relatively expedient and productive manner. All of the
respondents did not want their names published and understood the informed consent and
confidentiality agreement and process. The use of voice-to-text software to meet the
needs of the researcher did not bother the study respondents and served as a means to
affirm the information collected during the interview process. Following the field
interviews, the documentation of all intricate field notes and processing of the interview
data took place.
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Telephonic-video interviews were conducted with 26 of the 87 respondents, with
a firewall in place and protected Wi-Fi connection to maintain confidentiality in the
researcher’s home office. The remaining 61 face-to-face interviews were live and took
place in Eustis, Florida. The decision whether to converse telephonically with video or
have a face-to-face interview in Eustis, Florida was left exclusively to the discretion of
the interviewee and within the boundaries of the study requirements. The interview
process began with the initial interview in which:
The potential respondent affirmed facing and overcoming adversity.
The respondent affirmed that he or she was not a member of an at-risk population.
The researcher discussed the informed consent and confidentiality agreement in
detail.
The researcher gave the respondent a respondent identification number.
The interview process and time commitment was discussed again,
The respondent was given the choice of location for the interview (face-to-face in
Eustis, Florida or by secure telephone-video),
The respondent was given the option of having the self- reported survey sent by
postal mail with return postage or by email,
The researcher gave the respondent an information card and stated that the
individual can leave the study at any time with all personal information removed and
shredded, and
A follow up interview date was set with location established.
Due to the nature of the study, the study respondents were informed and
acknowledged their rights to stop the interview at any time, ask for breaks, or choose to
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not participate any further without any consequence. They understood that their
emotional safety and boundaries were more important than data collection for the study
and acknowledged this with conscientious and clear acceptance. All 87 of the
respondents completed the interviews as well as the self- reported survey. The average
interview time was two hours and 33 minutes. The longest interview time was three
hours and the shortest interview time was one hour and 29 minutes. The median
interview time was two hours and eight minutes.
Respondents led the interviews rather than being controlled by formal questions
from an interviewer. The researcher applied active listening skills, asking questions only
when needed to clarify a statement. Each interview began with the following questions:
(a) In your own words, please share and describe with me the instance of adversity you
faced and have overcome that you are willing to share with me today; (b) How did you
cope with this adverse situation?; and (c) How did you overcome? Much of each
interview drifted uninterrupted like a casual conversation. The respondents displayed a
variety of emotional responses during the interview process; some would weep, grimace,
or display other visual signs of emotional distress due to the content of the adversity
discussed during the interview. Upon observing signs of potential distress , the
researcher intervened, offering a break, but all respondents were quick to cope with the
distress in a positive manner, and were able to move forward. Each leader permitted the
researcher to read, discuss, take notes, and validates the notes but prohibited recording of
identifying information due to the sensitive nature of the information shared.
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Data Analysis: Open Coding
The interview data was uploaded, analyzed, and coded using the DeDoose®
software; the software helped to identify themes and subthemes through the researcher’s
use of open and axial coding. Each transcribed interview, detailed field note, and the
self- reported survey underwent an extensive review line for line. Open coding permitted
the initial understanding and triangulation of data to begin regarding the resilience
phenomenon. Understanding the references in each of the respondent’ statements and
survey responses served to create labels or concepts to assist in further identification of
abstractions, tangible behaviors, and connections that informed subsequent analyses of
adversity and resilience.
The researcher used the DeDoose® software to further the process of bringing
phrases, words, concepts, and behaviors together and to assist in the axial coding of the
data. Evidence resulting from data analysis produced a set of eight themes and 12
subthemes (see Figure 4). The eight themes represent the practices, behaviors, emotions,
and skill sets that support the ability to overcome adversity and sustain resilience, and are
described in detail in Table 2. The sub-themes contain information from interviews with
respondents; their information became pertinent though was not limited to a specific
subtheme. When choosing to identify a respondent’s statement as a sub-theme, the
DeDoose® software detected the tendency for the individual to reflect a higher
propensity toward that trait (see appendix D and appendix E). Each respondent had the
characterized traits and sub-characteristics noted in the themes and subthemes.
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Figure 4
Figure 7. Evidence resulting from the data analysis produced a set of themes or recurring
characteristics as well as subthemes evident and consistent within each theme.
SUBTHEMES
● Learning of strategies for success and positive behavior ● Sense of self
● Never give up attitude
● Forgiveness of self and others
● Displays of hopeful behavior
● Desire to achieve or thrive
● Communication with others during the process of overcoming adversity
● Inspiration and motivation
● Seeks support
● Takes initiative to work through the adverse event
● Accepts and is open to change
● Dedicated to moving forward with one's life
Dedication
Will to Thrive
Visionary Attitude
Empathy
Decisiveness
Emotive Strength
Hardiness
Internal Locus of Control
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Table 2
Themes Representing Practices, Behaviors, Emotions, and Skill Sets that Support Resilience
Theme Description
Theme 1: Perceived Hardiness
The individual’s experience of a perceived adverse event and
having overcome the event has an everlasting effect on one’s
emotional state. One’s connection to the innate desire to
overcome adversity overwhelms the desire to give up.
Theme 2: Decisiveness The individual facing the adverse event, given the choice,
must make split second decisions in the moment to not only
survive the event, but to overcome or to thrive as a result.
The individual is faced with a harrowing series of choices that
remain crucial to thriving beyond the initial event, furthering
the ability to sustain throughout a lifetime.
Theme 3: Visionary Attitude Prior to facing the adverse event and after overcoming the
adverse event the individual displays a history of creating
goals and developing an approach or set of methodologies to
achieve these goals. Despite the adversity the individual had
faced, the individual, though hindered, finds some focus in
the vision.
Theme 4: Empathy Having faced and overcome adversity, the individual has
displayed a degree of compassion for others prior to the
adverse event and after the event as well.
Theme 5: Will to Thrive Whereas the individual displays the ability to initiate the
volition to succeed amidst and despite the adversity.
Theme 6: Emotive
Strength
An emerging theme throughout the data collection process
was the theme of emotive strength. The individuals prior,
throughout, and post adverse event managed to display, adapt,
and develop coping skills to thrive.
Theme 7: Internal Locus
of Control
This theme emerged throughout the data collection process as
the individual’s belief that what has occurred or what will
occur in their lives, the good and the bad, could be controlled.
Theme 8: Dedication The individual displayed a distinctive staunch behavior in the
face of adversity. The individual will devise a plan of action
and see it through until one overcomes the challenges.
Dedicated individuals often regard failures as learning
experiences.
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Data Analysis: Axial Coding, Selective Coding, and Data Triangulation
Using the deductive process the themes were illuminated and further defined by a
set of subthemes derived from causal relationships. The themes and subthemes
connected the interview, case study, and self- reported survey data through the use of
axial and selective coding. Consequently, coding permitted the emergence of specific
characteristic behaviors and qualities that encourage the development and sustainability
of a resilience development theory. The coding process encompassed the identification
of themes to serve as a frame of resilience development. All variables such as
environment, culture, events, trauma, hurdles, etc. were detailed within the interview
notes. The discovered variables were all considered significant because the conditions
which hindered or expedited the ability to overcome adversity influenced how an
individual overcame adversity. The axial coding process permitted the identification of
consistencies despite the extensive amount of collected interview data; refinement of the
open code analysis revealed 55 codes. Through the process of selective coding, eight
themes and 12 subthemes eventually emerged, thus exposing the grounded theory.
The need to achieve internal and external validity, and allow concepts to emerge
in the study was satisfied with triangulation across subject data, between fields of study,
and by discovering the outliers. The elements of axial and selective coding identified
outlying influences, both positive and negative that could impact the development,
efficacy, and sustainability of resilience. For confidentiality, respondent information was
coded in multiple layers.
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Outlier respondent data. Through triangulation, outliers were discovered as
well and their influence to sustainable resilience and across multiple fields of study (see
Figure 8). Outliers were observations and patterns that emerged throughout the study.
These observations and patterns diverged from the major themes identified during the
investigation. The significance of the outliers was revealed throughout the coding process
and further review of the interview notes. Many respondents reported taking years to
find the skills necessary to overcome the adversity they had faced, while other
respondents stated they felt they will continue to face many internal conflicts regarding a
few of the outliers.
Likewise, the same outliers when revealed through a positive context appeared to
expedite the ability to overcome, providing the respondents with some confidence that
they would have the fortitude to sustain resilience. The data collected was eclectic and
revealed behaviors, conditions, environments, cultural norms or standards, emotional
strengths, classification of adversity, as well as individual knowledge. Successively the
evidence revealed transferability between the three studied fields of organization,
education, and social science, as well as the potential relevance for fields outside the
parameters of the study because many respondents held dual careers or retired careers in
medical, military, and public service fields (see Figure 8).
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Figure 8. Outliers: The outlying factors which influence the ability to overcome adversity
and sustain resilience. Some outliers or influences acted as catalysts for positive growth
or delay in development of resilient behavior.
Themes and Subthemes
Subthemes characterize traits that illuminate the specific actionable behaviors
indicative of sustainable resilience. Twelve subthemes were evident throughout the
process and were characteristic of all the respondents, as identified in Figure 7.
Respondents took the initiative to learn strategies for success and positive behaviors.
Each respondent held a strong sense of self and maintained a never-give-up attitude.
While facing adversity and hurdles to overcoming, the respondents expressed an ability
to forgive others as well as oneself. Hopeful behavior and a desire to achieve or thrive
was a way of life as well, a mantra for the respondents as they traversed the adversity to
achieve resilience. Communication embodied the behavior, the catalyst to sustainable
resilience through adversity. The ability to reach out to others when in need despite the
circumstance was consistent among the respondents. Each respondent sought inspiration
Overcoming adversity
and sustaining resilience
Impulsivity
Type of adversity
Coping skillset
Cultural Standards
Societal Standards
Environment
Understanding
Support Structure
Willingness to change
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and motivation, taking the initiative to work through the adverse event. Apparent within
the subthemes as well were the abilities to face change, accept change, and show a
dedication to moving forward with their life.
Theme 1: Hardiness. The following discussions represent a subset of responses
that emphasized the hardiness response. Selected respondents, identified by number,
provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward the hardiness trait and eight
characteristics, or subthemes which substantiated the theme (see Table 3). The hardiness
subthemes were evident throughout the process and were characteristic of all
respondents.
Table 3
Theme 1: Hardiness
Has innate sense of resilience Takes pride in self
Learned coping strategies throughout life Can lead self through chaos
Has a support structure Feels an inner sense of self
Looks for positive in the bad; remembers
and uses the bad to build a positive future.
Can trust self even when it is
challenging
Subthemes strongest within the hardiness theme:
Innate sense of resilience. Respondent #21 shared during the interview process,
“I feel that I am resolute in my behavior, even before I experienced the physical trauma I
did back in Iraq.” The respondent is a young man whose unit had been subject to an
improvised explosive device (IED) attack, mortally injuring his friends and injuring
several other soldiers, including himself. He stated,
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It is not easy you know, a lot of feelings go through your head and your body as
you try to heal even after the physical stuff is long done being suffered. Sure, I
am a strong man but it was not an easy road to tolerate.
The former soldier described the road to recovery . . . “as one not typical of a
resilient fairy tale that people see on television.” He failed multiple times in his attempts
to overcome; though he never let his failures thwart him from his ultimate goal of
survival.
Looking for the positive. Similarly, Respondent #72 found the need to accept
change and move with change as he made decisions along the road to recovery. He
stated,
I failed many times. I drank even though I had a great support system. It took me
a few months but I overcame the mental part of this trauma and because . . . the
obstacles were huge, [though] I knew I was strong . . . and I could make it.
Military culture came up several times during this interview; the respondent felt
that it hindered him at every turn. As he remained in recovery, he stated, “Asking for
help initially was accepted, then I was taken from my rehabilitation to a psychiatric unit
for my request for counseling . . . locked up.” Respondent #72 concluded he felt that the
stress of being trapped behind locked doors made him feel like a monster and not like a
hero who needed an empathetic ear upon returning home from overseas. The respondent
recalled, “It took every bit of strength, mentally to make it through . . . a trauma upon a
trauma, I found the motivation to survive . . . again.” Particular to those who came from
backgrounds where the culture undermined their processing of the initial emotional
trauma, this response became typical of many of the war veterans and individuals who
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suffered physical traumas. Remarkable and common among the military respondents’
perspective was conflict between their recovery needs and military culture when
attempting to overcome or heal.
Staying strong as the only choice. Respondent #12 described her experience
with experiencing adversity and overcoming as, “One of the most challenging, difficult,
and trying experiences in my lifetime.” She is a single mother with three young children
under the age of six years old. Working full-time in a career where she earned a six-
figure salary with the ability to be a full time mother as well, she felt her life was perfect
until the market crashed and she was laid off from her career. Her house and her car
were taken away. With her family located across the United States and her savings
exhausted, she sold everything she had to buy a small used vehicle and moved in with her
ill, aging mother. She stated,
Remaining strong was my only choice. I wandered in and out of a depression,
how could I not?! I have three children, no insurance, very little money and no
job. I have a degree in business and realized I had this love for philanthropy. I
took a risk and secured an investor to start up a non-profit organization to help
young children learn to read. I was stronger than I thought I was. I did not need a
six figure salary or a large home or a high end vehicle to be a success.
After losing everything, finding strength to rebuild. Compared to other
respondents with financial loss, Respondent 55’s experience was different because
respondent #12 had familial support. Like many respondents, respondent #55 had to find
support from additional resources and rebuild his life over a series of failures and
successes. Respondent #55 suffered a financial loss after a fire destroyed his home 6
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years before the interview. At the time of the fire, he worked out of his home building
furniture. When his home caught fire all of his tools and supplies were lost. His beloved
dog died and he almost lost his life as well. Respondent #55 lacked homeowners,
business, and medical insurance. After spending three months in intensive care, four
months in rehabilitation, and estimated material losses, he was $2.3 million in debt.
This respondent had grown up in a series of foster families and had no formal
education. Having built his skills throughout his high school career in a series of after
school clubs, he built his home on land he purchased deep in the woods with monies he
saved after working minimum wage jobs for 10 years. He stated,
I wanted to disappear. I felt my life was over, for a brief moment as I stood
looking at everything I lost I cried. I lost my best friend [my dog], I lost my home
and career, and I almost lost my life. I worked hard for those things. Those were
just things though. I was strong. I found a way to survive all those years. That
was still my land. It would take time. It would take effort beyond what I could
muster at that moment, [but] somehow I knew I could do it and I did. It took me
six years. It was ugly [laughing]. I laughed, I cried, I screamed, I acted like a
child. But I did it. I am strong. It [was] that simple.
Discovering hidden strength. Respondent #43, 15 years earlier, found herself
laying in a muddy ditch with her face just above the water line, her eyes swollen shut,
and the feeling that she was critically wounded. The respondent had been beaten, shot,
sexually assaulted, and thrown into a ditch on the side of a road 13miles outside of town.
Respondent # 43 stated,
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[I] pulled myself from the ditch and knew I had to find help. I could feel the
sunrise and I followed the sun into town holding pressure to the wound in my
stomach . . . my mind was racing . . . [I] put those thoughts of what had just
happened to me away and found the strength I needed to move and I found this
surge of adrenaline.
She walked over 13 miles before a kind motorist found her crawling on the
ground, knees scraped to the bone, hands raw; she had made it to safety. Rushed to
surgery, she remained in critical condition and in a coma from a severe head trauma,
damage to her spleen, liver, lungs, blood loss, and bone sepsis. During this coma the
event repeated in her mind, “...much like a motion picture on repeat, it was a battle to
hold on to survival.” She looks back on the event 15 years later with a small smile on her
face, not from joy but from triumph, and stated, “I always found I was a strong woman,
no matter what. If you had asked me 16 [sic] years ago if I could survive [emotionally]
such a tragic event I would say no, yet here I am today.” The respondent had a familial
support system in place as well as friends. Though she found an inward hardiness
existed, she sought professional help to ensure that she could thrive in spite of the
adversity she was subjected to 15 years prior.
Theme 2: Decisiveness. The following discussions represent a subset of
responses that emphasized the decisiveness response. Selected respondents, identified by
number, provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward the decisiveness trait and
12 characteristics, or subthemes, which substantiated the theme (see Table 4). The
subthemes of decisiveness were evident throughout the process and were characteristic of
all respondents.
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Examples of the decisiveness theme:
Decisiveness amidst the unknown. The events surrounding an unexpected act of
workplace violence gave ability of the respondent to look back and feel pleased with his
ability to make decisions. Respondent #40 asked that it not be revealed where he worked
the day of the event. His contributions to this study were reviewed and approved before
they were added to the study results. The respondent revealed that he had begun his
morning ritualistically, checking emails and voicemails; the day of the event he arrived
early because this was the day he liked to become organized. He chooses one day a
month to clean out his mess. He shook his head slightly during the interview, stopping to
take a sip of water, and he stated,
It was weird you know . . . people just stood there in the offices . . . trying to
figure it all out. Some were organizing desks . . . packing their purses, talking . . .
some were even brain storming reasons to why this was happening and how to
make it stop. I guess our brains can get the best of us. Just trying to understand,
killed some of my friends.
Table 4
Theme 2: Decisiveness
Has a support structure
Takes pride in self
Has innate sense of resilience
Can lead self and others through chaos
Can trust self even when it is
challenging
Feels an inner sense of strength
Discovers strategies to manage self and
others during chaos
Displays immense effort when faced with
obstacles
Will see goals through to the end
Discovers an inward motivation that cannot
be taken away amidst adversity.
Discovers strategies to assuage or mitigate
cultural issues affecting overcoming
adversity.
Displays humility
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The respondent moved on with the conversation to speak of strength and coping. The
hurdles of such a tragedy, he explains, are a series of overcoming and working to thrive;
each day he seeks a new motivation to move forward.
Respondent #40 continued to state that he made his move [to Florida] to get away
and made frequent moves in a need to satisfy his new life plan to live, to learn, and to
leave a positive legacy. He went on to state, “... people [were] standing, running past us,
hurt and I mean really bad. Many were just frozen in place, unsure of what they should
do...” The respondent stated that he remained committed to his plan to escape even
though listening to the screams of the injured left him feeling sad and helpless. He knew
it would be a matter of time before he would be injured or killed if he stopped or
questioned his decisions. The respondent implored others to run as well. His
decisiveness and choices made the difference between life and death. Lives changed
forever based on one decision; in this respondent’s case, the number was two.
Based on 9-11 case studies, by no fault of their own, people had died that day due
to a biological need to understand. During times of crisis, people come together and seek
support looking to each other and awaiting for someone to lead them through the crisis.
Unfortunately for many individuals, the urge to move comes too late.
Decisiveness repeatedly throughout a life with disability. A physical disability
can rock a family down to its core according to Respondent #63:
In 1986 I was turning 10 years old when I was hit by a car crossing the road with
my skate board. . . . I saw the man coming . . . instead of panicking I jumped off
my skateboard [wearing a helmet, knee pads, and elbow pads] and curled up into
a tight ball covering my head and neck.
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Now in his mid-30’s, he took the impact at 55 mph. Though averting head and neck
injuries, he damaged his pelvis and lost both of his legs as he was dragged 32 feet with
the 2,000 pound vehicle coming to a stop on top of his legs. He stated,
My immediate decision, even as a 10 year old boy changed my life . . . I could
have and should have been killed . . . there were better decisions I could have
made that day like stopping at that stop sign before crossing the road on my
skateboard, but I did not.
Decisiveness is a significant trait, which according to this respondent, has helped him
through all adversity and obstacles throughout his entire life. Thus far; he stated,
Not everything I face is easy. Much of what I want to do or try to accomplish
becomes more of a hindrance or challenge. . . . My ability to plan and make
decisions I trust has propelled me forward in a personal and professional manner.
Trust in one’s own judgment.
Trusting oneself through chaos or any adversity is tough according to Respondent
#58, a social worker who suffered from a learning disability most of his young life due to
his early birth. Born at just one pound six ounces he suffered developmental delays, the
doctors thought he would not survive, then they thought he would be blind, not walk, and
suffer intellectual deficiencies. He spent most of his youth learning to overcome his
delays and became successful at facing adversity. Conferring with the respondent, he
stated that he became successful at trusting his decisive instincts through his struggles in
his youth. The respondent stated concerning trust,
As a social worker it is important to impart a portion of your strength to your
client; mine is decisiveness, a self-trust when it comes to making decisions.
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Many of my clients lack this skill and as a result fail in many aspects of their
lives.
Trusting a sudden decision. Working in a fast-paced environment according to
Respondent #71, “is trying, everyday decisions must be made on the fly without question.
. . . The company and thousands of individual jobs depend on these decisions.” Trust in
the decision internally becomes significant, instinctive, and essential with decisiveness
according to the respondent. He stated, “...once you question your decision, you are done
. . . the people you lead, even yourself see the doubt and all your strength dissipates.”
Likewise, Respondent #42 experienced the split-second decision whether or not to
quit a job amidst a nation-wide recession when she was making good money, had great
benefits, and may not have found another job anytime soon. Her reasons were simple.
She stated, “My boss was bad . . . she made unethical financial decisions . . . everything I
do not believe in as a person.” Respondent #42 trusted her instincts: When she awoke
one morning to go to work, she called her boss and quit her job. Making decisions and
trusting them are important according to the respondent. She stated, “You cannot
sacrifice or second guess yourself at every step . . . if you cannot trust yourself then
someone will step in and make decisions for you . . . adversity can either end well or
not.”
Theme 3: Visionary attitude. The following discussions represent a subset of
responses that emphasized the visionary response. The selected respondents, identified
by number, provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward the visionary theme
and 14 characteristics, or subthemes, that substantiated the theme (see Table 5). The
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subthemes of the visionary theme were evident throughout the process and were
characteristic of all respondents:
Table 5
Theme 3: Visionary attitude
Has innate sense of resilience
Learned coping strategies
throughout life
Has a support structure Can trust self even when it is challenging
Takes pride in self
Discovers strategies to assuage or
mitigate cultural issues affecting
overcoming adversity
Will see goals through to the end
Is staunch in the face of disaster
Shows a never-give-up attitude
Can lead self and others through chaos
Displays humility
Discovered strategies to manage self and
others during chaos
Learns from failure
Has ability to stay focused under pressure
Examples of the visionary attitude theme:
Driven by a child’s vision. Becoming a young parent, especially at the age of 16
and in the 10th grade, Respondent #86 had a challenging life to face as a high school
graduate with a 2 year old. Though she had a support system in place, she was a young
single mother forced to enter the work force and the feeling that a college education and
professional job would be impossible. The respondent stated,
After I came home from working I watched my six year old daughter pretend to
run a business . . . she had on this pretend tie with and a handmade briefcase, she
said, “I am going to go to college to do this because you save money for me.”
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She was amazed the impact her hard work had on her daughter’s vision.
Respondent #86 realized in that moment, revitalizing her vision for a better future would
make a difference for her well-being as well as her daughter’s: “I set goals to earn my
MBA and earn my human resources certificate.” The respondent and her daughter had to
make sacrifices to ensure the vision became a reality. They had to move back in with her
mother, and the respondent worked overnight, taking morning classes when her daughter
went to school. Respondent #86 stated, “Boy it was hard
. . . sometimes. I had to push myself, you know, dig deep, but we made this goal happen.
All it took was a vision, which propels my professional success today.” Having a vision
has caused her to bounce back from adversity and the hurdles that continually blocked
her path because she had created a set of plans to achieve a better life; a sustainable
vision.
Tenaciousness to achieve a goal. Growing up below the poverty level for many
generations with a family that lacks an education greater than the ninth grade and plagued
with young pregnancy, can become a major roadblock, according to Respondent #36. As
a young man, the respondent had been pressured to work throughout his high school
career, abandon his desires to nurture his academic talents, and help support his family as
prior generations had done. In his early twenties his single mother passed away and he
struggled to attend the local community college while working full time. He had to
support himself and his three young siblings who were all below the age of 11 and for
whom he was now the sole caregiver.
Knowing his education was more important than ever, Respondent #36 enrolled
full time in a distance program for computer programming with the ultimate dream of
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earning his Master’s degree. As a full-time college student, he worked full time during
the day time as a construction foreman while his six-, seven-, and nine-year old siblings
attended school. He earned his associate degree in 2012 and stated, “Almost instantly,
before the joy wore away, I was offered a day job with full benefits at three and a half
times my salary.” The respondent could now move his siblings into a nice home and
afford to raise them properly. Still attending a distance program, now paid for by his
employer, and attempting to work towards his goal of earning a Master’s degree, he
stated, “I focused on the future with the motivation of my brothers and sister in mind as
well as those goals . . . they seemed to paint a clear picture . . . nothing could stand in my
way.” A vision for a better future still drives his success today and will continue to
change and grow as he grows in his knowledge every day of his life according to the final
statements of the respondent.
Courage to realize a dream. Respondent #76 stated that many families are
“functionally dysfunctional.” Despite how his family lacked function, he stated, “my
family on all outward appearance is wealthy, perfect, and successful.” The respondent
suffers outwardly from a severe stutter and is a current student at a local university
extension campus. He stated, “No one talks about me or the physical abuse I endured
growing up because of my severe stuttering.” His father severely abused him
emotionally and physically. To hide his family from the shame of his stutter, he was
home-schooled and kept out of any public and familial function.
Despite the abuse, he secretly had a dream to become an educator for the hearing
impaired because he understood that learning sign language would give him two
advantages: He would not need to speak and it could help him communicate better. He
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spent many hours in a family room kept away from others, but he managed to ask his
home-school teacher for a sign language book and taught himself sign language. He
explained, “At the age of 11, I began envisioning a pathway towards my goals despite the
abuse.” Once he turned 18 he graduated high school and left home with the threat of
losing his trust fund. “With every bit of courage, I clearly told my father; ‘There is not
enough money in this world that would keep me from my dreams or here with you
anymore’ . . . [I] left.” His vision guided him to earn a Masters in Deaf Education in
North Florida, after which he moved back to Lake County to take extension classes to
earn an exceptional education degree as well.
Theme 4: Empathy. The following discussions represent a subset of responses
that emphasized the empathy response. The selected respondents, identified by number,
provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward the empathy trait and nine
characteristics, or subthemes, that substantiated the theme (see Table 6). The subthemes
of empathy were evident throughout the process and were characteristic of all the
respondents.
Table 6
Theme 4: Empathy
Has innate sense of resilience Discovers strategies to assuage or mitigate
cultural issues affecting overcoming adversity
Has a support structure
Displays of humility
Can lead self and others through chaos
Discovers strategies to manage self and others
during chaos
Feels an inner sense of strength Has self-discipline
Discovers an inward motivation that
cannot be taken away amidst adversity.
Believes that their life has an inexorable,
justifiable meaning
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Examples of the empathy theme:
Receiving understanding, not sympathy. As a social worker, Respondent #58
had an exuberant personality. One would never be aware that she suffers from a learning
disability known as dysgraphia, or the inability to put thoughts into coherent writing.
Therapists are not required to possess an empathetic quality, yet they are required to
express a degree of empathy toward their clients throughout the therapeutic process.
Respondent #58 began, “Well, life is difficult for us all. Back in my day learning
disabilities did not exist; we were just lazy and stupid. It took a mentor who showed not
sympathy but understanding toward my situation.” She eventually earned her high
school general education diploma (GED) with learned coping strategies and completed
graduate school using voice recognition software she still uses today. She stated, “I have
compassion for my clients that is deep . . . it took one person’s compassion to help me
overcome. . . . From that day I changed: Empathy was burned into my soul.”
Every hurdle Respondent #58 faced in her race toward achieving her goals as a
therapist has been driven through her inexorable strength. Her empathy for others as well
as herself exalted her personal life as well. She stated, “Sometimes, you have to give
yourself a break, have compassion for your hardships when no one else will. . . . There
will be days when no one will be around.” This respondent felt that to some degree she
possessed compassion for others, to her own needs she initially lacked the compassion
needed to move forward until a mentor displayed the empathy needed to move her
forward toward her goals.
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Displays of empathy. As a successful CEO and family man Respondent #7
never expected to lose his child to brain cancer. At the age of 3 months old, she was
diagnosed with a rare form of neuroblastoma. Countless surgeries, chemotherapy and
radiation treatments, trips to specialized pediatric centers, clinical trials, and all the
money he could make, could not save his daughter. Not only did he have to grieve losing
his daughter after a three-year battle with cancer, he was expected to run and continue to
run a thriving company, and help his grieving wife. Sighing, this respondent stated, “It
was easy to give compassion and understanding to my grieving wife; we suffered dearly
as did our departed daughter . . . things like this are hard to forget.” Displaying empathy
to others at work would be more difficult. Respondent #7 stated,
I had no clue my hurdles to overcoming this loss would not stop at home. I faced
challenges at work. I had to choose to be empathetic to others and their problems
to help me not lose who I was.
Displaying empathy toward others helped him overcome loss. Thriving beyond
the loss of his daughter, according to the respondent, will be a lifelong event. Empathy
or understanding has been the link that has enabled him to move forward personally and
professionally; his wife is now expecting another baby and his company is still
successful. He ended the interview with a striking statement, “I was one decision away
from losing everything, including my life; the choice to hold onto who I am saved
everything.” According to the respondent, had he lost who he was before his daughter
became ill, he would have lost his wife, career, and potentially his life.
Compassion from others. A son born with a birth defect can draw the eyes of
others; he has gone his entire life with gawkers who only see his wide nose and eyes set
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far apart, not his beauty and brilliance, according to Respondent #50, although a different
challenge awaited in her future. Compassion from others would help her overcome the
biggest battle she would face. Respondent #50 stated, “In 2009 my son and I were
involved in a car accident on the interstate . . . roads were wet . . . I followed too close . . .
air bags came out . . . my son has been in a persistent vegetative state since.” The
respondent fell into a deep depression and considered suicide within months of the
accident.
She always assumed her compassion, as well as her battles, would be for her son
and his disfigurement, not her battle against guilt and shame. In 2010 she had to stand
before a judge for her actions that day on the road for the careless behavior that led to the
accident and subsequent injuries to her son. Certainly, she was prepared to be sent to jail
and asked the judge for a harsh sentence. Instead of chastising her, he empathetically
looked into her eyes and asked a simple question, “Why”? She stated, “because I deserve
to suffer. Quickly the judge stated, “No miss, you deserve compassion and forgiveness;
first, you must give it to yourself. You made a mistake . . . out of your control.” It was
then she understood that empathy was what she needed to survive and flourish beyond
her son’s injuries and tragic accident. The judge dismissed the charges and the traffic
ticket, and offered her free counseling that she quickly accepted. Empathy, according to
the respondent, “must both be expressed and received or overcoming any hurdle in life
can only be short term; at least that is my experience.” Since then, she has applied her
experiences inside the classroom and as a motivational speaker.
Theme 5: Will to thrive. Whereas the individual displayed the ability to initiate
the volition to succeed amidst and despite the adversity, the individual faced the
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challenge and overcame. The following discussions represent a subset of responses that
emphasized the will to thrive response. Selected respondents provided data that
suggested a strong tendency toward the will to thrive trait and the 11 subthemes or
characteristics that substantiated the theme (see Table 7). The subthemes of the will to
thrive theme were evident throughout the process and were characteristic of all the
respondents.
Table 7
Theme 5: Will to thrive
Has innate sense of resilience Displays humility
Learned coping strategies throughout life Will see goals through
Feels an inner sense of strength Has a never-give-up attitude
Can be alone and persevere
Has a support structure
Believes their life has an inexorable,
justifiable meaning
Can trust oneself even when it is challenging Discovers an inward motivation that
cannot be taken away amidst adversity
Examples of the will to thrive theme:
Constructing meaning with courage. Black eyes, lost lunch money, hurtful
words, and broken teeth never satisfied the bullies at Respondent #47’s school. Now a
social worker, he created an anti-bullying program for school children in the area. The
respondent stated, “You had to want to make it through the day despite what was
happening. I would hide in the library to eat. The librarian would bring me a lunch so I
could eat.” His gym teacher kept him after school each day with the track team just so he
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could be safe and gain confidence. According to the respondent, he would limp to track
practice every day for reasons beyond his understanding at the time, other than that he
wanted to be better than what was happening.
In his current practice as a social worker, he works with school age children and
teenagers who are bullied pro-bono, developing their will. He felt surviving the
experience is not enough, stating, “Young brains do not fully develop before the age of
21 and impulses take over . . . this is why we see school shootings; kids have a breaking
point too.” The respondent assists his clients with discovering motivations and
inspirations that the bullies could never steal or beat out of them. Though now illegal in
schools, bullying still exists outside the classroom, and because of this he feels youth
need to be more resilient than ever before.
Surviving for a future beyond the adversity. As a war veteran, many expect to
hear a story of an American according to Respondent #24, but this interview regards the
story of an international former prisoner of war. He stated, as most young men that he
was forced into the political debacle and forced to fight under the threat of death, “Not
every soldier [was] a monster, most of [us] were terrified.” Within hours of the attack,
the respondent had been shot to the ground, the opposition with expedience and
calculated decisiveness began to shoot every one of the injured men on the ground, he
stated, “It was then, [I] knew I was to die.” The respondent went on to explain that for
whatever reason the enemy kept him alive. Tortured for three years, he watched his
friends and fellow compatriots die and it took every ounce of will to avoid taking his life.
Motivation, desire, and a vision for something beyond the present kept
Respondent #24 alive and “Had [it not] been for [my] yearning to prosper beyond [the]
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present experience I would have died.” Soon after his release he applied for a student
visa, and then applied to become a United States citizen; he became a social science
educator and according to his responses, lived a quiet life. His students are aware of his
experiences overseas because he feels that the lessons of the past can teach his students
that the desire to prosper beyond current pain can change the world.
Theme 6: Emotive strength. The following discussions represent a subset of
responses that emphasized the emotive strength response. Selected respondents,
identified by number, provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward the emotive
strength trait and the 14 subthemes or characteristics that substantiated the theme (see
Table 8). The subthemes were evident throughout the process and were characteristic of
all the respondents.
Table 8
Theme 6: Emotive strength
Has innate sense of resilience Feels an inner sense of strength
Learned coping strategies throughout life Has a never-give-up attitude
Can be alone and persevere
Can be overwhelmed and still overcome
Believes their life has an inexorable,
justifiable meaning
Has a support structure
Can trust self even when it is challenging
Discovers an inward motivation that
cannot be taken away amidst adversity
Displays immense effort when faced with
obstacles
Discover strategies to manage self and
others during chaos
Is staunch in the face of disaster
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Examples of the emotive strength theme:
Self-forgiveness and belief in ability to change. Respondent #10, a social
worker, discovered through her practice that drug addiction often finds some culpability
and attachment to a crisis or familial issue; respondent #10 is a social worker and a
recovered drug addict. Self-professed, the respondent suffered nothing more than the
occasional scraped knee and had the typical nuclear family, support, and everything she
needed growing up. Decent grades, she fell into the wrong group of friends. Despite
every intervention her parents tried, she managed to sneak drugs into her lifestyle. Living
on the street and a high school dropout she found herself in a hospital dying from an
overdose of tainted heroin, she stated, “I spent many months learning how to recoup
strategies to engage my strengths; to be strong in the face of impulse and personal
forgiveness.” It took her three years to transition from rehabilitation, she stated, “it took
time to break the barriers or behaviors and practices that blocked my strengths . . . my
practice is successful and I am a better person as a result.” People can change; this ideal
was a concept that the respondent wanted the interview to reflect. The concept of
emotive strength eternally embraces the change concept.
Sharing emotional strength to help others. Respondent #18, a reputed business
leader in Lake County, Florida had been the victim of a robbery and witness to the
subsequent shooting and killing of her husband, despite their compliance with the
attackers’ directions. This respondent was soft spoken and confident with her statements.
Immediately, she began the interview with the following, “I always knew, growing up I
was strong [even] before I learned how to deal with life [I] had a way of overcoming
challenges . . . though the loss of my husband would challenge me.” She found it
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difficult to cope in the beginning due to the grief. Over time, she would use what she
loved about her late husband as a motivation to propel herself as well as her career. The
respondent mentors a group of grieving employees, whether their loss has been recent or
distant because she feels imparting and sharing coping strengths is essential to
overcoming tragedy and moving forward.
One thing she has learned about grief and emotional strength is, “It is all in the
mind’s eye. Loss is loss. I am now working on a program to build the emotional strength
of the organization as a whole so we can better weather the storms of the economic
climate.” The respondent did not hide behind the guise of stoic, unemotional behaviors;
she admittedly suffered from severe grief, being hyper-reactive to slamming of doors, and
an overall expectation to see her husband when she arrives home each night. The
respondent stated,
Do not let anyone fool you, I am a spiritual and emotionally capable woman yet
far from perfect. When you lose your soul mate you do not just lose a person, you
lose your heart. I still kiss his picture each night and talk to his urn about my day.
Creepy maybe, but it is helpful to me. It will take me years and I will grieve for a
lifetime. One day my tears will be happy ones. Until then I will cope in a
positive manner because I just have to . . .
She finds her emotional strength overwhelms any desire to give in to the stark reality of
the adversity and challenges she faced and will face as a result of the tragedy. Positive
coping and resilience saved her life according to the respondent.
Forgiveness and humility as release. For Respondent #8, humility is one of the
final qualities one can find when a death of a family member occurs at the hand of
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another. The respondent stated, “If grief wasn’t enough, I was not about to give up the
one thing I had with my brother . . . love . . . he loved everyone and forgave others.” The
respondent reported that while jogging in the early morning, a drunk driver had taken his
brother’s life. According to police reports and Respondent #8, the driver had been
charged many times before with impaired driving, (“driving under the influence” or
DUIs) and never should have been behind the wheel. When asked about coping he
stated, I felt this inner strength . . . I decided in order to overcome this tragedy I needed to
reserve judgment and forgive this man . . . hatred is no way to cope . . . no need to make
another [person] suffer. Throughout the entire ordeal, the respondent faced
overwhelming adversity from the moment the police arrived to inform them of his
brother’s death, the funeral, and the trial. His catharsis, according to the respondent came
at sentencing when he stood to speak for the defendant rather than against him at
sentencing, he asked the judge for leniency. The respondent continues to explain his
reasoning as a release, a moment to display humility amidst misfortune.
Theme 7: Internal locus of control. The following discussions represent a
subset of responses that emphasized the internal locus of control theme. Selected
respondents, identified by number, provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward
the internal locus of control theme and 17 subthemes or characteristics that substantiated
the theme (see Table 9). The subthemes of the locus of control theme were evident
throughout the process and were characteristic of all the respondents.
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Table 9
Theme 7: Internal locus of control
Has innate sense of resilience
Has a support structure
Looks for positive in the bad, remembers the
bad, and uses the bad to build a positive future
Takes pride in self
Can trust self even when it is challenging
Feels an inner sense of strength
Discovers an inward motivation that cannot be
taken away amidst adversity
Discovers strategies to assuage or mitigate
cultural issues affecting overcoming adversity
Has ability to stay focused under pressure
Displays humility
Displays immense effort when faced
with obstacles
Can be alone and persevere
Can be overwhelmed and still
overcome; Staunch in the face of
disaster
Learns from failure
Believes their life has an inexorable,
justifiable meaning
Has a never-give-up attitude
Not always ready to face adversity
when it happens, however they are
willing to find a way to overcome
Examples of the internal locus of control theme:
Controlling one’s perspective to move forward. While attending a cook out
with a few friends 14 years before the interview, Respondent #23 had taken an unknown
drug with the intent to enjoy the experience. He awoke the next morning in the woods
with his friends and a few other people, next to a smoldering fire. He had no memories
of the previous evening, though he was aware he had been assaulted. The respondent
explained that most of the people there were upset as well; with no memories, it was
unclear who willfully engaged the other and who did not. All he did know is they were
humiliated and felt violated. The respondent stated, “It came down to a choice, how was
I to look at this? I know it’s bad. I mean . . . how do I see myself moving forward?” The
decisions and moving forward were not easy for the respondent, who stated, “I believe
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what happened was bad [but] I can control how it impacts my life; it can be controlled. I
can and will and did deal with it.” The respondent displayed a strong internal locus of
control; almost a mantra, he repeated throughout the interview that he has controlled his
perspective about all adversity he has experienced in his life for better or for worse. Both
personally and professionally, this has permitted the respondent to flourish.
Controlling point of view turns bad to good. After failing college twice,
Respondent #32 began to feel a loss of control. He revealed during the interview that he
was the only person in his family to go to college and did not have a plan at the time for
his college education moving forward. Feeling like he needed to take back control of his
education he stated, “I have faced adversity . . . this time [I] had trouble with my
perspective . . . I needed to remember I had control over how I saw things.” The
respondent felt that failing twice could serve as a motivation to move forward rather than
a motivation to quit, “even bad things can be changed to good.” Respondent #32 made a
strong point that achievement of control over adversity remains possible if one can
manage a paradigm shift over one’s perspective.
Loss and change with a positive perspective. Respondent #31 began the interview
without prompting, with one word: divorce. Pertinent to the purpose of this interview,
the respondent at the time was a 34-year-old Christian woman, married once with two
children. She was a stay-at-home mother and happily married to a man she loved dearly
at the time. Prior to the divorce, she stated, “One day he came home and announced he
did not love me, was cheating and wanted a divorce . . . we went to counseling but he
still left me. I was devastated.”
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Her ex-husband paid his child support and alimony diligently, though he moved
across the country and refused to call or see his children. She stated, “Moving forward,
overcoming, and seeing the positive became difficult.” She began to share how she
realized that she did have control over her mind and how she chose to understand the
world around her and the adversity she was facing: “Not everything must end up a sob
story.”
The respondent chose two perspectives that put her on the path to overcoming.
One perspective was that she was a good wife; the other concerned acceptance of an
absent father of her children. She worked hard to cultivate both perspectives, but the
second was more difficult because it involved her children. She stated, “It is not easy to
tell your kids your Dad does not want to see you so I tell the positive truth, ‘your Dad
needs time and that’s okay’.” All of this served as a control to move the respondent to
regulate how she moved forward and help her children overcome the trauma and
adversity of the separation from their father as well. The internal locus of control
allowed her to choose how to adjust her paradigm and choose whether to perceive her
circumstance as a negative or a positive influence on her life.
Theme 8: Dedication. The following discussions represent a subset of responses
that emphasized the dedication theme. Selected respondents, identified by number,
provided data that suggested a strong tendency toward the dedication trait and nine
characteristics, or subthemes, that substantiated the theme (see Table 10). The
subthemes of dedication were evident throughout the process and were characteristic of
all the respondents.
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Table 10
Theme 8: Dedication
Is energetic
Has innate sense of resilience
Learned coping strategies throughout life
Has a support structure
Discovers strategies to assuage or
mitigate cultural issues affecting
overcoming adversity
Discovers strategies to manage self and
others during chaos
Displays immense effort when faced
with obstacles
Will see goals through to the end
Has determination
Examples of the dedication theme:
Dedicated to thriving. For many, 15 years in the past appears to be a lifetime
away to many, but according to respondent #67, she remembers this time as if it
happened yesterday. Remaining focused and determined to overcome adversity had
become important to this respondent as she overcame the trauma that almost took her life.
She stated,
This undoubtedly changed my life . . . I had to be dedicated to thriving in this new
state of living. I purged my mind of questions regarding why because, [I] learned
quickly, tragedy and deviance can never be explained . . . I was sure of one thing;
I was going to find a way to move beyond the pain of the moment.
Initially, the respondent remained vague about the adversity though the
assumption remained that the experience had impacted her life profoundly. The hurdles
she faced were immense and daunting. Throughout the interview she explained the
amount of dedication and failure she faced throughout the process that led her to
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overcome the event. The respondent commented, “It was easier thinking the world was
full of nicer people until you wake up in a critical care unit with a victim’s advocate
standing next to you.” Respondent #67, like many of the respondents, had been the
victim of a crime; in this case she had been beaten and sexually assaulted.
The mind has a great way of suppressing memories for a little while and then
unleashing them like a wild pack of hungry bears. I had to learn to dedicate
myself to change and recovery. Though I knew I had the skills to cope; though I
knew I was strong; though I knew I had everything it took to survive, I needed
more commitment from myself.
She enlisted the assistance of a local therapist, courtesy of the state’s victim
advocacy program. Alongside her current strengths, she managed to dedicate her
recovery to thriving. According to the respondent she is a volunteer advocate for
individuals who have been sexually assaulted. Without the dedication and commitment
from within her mind and the state advocacy support system she could not have
overcome the trauma of that event.
Dedication to personal change. Respondent #82, a student at the local
community college, is unlike the typical collegiate attendee: With a look of remorse, she
shared that she is a quadriplegic because of a night of drinking and poor decisions. The
event occurred three years prior to the interview and had changed her career and college
plans dramatically. She stated, “Once independent, I now depend on everyone . . . I was
a cheerleader . . . I wanted to travel the world . . . now I need a personal attendant to meet
my personal needs.” She made it abundantly clear that she seeks no pity and has remorse
for her actions that led to her current state: “It was fortunate that the night I chose to drink
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and drive that no one else was injured or killed . . . I hit a tree . . . I did not die . . . I was
left with choices.”
Inner strength is something the respondent insisted she possessed before the
accident, though admittedly felt others would not have noticed, due to her choices and
lack of dedication to her future; “I was impulsive and reckless, it was simple as that. I
made the choice to misbehave . . . it did not mean I lacked resilience.” The judge took
away her license, but did not sentence her or assign any fines, due to her immense
medical needs. She stated, “He left me with one statement that changed my perspective:
‘Dedicate your life to change; this doesn’t have to end your life’ [and] it was then I made
the choice to change.”
Respondent #82 dedicated herself to her recovery and focused on earning a degree
in computer science. After college classes, she would attend physical therapy to assist
blood flow to keep blood clots from forming in her extremities. Having some movement
of her hands and help from a guide dog, she managed to perform many tasks alone, to
include using a cell phone to call her parents and using public transportation. When the
interview concluded the respondent stated, “If I could say one more thing to you I would
say . . . I know my life will not be as long as everyone around me . . . It will be
meaningful . . . I am willing to dedicate my life to that.”
Dedicated to purpose. With a smile he stated, he grew up in two homes, “my
custodials and non-custodials.” Respondent #48’s parents were divorced when he was
three years old. He remembers the divorce as amicable, though later he discovered that
his mother had cheated on his father, though his father never once shared this
information. Admittedly, the respondent resented his father and his father’s new wife.
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He stated, “To get even with my Dad I would refer to my Dad by his first name and my
step-mom as ‘Dads new wife’ for the first three years of their marriage.” His mother
would say terrible things about his father. It was not until his mother married her long
time boyfriend that he learned she had been dating the boyfriend since the respondent
was one year old. The respondent was 18 years old when he decided it was time to make
amends with his father, stating, “By this time I had gone astray and become an alcoholic.
My mom had kicked me out and I had not seen my father in eight years . . . I was afraid
to see him . . . but I was focused . . . now sober for a week.”
During this part of the interview, the respondent continued to explain the
dedication it took to plan his reunion with his father. First, he made the phone call and
apologized, informing his father that he was to attend a sobriety program and asked for
forgiveness. Expecting his father and stepmother to hang up the phone, his father and
stepmother picked him up and helped him through to sobriety, forgiving him for the years
of his behavior. His father asked one thing of his son: focus his life on moving forward.
The respondent stated, “I took his advice. Now six years sober, I have lived with them
for six years as I attend college. . . . I pay rent . . . I live a life dedicated to purpose.”
Forgiveness-of-self became important for Respondent #48 to dedicate his life to change,
an important facet to overcoming the major adversity in his life. Still smiling, he can
look back on the adversity he faced and say he is stronger as a result of misfortune and
will continue to thrive.
Summary
Chapter 4 contained the findings of resilience among individuals who had self-
professed having confronted adversity and triumphed over adversity. The chapter further
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included descriptions of (a) a presentation of the respondents’ descriptive information, (b)
a description of the interview process, (c) themes and sub themes with use of open-
coding (d), and triangulation and reconstruction of themes and subthemes using axial
coding.
Study findings led to the identification of eight major themes (i.e., perceived
hardiness, decisiveness, empathy, visionary, attitude, will to thrive, emotive strength,
internal locus of control, and dedication) which contain 12 subthemes. Each theme
comprised a variety of findings because of the individual, field, event, and environment
experienced as well a result of the adversity faced. Study findings revealed a partiality
for the mind to tolerate and overcome adversity. Individual and organizational
temperament influenced socially responsive behavior; the factors revealing such
temperament and behavior became extensive throughout the interview process.
Individuals’ choice of conduct became a conscious struggle through the adversity.
Engaging cognitive processes alongside emotional processes allowed the respondents to
face and overcome harrowing adversity.
The objective of chapter 4 was to provide a thorough portrayal of the research
process and the findings arising from the collection of data. Successive to the themes,
nine outliers were identified; each outlier posing a significant impact regarding the ability
to overcome adversity depending upon the influence, negative or positive. The outliers
suggest that further research would be warranted for strengthening the sustainable
resilience development construct (SRDT). Chapter 5 includes (a) a thorough
interpretation of suppositions found in overcoming adversity, (b) interpretation of data
from the study; (c) implications of the study results for the educational, social science,
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and organizational fields; (d) and a chapter summary. Chapter 5 concludes with the
contemplations and considerations for further research, broad social implications of the
study, and limitations and researcher recommendations within the research.
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Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction
To identify and create a theory of sustainable resilience development, themes and
subthemes emerging from respondents’ lived experience reflect the developmental
milestones necessary to develop resilience across many fields of study. Elements and
dynamics emerged that supported a sustainable theory grounded in the data collected.
The themes or characteristics and subthemes or traits that emerged in the interviews with
respondents resound through the research problem, purpose, and significance of the
study.
Interpretations from Literature Review and Data Analysis
An exhaustive search and review of relevant research literature revealed a gap in
research pointing to the need for a resilience development theory. Several arguments
appeared throughout literature concerning whether resilience is exclusively an innate trait
or a trait that can be learned. Some scholars believed both conditions are true and most
agreed that resilience has to be nurtured. The primal will to thrive as a major trait of
resilience was widely supported in literature and in this grounded theory study. Much
research regarding resilience in organizations, education, and the social science fields fell
upon identifying resilient traits and attempting to develop specific traits in a short period.
This grounded theory study included many individuals who professed an inner resilience.
Regarding short-term development, various respondents discussed having their resilience
nurtured by others without prompting, while some respondents sought out the help of
others to nurture the resilience trait. Dissimilarly, a subset of respondents reported a
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resilience that developed their hardy characteristics over many years through experiences,
counseling, education, or through the help of others.
Previous literature connected the concept of intrinsic motivation as a positive,
though not significant, factor in strengthening the resolve to thrive and overcome when
facing adversity. The study revealed intrinsic motivation as a significant factor to
sustaining resilience among the population studied; an initial lack of resilience depleted
the initial hardiness of the individual. Similar to the literature review findings, an untold
amount of factors attached to the resilience phenomenon, though several factors became
conspicuous as the study unfolded. Understanding of resilience, perception of adversity,
accessible emotional coping skills, and internal locus of control became a central concept
to many individuals as they engaged the intention of achieving resilient behaviors.
Abundant literature was discovered in which numerous theories, concepts and studies
contained positive implications supporting the objective of this grounded theory study to
create a theory that stimulates the development of sustainable resilience among mental
health professionals, educators, students, and organizational leaders. A particular focus
of the theory was affecting sustainability of victory over adversity through the
development of specific traits.
Chapter 5 includes (a) exemplary results reflecting the primary themes discovered
and thorough interpretation of data in overcoming adversity, (b) implications of the study
results to the educational, social science, and organizational fields, and (c) significance to
leadership. Concluding chapter 5 are contemplations and considerations regarding the
limitations and delimitations within the current research, recommendations for further
research, and broad social implications of the study.
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Theme 1: Perceived hardiness. Entrapment of the human psyche in a survival
state can be perpetuated by debilitating, inflexible, and chaotic paradigms which continue
far beyond the adverse event, depleting the ability to overcome (Ogden et al. 2006).
Respondent #21 suffered a severe trauma during his wartime tour in Iraq, losing many
colleagues he had grown fond of. Through his grief, he had to learn to deal with his
emotional and physical injuries as well. The respondent stated, “I feel that I am resolute
in my behavior, even before I experienced the physical trauma I did back in Iraq.” Many
times he spoke of his failures of trust and the personal consequences as a result of these
failures as he healed. Likewise, Respondent #85, also a soldier and student stated, “I
failed a lot of times . . . but I overcame the mental part of this trauma.” Along the path to
healing, Respondent #21 learned how much trusting his abilities led to his recovery over
adversity and remained a significant aspect of thriving.
Many factors affect individual resilience as well as how the individual chooses to
interact with a perceived trauma; factors that may lie in the unconscious mind (Lyttle et
al., 2011; Masten & Obradovic, 2008). The less flexible an individual paradigm
becomes, the less likely that the individual can consciously (explicitly) engage
appropriate coping skills and that the implicit mind can work to connect past experiences
in order to facilitate survival, emotionally and physically (Ogden et al., 2006).
Respondent #12, a single parent with three small children, characterized the adversity she
faced as “one of the most challenging, difficult, and trying experiences in my lifetime.”
In the 2008 economic recession she lost her career and income, house, and car and with
her savings exhausted, she sold everything she had to buy a small used vehicle and
moved in with her ill, aging mother. She stated, “Remaining strong was my only choice .
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. . I did not need a six-figure salary, a large home, or a high-end vehicle to be a success.”
The respondent was faced with a paradigm shift as well as a set of choices when
interacting with her adversity.
Theme 2: Decisiveness. Sir Winston Churchill once stated that the key
differences between humankind’s successes and failures are resolve or the willingness to
endure, and remains a key trait that manifests itself repeatedly. Individuals cope with a
variety of stressors in a number of ways inherently determining whether a trauma will
reveal itself in the manner of less effectual coping behaviors (Antonovsky, 1979; Reich et
al., 2010). The theory of affective perseverance as introduced by Sherman and Kim
(2002) best related to the way Respondent #40 dealt with the events of work-place
violence. Sherman and Kim (2002) introduced the affect perseverance theory as an
explanation of the relationship between human behavior and emotion in the face of
adversity.
Affect perseverance happens when a preference for one’s emotional state persists
(such as hardiness, affection, belief, focus, etc.) despite changes in the environment or
circumstance. One’s feelings remain independent of the change or rational substantiation
(Sherman & Kim, 2002). Adaptive functioning could explain the relevance of affect
perseverance and individual motivation to choose to engage complex circumstances
(Sherman & Kim, 2002). In the case of Respondent #40, one day he was an ordinary
professional starting his workday in his office; the next he was a man finding and
sustaining inner strengths despite the pain and complexity of a traumatic, life-threatening
circumstance. His decisiveness during the act of being terrorized and days, months, and
years thereafter served to sustain his ability to overcome the trauma of the adversity.
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Born prematurely, Respondent #59 suffered from a learning disability and many
developmental delays. He identified decisiveness as his primary strategy for overcoming
his challenges and achieving his life goals. As a social worker it became significant to
communicate some of his resilience to his clients, especially some of his personal
strengths: “Mine is decisiveness, a self-trust when it comes to making decisions. Many
of my clients lack this skill and as a result fail in many aspects of their lives.” The
individual, not driven by one’s external condition, can freely choose one’s attitude in the
face of any adverse condition (Frankl, 1969).
Through the theme of decisiveness, Frankl’s (1969) logotherapy theory resonates
in the lived experiences of the respondents. Through defining one’s life, an individual
has the choice to decide how one’s life develops despite the current condition, and relies
heavily upon how one psychologically perceives his or her strengths, attitude, and
meaning in the face of atrocity. Frankl determined that people define their life, not their
misfortune.
Theme 3: Visionary attitude. Over-exposure to trauma and adverse events
indicates a high risk for the individual to develop severe psychological disorders and
inhibition of the ability to cope. In addition, the earlier in one’s development severe
trauma or repeated exposure to adversity occurs, the likelihood of developing weaker
resilient traits increases(Benard, 1993; Luther & Cucchetti, 2000). Respondent #76
suffered from a debilitating stutter his entire life and he endured years of emotional and
often physical abuse from his family because of his speech impediment. Despite the
abuse, he secretly had a dream to become an educator for the hearing impaired because
he understood that learning sign language would give him two advantages: He would not
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need to speak and it could help him communicate better. His vision guided him to earn
his Masters in Deaf Education in North Florida, after which he moved back to Lake
County to take classes at an extension campus to earn an exceptional education degree as
well. Positive manners, hope, emotional strength, determination and vision (goals for the
future) defined a few of the characteristics present within those labeled inherently
resilient (Benard, 1993; Luther & Cucchetti, 2000).
Theme 4: Empathy. Respondent #7’s discussions regarding empathy were
profound. As a successful CEO and family man his three year old daughter died of brain
cancer after being diagnosed at the age of 3 months. Denial, anger, bargaining,
depression and acceptance defined the grief behavior model (Kübler-Ross & Kessler,
2005) that assisted him to understand his grief personally and professionally in an
advantageous manner. Not only did Respondent #7 have to grieve losing his daughter, he
was expected to help his grieving wife and continues to direct a thriving company.
Sighing, this respondent stated, “It was easy to give compassion and understanding to my
grieving wife; we suffered dearly as did our departed daughter.” Displaying empathy to
others at work would be more difficult. He stated,
I had no clue my hurdles to overcoming this loss would not stop at home. I faced
challenges at work. I had to choose to be empathetic to others and their problems
to help me not lose who I was.
Displaying empathy toward others helped him overcome loss. His marriage has
now moved on to a new chapter and his wife is expecting another child. His business is
doing well. The respondent stated, “I was one decision away from losing everything
including my life; the choice to hold onto who I am saved everything.” Kübler-Ross &
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Kessler’s (2005) belief that loss is a function of perception, and can extend into the
organizational realm, appeared to hold validity within the personal and professional life
of this respondent.
Theme 5: Will to thrive. In suffering, meaning can become the primary drive if
not the epitome for motivating people to survive in the most atrocious of circumstances
(Frankl, 1969). Three theoretical and psychological concepts underlie the theory of
Frankl’s logo therapy: Freedom of will, will to meaning, and meaning in life encompass
the primary motivations of the human capacity to overcome adversity (Frankl, 1969).
The human capacity to overcome adversity was tested by Respondent #47 as he endured
horrific accounts of childhood bullying that physically and emotionally wore him down
on a daily basis. Now an adult and a social worker, he created an anti-bullying program
for school children. The respondent stated, “You had to want to make it through the day
despite what was happening.”
Through defining one’s life, and freely choosing one’s attitude in the face of
adversity, an individual has the choice to decide how that life develops despite current
conditions. Thriving relies heavily upon how one psychologically perceives personal
strengths, attitude, and meaning in the face of atrocity (Frankl, 1969). For Respondent
#47, despite his daily physical beatings, he would limp to school every day for reasons
beyond his understanding at the time, other than that he wanted to be better than what
was happening. Freedom of will affords the individual a degree of absolute internal
control amidst adverse circumstance. Frankl (1969) determined that people define their
life, not their misfortune. The will to meaning, as Frankl termed it, defines one’s ability
to choose personal goals and define one’s purpose. Without a will to meaning the
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individual finds only a dreadful sense of futility and worthlessness (Frankl, 1969).
Respondent #47 assists his clients with discovering motivations and inspirations that the
bullies could never steal or beat out of them. Though now illegal in schools, bullying still
exists outside the classroom, and because of this he feels youth need to be more resilient
than ever before.
Theme 6: Emotive strength. Emotional Intelligence (EI), as discussed by
Goleman (1995) and Mayer et al., (2008), is the capacity to filter emotional stimuli,
interpret the relevant information, and produce positive coping behavior that guides one’s
ability to sustain vigilant circumspection throughout perceived psychological adversity.
Respondent #18 had been the victim of a robbery and witness to the subsequent shooting
and killing of her husband despite their compliance with the robber’s directions. She
stated “I always knew, growing up, I was strong [even] before I learned how to deal with
life [I] had a way of overcoming challenges . . . though the loss of my husband would
challenge me.”
Individuals with EI are able to control how they respond to adversity despite the
emotional challenge, producing positive behaviors to achieve a purpose (Goleman, 1995;
Mayer et al., 2008). Respondent #18 found it difficult to cope in the beginning due to the
grief. Over time, she would use what she loved about her late husband as a motivation to
propel herself forward personally and in her business career. The respondent mentors a
group of grieving employees, whether their loss has been recent or distant because she
feels sharing coping strengths is essential to overcoming tragedy and moving forward.
Applying her perspective increased the likelihood she could learn to understand her
behaviors and the reason behind her actions (Goleman, 1995; Mayer et al., 2008).
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One aspect of emotive strength is humility; a quality valued by Respondent #8.
The respondent lost his brother at the hands of a drunk driver who had been convicted
several times previously for impaired driving (DUI’s ). The driver should never have
been behind the wheel that morning, according to the respondent. Instead of anger, this
individual responded to his grief and to the man who took his brother’s life with an
emotional strength that he felt reflected his brother’s love. When the respondent spoke at
the defendant’s sentencing, he asked the judge for leniency.
By understanding his emotions, Respondent #8 was more likely to
compartmentalize negative emotions for the sake of overcoming hurdles to his success
(Goleman, 1995; Mayer et al., 2008). The respondent explained “If grief wasn’t enough,
I was not about to give up the one thing I had with my brother . . . love. . . . He loved
everyone and forgave others.” When asked about coping he stated, “I felt this inner
strength . . . I decided in order to overcome this tragedy I needed to reserve judgment and
forgive this man. . . . Hatred is no way to cope . . . no need to make another [man]
suffer.” The respondent continued, explaining his reasoning as a release, a moment to
display humility amidst misfortune. Common to successful responses to adversity,
socially relevant outcomes result from an individual’s capacity to engage emotionally
intelligent behavior at all times (Goleman, 1995; Mayer et al., 2008).
Theme 7: Internal locus of control. Mindfulness is the ability to focus on the
current moment through the processing of physical sensations as well as emotions.
Respondent #23 frequently turned to this practice throughout his process of overcoming
an assault that had occurred 14 years before the interview. On a woodland cookout with
friends, respondent #23 had taken an unknown drug with the intent to enjoy the
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experience. He awoke the next morning in the woods with no memories of the previous
evening, but aware he had been assaulted. The respondent explained that most of the
people there were upset as well; with no memories, it was unclear who willfully engaged
the other and who did not. All he did know is they were humiliated and felt violated.
The respondent stated, “It came down to a choice, how was I to look at this? I
know it’s bad [but] . . . how do I see myself moving forward? I believe . . . I can control
how it impacts my life; it can be controlled. I can and will and did deal with it.” The
respondent displayed a strong internal locus of control; almost a mantra, he repeated
throughout the interview that he has controlled his perspective about all adversity he has
experienced in his life for better or for worse. As researchers have suggested, implicit
and explicit memory are facets of an individual’s long-term memory. Ability to recollect
implicit memories aids in one’s ability to perform and explicit memories are the
individual’s mindful attempt to integrate previous experiences into one’s current
circumstance (Blanton et al., 2006; Bobek, 2002; Bondy et al., 2007).
Theme 8: Dedication. One disastrous decision can permanently change a life but
high self-efficacy and dedication to positive change can save the quality of one’s
remaining years. A night of drinking and a choice to drive changed the life of a once
athletic cheerleader to the life of a quadriplegic young woman. Respondent #82 made it
abundantly clear that she seeks no pity and feels remorse for her actions that led to her
current state. “It was fortunate that the night I chose to drink and drive that no one else
was injured or killed . . . I hit a tree . . . I did not die . . . I was left with choices.” Inner
strength was a trait the respondent insisted she possessed at the time, despite her
behavior. “I was impulsive and reckless . . . I made the choice to misbehave . . . it did not
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mean I lacked resilience.” Such an attitude indicates high self-efficacy, as defined by
Bandura (1977), in which an individual’s ability to draw upon one’s skill sets and
motivation to perform at high levels gives one significant authority over adverse
circumstances. Having some movement of her hands and help from a guide dog, she
manages to perform many tasks alone, including use of a cell phone to call her parents
and traveling by public transportation.
Efficacy compels the process that determines how the individual responds to
adversity and the process encompasses individual ethics, attitudes, motivations, and
feelings as factors that influence endurable self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Because self-
efficacy augments accomplishment and emotional health, individuals with high self-
efficacy confront difficulty rather than avoid the challenge. Paramount to success,
intrinsic motivation increases dedication and loyalty to the process through difficult
times. Showing consistent and willful engagement of a challenge, the self-efficacious
individual recovers quickly from failure and sets adjustable goals to increase the
likelihood of sustainable success (Bandura, 1977). This respondent was prosecuted for
driving under the influence (DUI) and faced a judge once she was healthy enough to do
so. The judge “left me with one statement that changed my perspective: ‘Dedicate your
life to change; this doesn’t have to end your life.’ [and] it was then I made the choice to
change. . . . I know my life will not be as long as everyone around me . . . it will be
meaningful . . . I am willing to dedicate my life to that.”
Fields of Practice: Organizational, Social Science, Education
The following is a compilation of data collected, discussions from leaders within
the organizational, social science, and educational fields regarding the development of
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sustainably resilient behaviors that benefit their field of practice. The topic of adversity
amassed a diverse collection of interview case study data. Organizational leaders
discussed financial crises, dealing with tragedy, as well as trust. The social work leaders
discussed the need for resilience training for the social work practice as a whole as well
as the impact of client traumas on a social worker without the emotional coping skills
necessary to overcome. Finally, educational leaders discussed in depth the need for
resilience development in schools, funding issues, as well as support. Though diverse,
one message resounded throughout the interview process, the need for a consistent and
sustainable resilience development program that could be implemented within their
programs.
Organization. Respondents revealed several instances where financial crises
affecting the greater U.S. economy forced many organizational leaders to decide to
reduce the size of their workforce. Many of the respondents found the initial desire to
solve the problem as a financial issue. When it became apparent that the organization
would need to lay off employees, the leaders found the adversity of lay-offs initiated
several years of hurdles they were to face. Before they were to overcome the impact of
the recession of 2008, leaders had to believe in their personal strengths, trust in their
ability to lead, and have a vision of where their organization would need to be to achieve
success. A poignant response from one respondent regarding resilience and
organizational leadership was:
The desire to move the organization beyond the sadness of destroying the careers
of others is paramount . . . remaining hopeful and accepting the change is
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secondary. Finally, developing a plan and implementing a vision to sustain a
resilient organization is the key to a fiscally strong environment.
The remaining organizational leaders discussed similar responses to resilient
organizations and developing a sustainable and resilient organization. Acknowledging
the difficulty, the leaders acknowledged the significance of managing their behaviors and
personal resilience as well. Several of the business leaders suffered tragedies at home.
Another case study indicated that separating home from work was a difficult feat
and that leaders felt, if trained, they could learn to bring to work resilient behaviors and
share them among their staff. Curious, the leaders often revealed that they desired to
learn how to separate or deal with situations in which personal tragedy parallels
organizational adversity. Another desire was to develop the individual resilience of their
employees, managerial, and executive staff for building resilience in the organization.
One case study revealed the potential for a resilience strategy and the implications of
seeking funding to develop such a strategy, due to the cross-functional applications in the
organizational field (i.e., executive, staff, and organizational structure). For personnel in
this organization, the meaning of resilience became synonymous with strength.
Social science. Among the psychologists participating in the study, 78%
suggested that the emotional traumas of their clientele affect organizational well-being
and as a result, the success of their practice. “Trial by fire,” as stated by one
psychologist, occurs for many of their social workers who are forced to face their buried
issues and stressors, and learn to overcome as their clients learn. Often, the leaders of
these practices find their veteran social work staff sitting in their offices after hours
staring at their paper work visibly upset, unable to separate what they do from what they
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feel personally. Another psychologist stated, “We need to train [to be] a more resilient
practice and facilitate the resilience within our social workers and mental health
counselors if we are to succeed in our goals.”
Almost one quarter (22%) of the psychologists interviewed felt that the potential
for impact against their practice remained ever-present. Through diligent attention,
training, and organized weekly group counseling sessions for staff, they have been able to
circumvent the affect against the organization as a whole. “There is the understanding
that if ignored, the emotional trauma can affect our staff, therefore impacting our clients;
we can’t have that happen.” This sentiment was shared among this subset of
psychologists who worked hard to train their staff to be resilient and develop the
resilience of their practice as a whole. Focusing on the client and the client’s mental
health needs became paramount. Having a resilient organization was the only way to
secure that need.
A lead psychologist within this subset revealed a case study where a client had
ultimately committed suicide due to the actions of counselor employed 15 years ago
within his practice. As a brand new leader of a practice he had failed to see the
significance of a resilient organization and developing the resilience of his staff. This
counselor employed by the lead psychologist had been counseling the victim of a sexual
assault. Unfortunately, the same counselor had been the victim of an assault 25 years
prior but had never sought counseling. Six weeks into counseling sessions with the
client, the discussions began to evoke emotions within the former counselor. The
emotions evoked during the counseling sessions by listening to the client’s trauma
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manifested into dissociative episodes where the counselor would become a separate,
more aggressive persona.
As the aggressor, the counselor manipulated the client into feelings of blame
regarding the sexual assault for which the client had sought help. Eventually, the
behavior of the counselor caused the client to accept as fact that the assault was the result
of her conscious and preventable actions rather than the actual truth; the assault was not
the fault of the client. The client committed suicide after enduring many emotionally
abusive counseling sessions, leaving the family, the lead psychologist, and the client’s
counselor initially befuddled. At the time, fifteen years prior to the case study, the
organization required the sessions to be recorded on a voice recorder for transcription
later. Prior to committing suicide, the client mailed a note to the lead psychologist of the
practice which led the owner of the practice to listen to the tapes. Ultimately, the
counselor suffering from the disorder was committed to a facility and the next day the
lead psychologist of the practice made the commitment to change how they managed
their business for the sake of their clients and staff.
Education. According to educational leaders, a controversy in the educational
field exists regarding developing resilience (i.e., how it should be done, if it should
include students, which students and how much money should fund these programs).
Publicly funded programs face the issues of choosing how to allocate the limited funding
provided to them on an annual basis, as a result many programs are cut or removed.
According to one leader, “Colleges are faced with enough trouble facilitating the funding
of qualified educators . . . extra-curricular activities fall to the wayside.” Contrasting this
belief is a leader from another public college in the county who led a quarterly leadership
174
development retreat until funding for this activity was discontinued for incoming first
year students. He felt it was now up to the community college to offer resilience
programs to incoming first years to ensure their inner strengths were nurtured and that
they were supported. All publicly funded post-secondary schools face a multitude of
problems regarding funding which hinders leaders’ ability to hire the most qualified
educators, and develop quality leadership programs. One leader stated,
Quite simply, if we did not have to waste money paying someone thousands of
dollars to run these resilience trainings and we had a viable understanding on how
to educate the students then we would do it ourselves . . . then maybe these
students would have a better chance at graduating and earning [sic]
meaningful careers. We lack the funds now, and resilience programming is
now on the back burner.
Of all the educational leaders interviewed, each held similar beliefs and shared
similar stories. A lack of theory, consistent development plans, and funding keep
resilience training a low priority for many publicly and non-publicly funded post-
secondary institutions. According to these leaders, unacceptably high attrition rates, low
graduation rates, and difficulty acquiring meaningful careers (i.e., full time careers that
last at least one year post graduation) have become more difficult to achieve. The
overall message that educational leaders shared is the need for a consistent resilience
development program that they can either integrate into vocational or degree programs or
teach as a stand-alone conference or leadership retreat.
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Research Questions
RQ1. What shared qualities were exhibited among the respondents that facilitated
the respondents’ ability to overcome adversity?
As shown in Table 11, among 22 qualities exhibited among the respondents, 15
qualities were shared and necessary to facilitate their ability to overcome adversity
personally, professionally, and academically.
Table 11
Research Question 1: Shared Qualities
Adaptable
Support
Coping skills
Has inner sense of hardiness
Internal locus of control
Commitment
Visionary attitude
Not easily discouraged
Inner strength
Has purpose
Feels in control
Wants to thrive
Has personal pride in all achievements
Focused
Can lead through crisis
1. RQ2. What coping behaviors, strategies, environments, beliefs, or practices foster
effectual resilient practices which promote the ability to overcome adversity?
During data collection approximately 116 coping behaviors, strategies,
environments, beliefs, and practices emerged as methods to promote the ability to
overcome adversity. Through the process of triangulating the data, 13 consistent
concepts emerged (see Table 12)
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Table 12
Research Question 2: Coping Behaviors, Strategies, Environments, Beliefs, & Practices
Several beliefs, norms, practices and other factors were found to reduce the
efficacy of sustainable resilient behaviors and the ability to overcome adversity within the
education, social science, and organizational fields. Spiritual beliefs, spiritual crisis, or
spiritual doubt affected coping abilities of the respondents as well as their decision-
making abilities. Spiritual conflicts occurred in those who did not believe in what they
deemed as a “higher power,” such as the atheist or agnostic respondents. Respondents
encountered many individuals who forced their belief systems knowingly or unknowingly
upon respondents in their time of need, forcing respondents to work harder to cope or
find motivation to move forward than would have been necessary otherwise. The
agnostic, humanist, or atheist respondents were strong in their resilience, though they
found that conflicts through cultural affinity with Judeo/Christian beliefs have hindered
their progress. The self-identified religious or spiritual respondents within the group had
a high degree of need to feel allied with their deity in their time of need. Often these
conflicts added anger to respondents’ many challenging feelings; likewise, some
The willingness to accept change
The ability to shift and accept a new
paradigm
A desire to overcome adversity
Motivation which sustains
Perseverance
Self-Discipline and dedication
Seek support systems
Takes the initiative to construct a vision, a
plan, and a strategy to overcome
A belief that a positive future beyond the
adversity is possible
Attainment of emotional coping skills
An understanding of the adversity
Skills to deal with the anxiety
Positive distractions to deal with the
difficult moments
Learn to express positive emotions
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respondents that held spiritual or religious beliefs found it difficult to deal with the
adversity because they felt abandoned or punished by their faith.
Another hindrance of sustainable resilient behaviors was the belief that much of
what would happen after the adversity was out of their control. Though short-lived for
respondents that experienced this external locus of control, the inability to cope paralyzed
them during and after the event. Respondents that faced the crises and the added feeling
of being out of control, stated that they had to search inwardly for a motivation to sustain
their emotions and focus their minds on moving forward through the adversity.
Remarkable to this belief, the respondents that held the external locus of control lacked a
support structure during the initial adverse event that affected the ability to engage
effective coping skills. Though the respondents discovered support structures or
eventually established family and friend support structures as they progressed through
their recovery, many reported the difficulty during the initial days facing the adversity
alone despite the perceived inward resilience they felt they possessed.
For many respondents, the norms and practices regarding cultural and societal
barriers provided hurdles. Many respondents revealed that without their professed
resilience, cultural barriers could have hindered their ability to overcome. “Moving
beyond these issues would have been impossible” became a resounding sentiment shared
by many respondents regarding societal and cultural barriers. Several respondents grew
up in crime badgered and centered neighborhoods where, as many had described, “We
had to hide our books in our trunks just to get to our classes without catching a problem
in the neighborhood.” Education was looked down upon and could have been a danger
for these adults as they attempted to gain a trade to move out of that neighborhood.
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A relationship emerged between the education of the respondent and the cultural
and societal pressures affecting the individual. The understanding of basic coping skills,
inner strengths, and goals were a major part of their education while encompassing and
nurturing their belief systems. Educational practices appeared to encourage these
positive coping behaviors and fostered an environment where consistent evocation of the
respondents’ perceived inner resilience occurred daily. These educational practices, if
available, closed the gap, though when unavailable to the respondent appeared to prolong
the process of developing the coping skills and strengths necessary to overcome
adversity. When culture, society, and economic disadvantage collided, it appeared to
significantly hinder the understanding, development, and fostering of resilient behavior.
Specific behaviors that respondents displayed and some readily admitted hindered
their ability to move forward after facing adversity came with unwillingness to change,
initial emotional instability, impulsive behavior, or an inability to see beyond the
perceived adversity. Those respondents who engaged the abovementioned behaviors in
the face of adversity faced life-changing events such as physical trauma, death, loss of a
child, or war injury. Several respondents found themselves obstinate, accustomed to a set
of behaviors that have produced success prior to the trauma therefore feeling a strong
desire to stay with the old paradigm. They wanted to continue with their processes, they
did not want to change. Sometimes this caused a few respondents to experience trouble
with coping, which blocked their inner strengths.
Many found themselves inevitably in mental health facilities or under the care of
psychologists if they were fortunate enough to seek help. A few respondents sought
refuge with drugs and alcohol. Many stories of overcoming adversity were different and
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fraught with failures and learning experiences. The final hurdle for all of the respondents
facing adversity within the study appeared to be the inability, within the moment of the
trauma or perceived trauma, to see beyond the current moment. Many found it difficult
to perceive a future beyond their trauma in an expedient manner, especially the
aforementioned because of the high degree of loss. Though each individual’s perception
of adversity can become just as traumatic as another person’s, the behaviors and degree
of behaviors varied; many overcame their hurdles quickly while for some, it took years.
RQ3. What concepts emerge that may foster the ability for leaders to develop
sustainable resilient practices across the social science, organization and educational
fields?
Several concepts emerged which fostered the ability for leaders to develop
sustainable resilient practices shared across multiple fields of endeavor. Individually,
these concepts emerged into 303 concepts. Whether the field of work was military, social
science, education, personal, or organizational, the following seven concepts were
consistent and emerged across all these fields of work (see Table 13)
Table 13
Research Question 3: Concepts
Sense of self
Never give up attitude
Hopeful behavior
Desire to thrive
Communication
Motivation
Accepts change
Note: The emergence of concepts that may foster leaders’ ability to develop sustainable
resilient practices across the social science, organization and educational fields.
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RQ4. What steps are essential to facilitate the maturity, execution, and
sustainability of resilience development?
Throughout data collection, several concepts emerged with regards to facilitating
the maturity, execution, and sustainability of resilience development. The information
had slight variations, carrying 17 different concepts. Seven consistent concepts emerged
across all fields of professional practice (see Table 14)
Table 14
Research Question 4: Essential Steps of Resilience Development
Commitment
Vision of a future beyond the adversity
Seeking support
Shifting of paradigms
Taking initiative
Knowledge of positive coping behaviors
Accepting failures when attempting to
overcome hurdles
Note: The discovery of steps which are essential to facilitating the maturity, execution,
and sustainability of resilience development.
Validity and Reliability
The goal of the study was to identify mitigating and sustaining factors regarding
resilience development and the self- reported survey provided one avenue to discover
those factors. The triangulation of the remainder of interview and case study data from
business, social science, and educational leaders functioned to increase the validity of the
construct. The utilization of the Dedoose® software permitted the themes and sub
themes to emerge, further removing researcher bias during the coding process.
Outliers. Through triangulation, outliers were discovered as well and their
influence to sustainable resilience and across multiple fields of study (see figure 7).
Outliers were observations and patterns that emerged throughout the study. These
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observations and patterns diverged from the major themes identified during the
investigation. The significance of the outliers was revealed throughout the coding
process and further review of the interview notes. Many respondents reported taking
years to find the skills necessary to overcome the adversity they had faced, while other
respondents stated they felt they will continue to face many internal conflicts regarding a
few of the outliers. Likewise, the same outliers when revealed through a positive context
appeared to expedite the ability to overcome, providing the respondents with some
confidence that they would have the fortitude to sustain resilience.
According to Glaser (2011), a study has made a contribution to knowledge when
the study has promoted awareness of a seldom investigated theme such as the
construction of a sustainable resilience development theory. The findings and insights
gained can be transformed into a sustainable resilience development construct that
sustains resilience across the social science, educational, and organizational fields. The
generated theory may have implications in the military, medical and public service fields
as well. Several interviews generated information pertinent to these fields as many
respondents were retired or former service men and women in varying fields. The
comprehension of adversity and development of resilience through this construct work in
accord throughout the generated grounded theory.
Theory Generation Process
Through the data analysis procedure, the open and axial coding results served to
isolate a theoretical code. Condensing the data into categories, the analytical process
generated 306 open codes and 55 axial codes, leading to the discovery of eight major
themes (see Figure 9).
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Figure 9. Data analysis procedure: From data collection through theoretical coding to
grounded theory.
The eight themes included 12 substantive subthemes (see appendix D and
Appendix E) leading to one major theoretical code of presumed standards regarding the
development of a sustainable resilience development theory (SRDT) (see Figure 9).
Theoretical coding was efficacious after data saturation had been reached, an ample
explanation of collected data concepts transpired, and attainment of internal and external
consistency through methodical documentation occurred.
Significance to Leadership
Authentication of traits and coping skills that create and sustain resilience through
adversity is significant to leadership because of the benefits to the organization. Cost
effectiveness, reduced stress and employee turnover, increases in health and positive
coping, and the development of flexible paradigms define, though do not limit, the
substantial benefits leaders should expect from more resilient organizations and the
individuals in the organizations. Resilient employees use less sick time, spend less
money on health care, and are more committed to their work; likewise, a more resilient
individual is able to face personal crisis at home in a more effective manner. Leadership
development has seen a drastic shift over the past two decades as a result of the resilience
DATA COLLECTION
•87 Interviews, shared case studies from professionals, and resilience scales
OPEN CODING
•306 open codes
AXIAL CODING
•55 axial codes
THEORETICAL CODE
•8 major themes
•12 major sub themes
GROUNDED THEORY
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paradigm integration. The notion of resilience has become a more analytical and
integrative concept to appear across a diverse set of academic fields and aspects of life
(Reich, Zautra, & Hall, 2010). Organizations and leaders that possess a sufficiently
flexible paradigm have the ability to adapt to a chaotic environment. This ability to adapt
extends to multiple fields of endeavor, allowing leaders to navigate adversity in a more
fluid manner. The inherent need to improve the psychology and emotional strength of
organizations, their human capital, educators, students, and the individual revealed the
need to engage research that generated the discovery of a new theory (Kuhn, 1962; Reich
et al., 2010). In this grounded theory study, leaders discussed with enthusiasm, evidence
that reflected organizational resilience as well as the resilience of their staff. All of the
leaders expressed an intense desire to develop an organization able to withstand adversity
and vibrant discussions occurred regarding the development of sustainable resilient
behaviors within their practices.
Overall, leaders from the studied organizational fields felt compelled to take a
stake in the resiliency development of their organizations as well as that of their
employees. The difficulty they often found concerned the lack of a foundation or
consistent construct that sustains effective resilience. The current study reported higher
stress levels among those who faced prolonged exposure to the adversity. U.S. Bureau of
Labor data indicated in 2010 that adversity, if not handled in a manner that reduces stress
levels, cost organizations approximately $400 billion annually as a direct result of
turnover, absenteeism, workers’ compensation claims, disability, and reduced
productivity (Cigna Behavioral, 2010). Health care practitioners report that high stress
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levels in the workplace cause personal health care spending to increase by 50% compared
to the employee who reports lower levels of stress (Cigna Behavioral, 2010).
Analysis of the interview data combined with collection of case study and theory
revealed that individuals do require a foundation of support and knowledge to expedite a
sustainable resilience. Likewise, overcoming adversity was an individual experience,
whether the adversity was organizational or personal, and therefore the challenges
differed from one instance to the next. Contrary to popular belief, resilience mirrors
neither nurture nor environment alone (Neff & McGeehee, 2010). Luthar et al. (2000)
and Miller and Xiao (2007) reported case studies in which many individuals retained the
propensity for resilience and despite an adverse environment or lack of a support
community, the individual managed to circumvent emotional collapse. For some, the
ability to overcome the adversity happened in a shorter period with less of a negative
impact on their lives; others spent years learning new coping mechanisms until they
learned to unleash their resilient nature in a more positive manner.
During the interview process, the question about significance became routine:
“Why is this important to you? And why is this important to the field you work within?”
Trauma of any kind can be devastating because it creates paradigm-altering experience;
those that overcame adversity chose to view that paradigm altering experience as one of
personal growth or an opportunity to help others through their pain. Educators,
organizational leaders, individuals, and psychologists have agreed that within a resilient
individual, the pivotal method of pushing change is the paradigm shift of one’s point of
view about the traumatic experience (Davis, 2006; Desjean-Perrotta, 2006; Gu & Day,
2006; Farmer, 2010; Leipold & Greve, 2009). Resilience models deviated from
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contemporaneous research; practical strategies toward emphasizing achievement of goals
whether they were organizational or personal remained necessary to survival (Farmer,
2010, Lang & Bliese, 2009, Leipold & Greve, 2009; Bennis & Nannus, 2005; Bentein et
al., 2005).
Resilience to those who participated in the study was not about mending the
emotional wound, but rather allowing the wound to occupy one’s life parallel to the life
lived instead of allowing the wound to overtake that life. Making sense of some tragedy
or trauma, according to many of the respondents, was impossible because many did not
choose their path. Adversity affects more than the individual victim. Support in the early
stages of the adversity appears to expedite recovery. Adversity and change is disruptive;
because adversity is disruptive, it influences more than one aspect of life suggesting
descriptive ways to reintegrate resilient behaviors into everyday practice (Richardson,
2002). The power that drives a person to grow through adversity and the disruption that
ensues became the final and collective understanding (Richardson, 2002). Leadership
can assist the ability for individuals to overcome adversity through developing
sustainable resilience and providing an accessible support system.
Organization. Leaders interviewed maintained a consistent focus upon defining
resilience within their organizations and displaying a great deal of effort to develop
resilience despite the economic climate and the adversity they were facing. Fostering
resilience increased the potential for achieving organizational goals, increased financial
gain, employee happiness, increased productiveness, increased customer relations and the
ability to stand out among competitors within their respective markets (McManus et al.,
2008; Hira & Loibl, 2005). Several leaders felt compelled to share case studies of their
186
organization produced by a professional management agency observing their efficiency
and providing consulting services.
One case study revealed the potential for a resilience strategy and impetus to seek
funding to develop such a strategy, motivated by the cross-functional applications in the
organizational field (i.e., executive, staff, and organizational structure). The meaning of
resilience, according to the case study became synonymous to strength. The underlying
motivation was fear: Increasing employee resignations caused an upsurge in stressors
affecting the whole work environment, and leaders believed more employees would quit
as dissatisfaction with the increased stress would cause many to become disillusioned
rather than inspired. Recruiting, developing, and retaining high quality individuals who
could endure the chaos of tumultuous times remained essential to positive growth,
financial stability, and overall happiness of the workforce. Stress free environments
developed as a result of low turnover (Bass, 2008); low turnover was one positive result
of a resilient organization (Dickinson & Comstock, 2009).
Leaders within the organizational fields found the most adversity when the
financial crisis hit the United States and they were forced to reduce staffing in order to
survive the economic climate. Ever-present, work-related strain appeared to be
unavoidable. Organizational leaders appeared to apply positive psychology and valued
the concept of identifying stressors that undermined effective business practice, but they
lacked the ability to meet their employees’ individual need to develop resilience. The
development of coping strategies and understanding the significance of this within the
scope of their business practice appeared to be important.
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The cost of losing good employees overwhelmed the losses caused by the search
for and development of new employees. When it became apparent that the organization
would need to lay off employees, the leaders of the organizations found the adversity of
lay-offs affected the leaders emotionally and the organization as a whole. In one case
study, “Once lay-offs commenced, the organizational structure began to crumble; our
company began to fail.” Organizational stressors inadvertently affect the employees, and
without adequate business models and training programs to compensate for challenging
times, many organizations fail. According to Ogden et al. (2008) decision makers
affected by perpetual debilitating states as well as inflexible and chaotic paradigms in the
organization could become entrapped in a survival state far beyond the initial adverse
event. Entrapment depletes the organization’s ability to persevere and overcome
adversity. The application of impartial, logical, coherent and productive problem solving
processes allowed for a smooth assimilative organizational progression through the
chaotic experience (Holosko, 2009; Heppner, 2008; Ogden et al., 2006).
During economic recession, employees who were laid off believed special
consideration to protect executive staff had taken place. Respondents believed that in
reducing the number of staff, organizations failed to consider cutting high-end salaries or
freezing raises; lower wage employees were laid off instead. According to those
interviewed, resulting stressors from layoffs within the organization infuriated and caused
fear among the staff that remained because they wondered if they were next. Accounts
were shared of staff members screaming at each other, management cutting benefits, and
increased illnesses, accidents, and despondent behaviors taking over which began to
cause the company to lose more money than before the layoffs began the year prior.
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Contextually, the most significant result of a resilient organization is the ability to
rebuild after a debilitating crisis. Not only can a resilient organization survive; it
manages to thrive despite the hardships (McManus et al., 2008). Moving beyond
debilitating states became a trait that many of the case study data lacked, alongside lack
of vision, and failure to manage behaviors as well as acknowledge the difficult times.
Likewise, the evidence revealed that once the crises had resolved themselves each leader
within the case study data had shown a strong remorse, and desired the skills to respond
to adversity in a positive manner in the future for their staff and organization.
Social science. Among the psychologists participating in the study, 78%
suggested that the emotional traumas of their clientele affect organizational well-being
and as a result, the success of their practice. Clients and Mental health personnel alike are
barraged with stimuli from their environment; the information they must process,
understand, endure and make sense of comes in the form of a barrage rather than in a
smooth endurable pace (Lyttle, et al., 2011; Masten & Obradovic, 2008). Resilience
encompasses the deflection of stress, and endurance, motivation, recovery and growth.
Countering deflection, sifting out too much stimuli or information may force the
individual onto a path where the person cannot respond to the crisis appropriately.
“Trial by fire,” as stated by one psychologist, occurs for many of their social
workers who are forced to face their buried issues and stressors, and learn to overcome as
their clients learn. Many factors affecting individual experiences form in the unconscious
mind, influencing individual resilience and how the individual chooses to interact with a
perceived trauma (Lyttle et al., 2011; Baum & Nowicki, 1998). A psychologist stated,
“We need to train [to be] a more resilient practice and facilitate the resilience within our
189
social workers and mental health counselors if we are to succeed in our goals.”
According to Ogden et al. (2008), resilience encompasses the motivation to deflect stress,
to endure trials, and to recover from the event in a manner which sustains growth. The
deflection of too many stressors can become counter- productive therefore projecting the
individual to endeavor upon a situation where the person cannot respond in ways that
necessitate survival (Lyttle et al., 2011; Masten & Obradovic, 2008; Baum & Nowicki,
1998).
Almost one quarter (22%) of the psychologists interviewed felt that the potential
for impact against their practice remained ever-present. Through diligent attention,
training, and organized weekly group counseling sessions for staff, they have been able to
circumvent the affect against the organization as a whole: “There is the understanding
that if ignored, the emotional trauma can affect our staff, therefore impacting our clients;
we can’t have that happen.” Research has revealed that the less flexible an individual
paradigm becomes, the less likely that the individual could consciously (explicitly)
engage appropriate coping skills to allow the implicit mind to connect past experiences
(Ogden et al., 2006, Bar- On, 2000). This sentiment was shared among this subset of
psychologists who worked hard to train their staff to be resilient and develop the
resilience of their practice as a whole. Focusing on the client and the client’s mental
health needs became paramount. Learning from the past and connecting those
experiences with the present is significant for facilitating thriving behaviors (Ogden et al.,
2006, Bar- On, 2000; Folkman & Lazurys, 1988); possessing a resilient organization is
the only way to secure that need.
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Education. According to educational leaders, a controversy in the educational
field exists regarding developing resilience, as to how it should be done, if it should
include students, which students, and how much money should fund these programs.
Publicly funded program developers face choices for how to allocate the limited annual
funding provided to them. As a result many programs are eliminated. Students’
resilience and hardiness are interrelated to achievement and the skills necessary to engage
the challenges of the educational environment (Plunkett, Henry, Houltberg, Sands,
Abarca-Mortenson, 2008; Sacker & Schoon, 2007). Many individuals, whether the
individuals are the educators or the students, feel obliged to position themselves to react
in a particular manner to hurdles or adversity. In the educational setting this is labeled as
impulsive behavior or reactive; resilience requires a proactive approach (Peck et al.,
2008).
According to one leader, “Colleges are faced with enough trouble facilitating the
funding of qualified educators . . . extra-curricular activities fall to the wayside.”
Contrasting this belief is a leader from another public college in the county who led a
quarterly leadership development retreat until funding for this activity was discontinued
for incoming first year students. He felt it was now up to the community college to offer
resilience programs to incoming first years to ensure their inner strengths were nurtured
and that they were supported. All publicly funded post-secondary schools face a
multitude of problems regarding funding which hinders leaders’ ability to hire the most
qualified educators, and develop quality leadership programs. One leader stated,
Quite simply, if we did not have to waste money paying someone thousands of
dollars to run these resilience trainings and we had a viable understanding on how
191
to educate the students then we would do it ourselves . . . then maybe these
students would have a better chance at graduating and earning [sic] meaningful
careers. We lack the funds now, and resilience programming is now on the back
burner.
Of all the educational leaders interviewed, each held similar beliefs and shared
similar stories. A lack of sustainable resilience development theory, consistent
development plans and funding keep resilience training a low priority for many publicly
and non-publicly funded post-secondary institutions. Within the institutions, educational
and fiscal initiatives shift annually. Educational leadership is overstretched with
discovering groundbreaking ways of incorporating resilience learning opportunities into
established, mandated curriculum (Mohr, Wickstrom, Bernhausen, Mathis & Patterson,
2003; Peck et al., 2008; Plunkett et al., 2008; Sacker & Schoon, 2007). With little money
leadership must become creative and learn to collaborate with educators and the
community (Collison, Killeavy, & Stephenson, 1999; Combes-Malcom, 2007; Justice &
Espinoza, 2007). School resiliency programs encourage student success personally,
professionally, and academically when the programs are implemented and supported.
Without available theory to establish consistent practices, many institutions are
unwilling to make resilience development a priority. According to the same leaders, high
student attrition rates, low graduation rates, and difficulty acquiring meaningful careers
(i.e., full time careers that last at least one year post graduation) increasingly have
become a hurdle. Hurdles did not irrevocably mean that the student would fail when
faced with adversity; many students view challenges as a motivation which propels them
toward future successes (Daydov, Stewart, Ritchie & Chaudieu, 2010; Peck et al., 2008;
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Plunkett et al., 2008; Sacker & Schoon, 2007). Prevailing in contemporary research are
the coping skills and traits that promote resilience within education; a main focus within
the research is concerning the reduction of dropout rates and the ability of the student to
face and overcome adversity (Bernhausen & Cunningham, 2001; Binet & Simon,
1908/1916; Black & Howard-Jones, 2000; Ogden et al., 2008). Orienting both students
and educators to develop psychological resilience could create a positive change that
engenders endurance during chaos (Blanton et al., 2006; Bobek, 2002; Bondy et al.,
2007; Blashak, 2010).
The overall message that educational leaders shared is the need for a consistent
resilience development program that the institution and their practitioners can either
integrate into vocational or degree programs or teach as a stand-alone conference or
leadership retreat. A substantial constructed resilience development theory has the
implication for cross-over from the classroom, psychologically, as well as in the
workplace. College or post-secondary training such as a university or vocational
program is a cornerstone, foundational experience that begins to define a career path.
The cost of putting resilience training on the wayside educationally may have manifested
and may continue to manifest in more hurdles for students to overcome.
Summary of Findings
A lack of theory has created a frenzied condition where social services,
educational, and business professionals are making attempts to identify resilient traits
through previous understandings of resilience. Subsequently, through previous
understanding they recreate the practices in the workplace, in the classroom, or within the
individual lives of those affected. For example, leaders have been able to identify several
193
traits reminiscent of hardiness yet have been unable to apply them within the scope of
their practice in a consistent manner. Difficult to manage in the global sense, leaders
have realized the significance of developing resilient individuals and a resilient
organization. Consequently, the difficulties faced by leaders have created a greater
urgency for a consistent and applicable construct.
The correlation between the ability to harness resilience, overcome adversity, and
achieve specific goals organizationally becomes more significant as the temperament of
the world surrounding the organization becomes more unstable. Largely, the message
leaders shared was the need for an integrative, flexible, and consistent resilience construct
that could be developed and teachable. The money saved by both individuals and
organizations through healthy development of resilience is vast. The ability for the
organization or the individual to overcome adversity creates a lesson of growth versus
catastrophic loss.
Ample collection and saturation of data revealed that through internal and
external consistency and subsequent triangulation of data, theoretical coding was
successful. Eight major themes and 12 subthemes define the SRDT. Each trait identified
is a teachable trait which needs to be consistently supported. The 12 subthemes define
behaviors, understanding, and emotional states that can be taught as well (see Table ).
For the SRDT, it is significant to recognize that each individual or organizational field is
unique and therefore will possess different strengths and weaknesses. The SRDT can be
adapted to the individual need or organizational model for development based upon that
need. Recognizing that individuals have lived different lives, experienced different
hurdles, and have specific needs, will support the development of resilience.
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Affording the individual or the organization with the ability to develop
sustainable resilience requires a willingness to face major change and endure a new
challenge. The SRDT can be viewed as a linked spectrum as a result of the varied lived
experiences, strengths, weaknesses, and various outliers influencing sustainable resilience
development. Within the social services field for example, the spectrum permits a mental
health practitioner to evaluate an individual’s resilience and view their strengths and
weaknesses. Information derived from the analysis may permit the practitioner to create a
treatment plan that permits a sustainable resilience program to run concurrently with the
psychotherapy. The practitioner is afforded a view of the client’s coping skill sets and
behaviors and is able to identify outliers influencing resilience; therefore increasing the
likelihood of sustaining hardiness post treatment.
Organizational leaders may take a group of employees and evaluate the resilience.
Each employee will display varying strengths, weaknesses, behaviors, and emotional skill
sets that will reveal the degree of resilience. The SRDT permits the organizational
leaders to create a resilience development program using the theory, just like the social
service practitioner the organizational leader could create an individual development plan
for his or her employees based upon the collected data. Educational leaders may apply
the same practices as the organizational or social service practitioners to achieve
sustainable success; the flexibility of the SRDT makes applications of theory
innumerable. The unique approach to the theory generation process has revealed reliable,
flexible, applicable, and valid information.
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Table 15
Themes and Subthemes
Themes Subthemes
1. Dedication
2. Will to Thrive
3. Visionary Attitude
4. Empathy
5. Decisiveness
6. Emotive Strength
7. Hardiness
8. Internal Locus of Control
1. Learning of strategies for success and positive
behavior
2. Sense of self
3. A never give up attitude
4. Forgiveness of self and others
5. Displays of hopeful behavior
6. Desire to achieve or thrive
7. Communication with others during the process of
overcoming adversity
8. Inspiration and motivation
9. Seeks support
10. Takes initiative to work through the adverse event
11. Accepts and is open to change
12. Dedicated to moving forward with their life
Limitations
The validity of qualitative research according to Corbin and Strauss (2008) was
established upon the practical certainty that attainment of knowledge provides invaluable
perspective. Individuals who have faced adversity may have displayed a broad and
varied range of emotion, coping, behaviors, and beliefs (Reich et al., 2010). The
potential for limitations existed and were addressed through the study design, self-
reported survey, interviews, and observation to the intricacy of detail. The study was
limited by the individual’s choice to discuss their experiences openly (Reich et al., 2010).
Adversity manifested in many forms such as trauma, illness, death, experience, brutality,
poverty, loss, divorce, etc.; the limitations may have reduced the diverse collection of
196
lived experience because of individual paradigms and refusal to share precise details of
the adversity they had overcome (Reich et al., 2010; Rudestam & Newton, 2007). The
previously mentioned limitation could not be resolved, but the limitation was
acknowledged throughout data collection, analysis, and upon development of
recommendations for action.
The researcher possessed the belief that resilience is teachable; however, through
research and suspension of personal beliefs, the limitation was remedied. A practical
limitation existed within the study from purposive sampling and time constraints (Reich
et al., 2010; Rudestam & Newton, 2007). The conceptual limitation caused by recruiting
only participants who self-disclosed overcoming adversity was remedied by collecting
data until information saturation occurred (Reich et al., 2010; Rudestam & Newton,
2007). Time to conduct the study was a threat to the research; the threat was reduced by
identifying respondents through specific criteria established for the study and concluding
the sample when the data saturation had been achieved.
Individuals who faced adversity and varying traumas might had looked toward the
interviewer for indications regarding responses they perceived the interviewer might
desire. Caution was employed to support the emotional needs of the respondent while
upholding impartiality throughout the interview and data collection process. The
reduction of researcher bias and the limitation occurred as each respondent received a
transcribed version of the interview, had the opportunity to review the answers and had
the opportunity to make changes or approve text before the researcher moved to code the
collected information. The researcher employed the service of the DEDOOSE qualitative
197
coding software to avoid contaminating the coding process, mitigating biased
conclusions.
Recommendations
Individuals affected by adversity or the sudden onset of a traumatic event cannot
be readily discovered in a crowd. In resilient individuals, outward signs do not exist,
though the benefits of their resilience for themselves and for the success of the
organization are innumerable. Organizational, social science, and educational leaders
derive value from knowledge concerning the development of resilience as well as the
potential impact it could have on the individuals within their organizations and their
organizations as a whole. The value and knowledge surrounding resilience development
provides leaders with the opportunity to develop policies, practices, and training
programs that create more resilience in the people that comprise those organizations. In
response to the investigation regarding the resilience phenomenon personally and
professionally, the findings of the current research was limited; further qualitative and
eventual quantitative research to address outlying factors were recommended. More
specific, in-depth research is recommended to address the following; (1) Outlying factors
influencing resilience, (2) Leadership Practice, (3) Fields of Study, and (4) Training and
development.
Outliers. Further investigation is recommended regarding outlying factors which
could impact sustainable resilience. The coding process identified nine outlying factors
(i.e., impulsivity, type of adversity, coping skillset, cultural standards, societal standards,
environment, understanding, support structure, and willingness to change). Respondent
interviews revealed an incongruence regarding the time it took to discover the skills
198
necessary to overcome adversity as well as the ability to sustain resilience. The outlying
factors were revealed in a context that was positive and negative; additional inquiry is
required to address the nine outlying factors and their full bearing on sustainable
resilience.
Fields of Study. The investigation generated information which suggested that
study reached beyond the established field parameters (i.e., organizational, educational,
and social science fields). Furthermore, the study identified a subcategory of career field
outliers (i.e., former prisoners of war, professionals in the workplace that experienced
violence, police officers, paramedics, nurses, teachers, retired military service members,
government personnel, and homemakers). A recommendation for additional study is
suggested in order to authenticate and fortify the dependability of the SRDT construct as
it pertains to the outlying fields of study.
Leadership Practice. A recommendation for further inquiry is suggested
regarding requisite leadership practices. Leaders may consider attendance in resiliency
training and development programs that occur throughout the year made obligatory for
the foundational employee to the top executive. Following implementation of these
programs, a supportive environment and policies that foster a resilient organization will
produce a more motivated and hardy workforce. A resilient workforce is more apt to deal
with adversity in a positive manner, therefore allowing the organization to profit through
tumultuous climates. Organizational, educational, and social science leadership are
similar in terms of resilience development and the impact it can have upon their client
base; a resilient organization exudes a confidence that motivates.
199
Training and Development. The final recommendation is for leaders to conduct
research within their field and organization paramount to creating a training and
development program that encompasses the SRDT construct. To successfully apply the
construct, leaders could consider the context of their current culture, climate, and need,
and recognize how major organizational change affects the individuals within the current
business model. Furthermore, consideration should be placed upon the impact personal
tragedy has upon the workplace. At the least, assurances of support are recommended
alongside programs that may extend to bereavement and other types of counseling,
financial support, and employment training.
The newly discovered sustainable resilience development theory (SRDT) could be
researched for replication purposes. The doctrines of resilience, sustainability, and
thriving could be researched further to refine the principles, additionally defining and
refining the theory. Moreover, individuals affected by adversity, including though not
limited to educators, students, organizational leaders, and social workers, that have
difficulty overcoming perceived traumas could be investigated as separate studies as well.
Implications
Outliers. Further inquiry should be made because implications for additional
research exist within the scope of this study. The outliers identified several significant
phenomena that may influence the sustainability of resilience and will need to be
addressed in further study. The significance of the outliers (i.e., impulsivity, type of
adversity, coping skillset, cultural standards, societal standards, environment,
understanding, support structure, and willingness to change) were revealed throughout
the coding process and further review of the interview notes. Many respondents reported
200
taking years to find the skills necessary to overcome the adversity they experienced,
while other respondents stated they felt they will continue to face many internal conflicts
regarding a few of the outliers.
The same outliers, when revealed through a positive context, appeared to expedite
the ability to overcome and provided respondents with some confidence in their fortitude
to sustain resilience throughout the remainder of their life. Furthermore, the study
identified a subset of career field outliers including former prisoners of war, professionals
in the workplace that experienced violence, police officers, paramedics, nurses, teachers,
retired military service members, government personnel, and homemakers. Respondents
revealed the subset of field outliers during interviews as they discussed their current
secondary or concurrent careers, pre-retirement careers, and post-retirement careers. The
knowledge obtained far exceeded the fields of study, and in accord with the
recommendations of this study, further investigations would be justified to validate and
strengthen reliability of the SRDT construct.
According to Glaser (2011), a researcher has made a contribution to knowledge
when the study has promoted awareness of a seldom investigated theme, such as the
construction of a sustainable resilience development theory. The findings and insights
gained were transformed into a sustainable resilience development construct that sustains
resilience across the social science, educational, and organizational fields. Next, the
generated theory may have implications in the military, medical, and public service fields
as well. Several interviews generated information pertinent to these fields as many were
retired or former service men and women of varying specialties. The comprehension of
adversity and development of resilience through this construct work in accord.
201
Weaknesses. The study does not inform about the effect of the SRDT construct
concerning the organizational, social science, and educational fields in the principal
entirety. Considering the career field outliers discovered among respondents (former
prisoners of war, emergency responders, nurses, teachers, retired military, government
workers, and homemakers), to substantiate the findings further research is recommended
in each field and subset of each field. Cultural considerations were an area of weakness
in this study, though acknowledged as having a substantial effect upon resilience
development. It is beneficial to reveal this weakness as considerable when the construct
is applied.
A gap was revealed within the research between spirituality and those who chose
an a-spiritual belief system. The gap discovered was significant, revealing subsets of the
culture and societal standard outliers. For those who held spiritual beliefs, they felt a
connectedness that either assisted their ability to overcome or hindered their ability to
overcome. Theistic perspectives did not entirely drive the ability to overcome adversity.
Spiritual atheists or agnostic individuals who held spiritual beliefs discovered similar
abilities to overcome adversity as well. Respondents who did not hold theistic belief
systems felt connected to those with similar belief systems and were often hindered by
those who discriminated against them or forced their belief in God upon them in their
time of need. Researchers could investigate individuals who self-identify as non-resilient
and have overcome adversity to compare outliers and sustainability factors. A
recommendation is to immediately remediate these weaknesses and the gap to ensure the
validation, reliability, and strength of the SRDT construct within these populations.
202
Researcher Reflections
As a researcher exploring the phenomenon of resilience and sustainability, I
experienced a fascinating cerebral and passionate journey. The degree of rigor, trust, and
commitment to the grounded theory process was powerful. Foremost, I had expected the
investigation to yield respondent data that focused solely upon field specific data;
however, the data collected exposed a more in-depth experience into the personal lives of
individuals and leaders alike.
Prior to conducting the study, I engaged a comprehensive literature review to
understand the theories that underpinned the topics which influence sustainable
resilience. Exhaustive, the literature review revealed over two decades worth of studies
which spanned a great length of the organizational, educational, and social science
spectrums. The literature revealed the proclivity toward individual resilience as a
measure of personal, professional, and organizational success. As a result of the
literature review, I discovered the lack of focus on sustainable resilience and the
overabundance of research addressing the concept and facets of hardiness. I developed
an appreciation for the research that developed upon motivational theories; motivational
theories underpinned major concepts and constructs relevant to organizations, education,
and social science.
As the research study was developed, I had initially made a decision to answer
several research subquestions that did not fit the requisite for qualitative methods. As I
revisited the research questions, method, and design it became apparent that I needed to
focus upon a qualitative grounded theory due to the lack of current research. Fully
invested into the grounded theory study of sustainable resilience, I chose a circuitous
203
direction concerning the exploration of the resilience phenomenon. The research took an
incredible turn, becoming an intrinsically unique journey. Grounded theory is rigorous,
however the approach was instinctive; the process allowed me to make sound statements
concerning implicit knowledge.
Prior to the study, I believed overcoming adversity to be a process linear in nature
and to involve a multi-faceted schema affecting individual or organizational development
of sustainable resilient behavior. Upon conclusion of the study, the realization was
immense that resilience development is not linear and perceived trauma is complex. The
outliers created a veritable parallel adversity response, with implications for
understanding the human psyche and the significance of cultural beliefs. The realization
post study was vast and fully realized; the power of the information learned created
urgency for a well-developed sustainable resilience development theory (SRDT).
The depth of the adversity that an individual will face is not the debate. Trauma
or difficulty is not measured by what has happened, it is measured by how it affects the
person emotionally and or physically. As a researcher I learned that adversity affects
more than one person, especially if the turmoil is within the organizational structure.
Additional research needs were identified to further refine the SRDT construct and
ensure its flexibility across fields and paradigms. Because the study focused upon a
specific population it will be important to repeat the study to replicate the data and
address the potential for anomalous answering which may suggest bias during the
interview process.
The current study has contributed a foundational construct to reach leaders and
individuals across organizational, social science, and educational fields. A subset of
204
career fields emerged as the respondents discussed previous careers and experiences
with adversity that merit future exploration. The newly generated SRDT sustainable
resiliency development theory adds value to the study of resilience in the organizational,
social science, and educational fields of study.
Summary
Chapter 5 included conclusions and recommendations resulting from research on
the development of a sustainable resilience construct. The 87 individual, face-to-face
interviews of respondents who have faced adversity and overcome provided a copious
amount of information. Data analysis led to the creation of a new theory grounded in the
first-hand data. The new theory is entitled the sustainable resilience development theory
(SRDT).
The SRDT contains eight major themes and 12 subthemes. The subthemes
define the characteristics, principles, practices, behaviors, and beliefs that comprise the
themes. The themes are not linear, though they are connected; the degree to which each
individual possessed each trait determined the length of time spent achieving the ability
to overcome adversity. Likewise, sustainability appeared to be determined by the
coping skills developed by each theme and subtheme as well. Each individual’s journey
appeared to be independent of the other respondents’ experience even if the experiences
appeared similar in nature and could be developed to fit the individual as well as the
organization’s needs.
Specific outliers appeared to influence the ability to mature and achieve the goal
of overcoming adversity; likewise, sustainability of adversity appeared to be affected by
each outlier dependent upon how the outlier affected the individual or the organization.
205
Noting a significant need for further research to address the outliers, the chapter
incorporated recommendations for action by leaders within the organizational, social
science, and educational fields. Explicit recommendations for organizational and
individual resilience development were offered as well.
The doctrines of resilience, sustainability, and thriving could be researched
further to refine the principles, and to further define and refine the SRDT to ensure its
flexibility across different fields and paradigms. Recognizing that the current study was
limited to self-identified resilient respondents, individuals who have had difficulty
overcoming perceived traumas could be investigated as separate studies. Researches
could investigate individuals who self-identify as non-resilient and have overcome
adversity to compare outliers and sustainability factors. The generated theory may have
implications in the military, medical and public service fields as well; several interviews
generated information pertinent to these fields as many were retired or former service
men and women of varying specialties. The comprehension of adversity and
development of resilience through this construct works in accord throughout the
generated grounded theory.
The findings on sustainable resilience and the potential impact of effectiveness
were significant from a multitude of perspectives. First, from a business leader-
management perspective the data provided insight which suggested the SRDT model
could assist creating a more sustainable, profitable, flexible and strong workforce. In the
business environment there are four areas of concern when discussing resilience, the
business, the executive management, the management, and the individual workforce. In
an ever-changing and tumultuous business environment both the employer and employee
206
are faced with stressors at home and in the workplace, building a sustainable resilient
work environment and workforce could provide the edge necessary to stay afloat in an
unstable economy.
The implications within the business model are innumerable however it also
raised the question to developing individual resilience inside and outside the work
environment as well as its efficacy. Secondly, from a post-secondary educational
perspective there is much to be considered as well. Bureaucracy, fiscal initiatives,
recessions, mandates, as well as individual resilience name just a few of the resilience
problems facing the post-secondary institution. In the educational environment there are
four concerns, the institution, the administration, the educators, and the students. The
social service industry is the final perspective effected by the SRDT, again four areas are
effected by resilience the business, the management, the mental health practitioner or
social service worker, and the client. Like the business environment, the educational and
social service environment from a research perspective and on the surface are quite
similar.
These environments share collective struggles, individual struggles, are affected
by outside influences, and the questions remain about the development of individual
resilience inside and outside the institution regarding the workforce. The SRDT provides
a consistent model for business, the post- secondary educational environment as well as
the social service environment. The collected data displayed an overwhelming link and
overlap of the three areas of research. As individuals it cannot be disputed that some are
born with an innate ability to overcome adversity while others simply develop this skill
over time. Whether a person learns to overcome adversity or has an innate skill the
207
investigation yielded vast data suggesting sustainability required consistency, practice,
and self- monitoring to ensure the ability to thrive is nourished.
208
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APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT
INFORMED CONSENT: PARTICIPANTS 18 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER
Dear _________________,
Leslie Carol McQuilkin is a Doctoral Student at the University of Phoenix working independently on research regarding resilience; more specific, Mrs. McQuilkin is conducting a study on identifying the traits through interviews and review of case study. The goal of the study is to identify the skills unique to those who have faced adversity and overcame adversity with the goal of creating a resilience development theory. Ultimately, the goal of the study is to provide various fields of study with a potential resilience development theory that is adaptable and sustainable.
Estimated time required to participate in the study is approximately 2 hours. The interview
and data collection may occur via Skype, telephone, or at Lindsey Estates Bed and Breakfast in Eustis, FL. The surveys may be completed and sent via USPS (postage paid) or email. Due to the researchers hearing impairment a software program which transcribes voice to text will be used to ensure the understandability of your responses and reliable interpretation, none of the datum will be recorded (audio or video).
You can decide to be a part of this study or not. Once you start, you can withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty or loss of benefits. The results of the research study may be published but your identity will remain confidential and your name will not be made known to any outside party. Likewise, subject participation may be terminated without subject consent if the researcher determines the subject no longer meets the parameters of the study. The sample size is estimated to 51-100 participants, though data collection will utilize purposive sampling therefore the size of the sample may increase or decrease to meet the needs of the study.
As in any study that investigates the resilience phenomenon, the potential risks to my
participation may cause mild to moderate psychological distress. There are no other identified or distinct risks resulting from the participation of this study. I acknowledge that I have volunteered for study and I understand that my participation or decision not to participate will negatively reflect upon my disposition. Understanding the potential risk, I acknowledge that I possess the coping skills necessary identify and to deal with any anxiety that may arise because of sharing my experiences of adversity during the interview process.
Although there may be no direct benefit to you, a possible benefit from your being part of
this study is the development of coping or knowledge that may increase resilience and subsequent success that sustains despite compounding hurdles
If you have any questions about the research study, please call me at 352-508-7711and email: [email protected]. For questions about your rights as a study participant, or any concerns or complaints, please contact the University of Phoenix Institutional Review Board via email at [email protected].
As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:
1. You may decide not to be part of this study or you may want to withdraw from the study at any time. If you want to withdraw, you can do so without any problems.
244
2. Your identity will be kept confidential. Investigation records and personal information of
the interviewees will remain confidential. The information will be kept under lock and key and all coded datum will be protected on an encrypted, password protected firewall.
3. Leslie Carol McQuilkin, the researcher, has fully explained the nature of the research
study and has answered all of your questions and concerns.
4. You understand the interviews will be transcribed. The researcher will develop a way to code the datum to assure that your name is protected.
5. Data will be kept in a secure and locked area. The datum will be kept for three years,
and then destroyed.
6. The results of this study may be published. The researcher will share the datum collected and analyzed including but not limited to the University of Phoenix, academic institutions and their respective students. Personal anonymity will be guaranteed and protected via strict communication practices and identification numbers for communication between the respondent and the interviewer. I have the option to share my identity to credit myself as the source of the specified collected datum regarding my interviews and survey answers.
By signing this form, you agree that you understand the nature of the study, the possible
risks to you as a participant, and how your identity will be kept confidential. When you sign this form, this means that you are 18 years old or older and that you give your permission to volunteer as a participant in the study that is described here.
If you will need any special accommodations for the interview process or the self- reported
survey, you shall contact the researcher at least 72 hours prior to the interview. Upon request sign language interpreters, translated material and information in Braille will be accessible to you. You will receive a copy of the Informed Consent document for your records.
You recognize there are not any calculable risks in the participation of this study, except the
possibility of some stress related to sharing a lived experience or because of the length of the interview. You understand that to participate, you must be able to adjust your schedule accordingly and understand that the researcher will give you at least 7 days’ notice of meeting scheduling and changes. By applying your signature to this form, you acknowledge that you understand the nature of the study, goal of the study, study design, your role as a participant, the potential risks involved with participation and the manner by which your information will be kept confidential.
You give your permission to serve willingly as an active respondent in the
aforementioned study described to you in depth; you acknowledge that the information you will share will be truthful and factual.
( ) I accept the above terms. ( ) I do not accept the above terms. (CHECK ONE)
Signature of the interviewee ____________________________________ Date _____________ Signature of the researcher _____________________________________ Date _____________
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APPENDIX B: CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT
A GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A UNIFORM
AND SUSTAINABLE RESILIENCY DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Leslie Carol McQuilkin
CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT
As a researcher working on the above research study at the University of Phoenix, I understand that I must
maintain the confidentiality of all information concerning all research participants as required by law. Only
the University of Phoenix Institutional Review Board may have access to this information. “Confidential
Information” of participants includes but is not limited to: names, characteristics, or other identifying
information, incidental comments, other information accrued either directly or indirectly through contact
with any participant, and/or any other information that by its nature would be considered confidential. In
order to maintain the confidentiality of the information, I hereby agree to refrain from discussing or
disclosing any Confidential Information regarding research participants, to any individual who is not part of
the above research study or in need of the information for the expressed purposes on the research program.
This includes having a conversation regarding the research project or its participants in a place where such
a discussion might be overheard; or discussing any Confidential Information in a way that would allow an
unauthorized person to associate (either correctly or incorrectly) an identity with such information. I further
agree to store research records whether paper, electronic or otherwise in a secure locked location under my
direct control or with appropriate safe guards. I hereby further agree that if I have to use the services of a
third party to assist in the research study, who will potentially have access to any Confidential Information
of participants, that I will enter into an agreement with said third party prior to using any of the services,
which shall provide at a minimum the confidential obligations set forth herein. I agree that I will
immediately report any known or suspected breach of this confidentiality statement regarding the above
research project to the University of Phoenix, Institutional Review Board.
/s/ Leslie Carol McQuilkin Leslie Carol McQuilkin 08/14/12
Signature of Researcher Printed Name Date
/s/ Elisabeth Weinbaum, Ph.D. Elisabeth Weinbaum, Ph.D. 08/15/2012
Signature of Witness Printed Name Date
246
APPENDIX C: PRE-STUDY INITIAL MEETING DEMOGRAPHICS
Pre- study Initial Meeting Questions (Researcher to Respondent)
Age
Sex
Ethnicity
Current Address
Contact Phone Number
Contact Email
Profession
- Education
Teacher, Support- Aides, Assistant, Administration (School) , Administration (business), Administration (School Board)
- Business
Consultant, Supervisor, Manager, Executive, Project Management, Human Resources, Other Professional Involvement
-Social Science
Therapeutic Psychologist, Forensic Psychologist, Military Psychologist, Non- therapeutic psychologist, Social Worker, Non-Therapeutic Services
- Student
Community College, State College, State University, Private University, Private College, Trade School, Technical Training, Other Vocational Post Secondary Programs
Please have the respondent answer the following questions:
Have you in the past or present time faced adversity?
Yes or No
Do you believe you have overcome adversity?
Yes or No
Do you consider yourself resilient?
Yes or No
247
Do you require any accommodations to participate in the study?
Yes or No
• If yes, please describe
Have you received and understood the confidentiality agreement
Yes or No
Have you received and understood the informed consent forms?
Yes or No
Do you understand the time commitment and requirements of the study if you are chosen to participate?
Yes or No
248
APPENDIX D: SUBTHEME FREQUENCY DATA
SUBTHEME RESPONDENTS
OCCURRENCE IN DATA EXAMPLES
Support
87/87 326
Family, friends, mental health professionals, business peers, educational peers or professionals, self
Inner Sense of Self 87/87 311
Second Strongest " I feel strong, sense of resilience, sense of strength"
Motivation 87/87 289 inward, pride, energetic
Never give up attitude 87/87 288
I am determined, I won’t fail, I won't give up
Forgiveness of self and others
87/87
275
"I had to let go of my anger and forgive him so I could help myself ", "I forgave myself for making mistakes", "I forgave myself for letting my family down" "I forgave the person who hurt me"
Displays of hopeful behavior
87/87
267
Believes life has meaning and has a hope for a future, believes in a positive and looks for the positive, can become overwhelmed and still overcome due to hope, believes in a hopeful motivation that cannot be taken away amidst adversity.
Communication with others during the process of overcoming adversity
87/87
264
Can lead self and others through chaos, "I called my friend when I thought I could not do it anymore" "I talked to my coworker when the project became overwhelming "I finally reached out to my brother when I needed help"
Learning of strategies for success and positive behavior
87/87
252
"sometimes messing up is the only way to learn how to develop a positive way to deal with stuff", "I joined a veterans club, we talk and share ways to cope and it helps me", "I take learning strategies classes to help me overcome my learning disability"
Accepts and is open to change
87/87
251
"can't change what happened, have to move forward" "the system is the way it is, complaining will not change the game, it is up to me to accept the change and be positive" "change is hard but change does not have to be bad"
249
Desire to achieve or thrive
87/87
250
"I want to be different, I want to do more than just survive this stuff, I want to achieve the goals I had before all of this" "I want to earn my degree, I am going to have to just do it" "losing my business was hard, I want to be successful again so I am going to make it happen" "I lost my child, but I don’t have to give up I want to be a successful man again... to honorable"
Dedicated to moving forward with one's life
87/87
243
Perseveres, staunch in the face of disaster/adversity, "I refuse to give up, I will move forward and make myself a life that is more than what has happened"
Takes initiative to work through the adverse event
87/87
240
makes plan to achieve success for the short term and the long term, "I want to give myself short achievable goal as first, baby steps" "I have a vision for a future so I am making plan even if I keep facing hurdles"
250
APPENDIX E: THEME FREQUENCY DATA
Hardiness
Emotive (emotional strength) Strength
Internal Locus of Control (personal accountability)
Dedication
Stamina 412 Coping 1003 It is up to me to change my life
1976 Committed 986
Resilience 1191 Bravery 941 I have choices 712 Perseverance 1129
Sturdy 800 Nerve 992 Success is mine 615 Steadfast 733
Flexible 719 Courage 814 My behavior affects me
404 Resolute 805
Tough spirit
950 Mettle 300 No one can control me
311 Diligent 359
TOTAL 4072
TOTAL 4050 TOTAL 4018 TOTAL 4012
Will to Thrive
Visionary Attitude
Empathy Decisiveness
(Desire to thrive)
To get ahead
909 Hopeful for a better future
1083 Kind 982 Certain 1165
To be successful
1176
I have plans for my future that are positive
602 Concern 735 Purposeful 560
To blossom
507 Optimist 911 Emotionally responsive
662 Persistent 777
To come into my own
433 The future will be better
787 Compassionate 1109 Definite 459
Want to grow
977 idealist 653 Gentle 528 Determined 973
TOTAL 4002 TOTAL 4036 TOTAL 4016 TOTAL 3934
