LLIBRE SALVA 07 ANGLES 29/6/07 13:30 Página 1

LLIBRE SALVA 07 ANGLES 29/6/07 13:30 Página 1

C R E D I T S

This publication is the result of the agreement between Barcelona City Council and the Urban Ecology Agency of Barcelona,in the framework of the Agenda 21. This is a translation of the original publication in Catalan (November 2002).

Author:

Salvador RuedaDirector of the Urban Ecology Agency of Barcelona

Contributions:

Francesc Cárdenas, Jordi Selfa, Jordi Romero, Francesc Magrinyá, Bettina Schaefer, Marta Vila, Marià Martí, Enric Batlle, Francesc Albardaner, Rodrigo Díaz, Gisela Lorán, Joaquim Sabaté, Josep Germain, Joaquim Calafí, Josep Mª. Carreras, Francesc Llimona, Roger Sanmartí, Antonio Aparicio, Joan Carles Senar, Cynthia Echave, Moisès Morató and Núria Vilajuana.

Published by:

Barcelona City CouncilMaintenance and Service SectorDirectorate for Environmental Education and Participation

Publishing coordinator:Txema Castiella

Design:

Gauss Ambiental

Photomechanics:

Imatge i Producció Editorial

Printed by:

Imatge i Producció Editorial

Ajuntament de Barcelona

Legal deposit:

B-39.255-2007

Barcelona, july 2007

All the uncredited charts and tables were drawn up by the author.

The Urban Ecology Agency is a consortium formed by Barcelona Provincial Council, the Metropolitan EnvironmentalAuthority and Barcelona City Council

This edition was printed on recycled paper. The cover is Methaphor of 310 g/m2 and the interior Freelife Vellum White of 120 g/m2


Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

A model of mobility based on superblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

The public space that appears in the proposal of superblocks . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Public space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Urban areas of integral action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Rehabilitation and quality of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Cross-Section view of the Urbanism on three levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

A more sustainable model of land occupation: more country and more city . . . . . . . 23

A polynuclear network of compact cities and towns inthe Metropolitan Area of Barcelona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

The movement of persons and goods in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona . . . . . 28

Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Areas of new centrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

A mixture of urban uses and functions: areas of new centrality . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Information as a strategy for competing: density of legal entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Strategic lines for the economic development of Barcelona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Density of @ activities in Barcelona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

The city of knowledge and the factors that foster the new economy:the 22@ district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Biodiversity and the green network in the urban area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Biodiversity. The green network and ecological connectorsin the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Efficiency. The urban metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

The cycle of materials: waste models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

The waste model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

The water cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Conservation and management of the demand for water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Atmospheric pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Stability, social cohesion, co-development and the capacity for anticipation . . 72

Urban stability by fostering a balanced mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Ratio of university graduates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Stability and social cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

C O N T E N T S

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

COMPACTNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

BARCELONA IN TRANSIT TOWARDS SUSTAINABIL ITY . . . . . . . . . 6

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

COMPLEXITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

EFFICIENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

STABIL ITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

INDICATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82


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Barcelona has chosen the path of sustainability in order to move towards the city model that we need for the 21st century. Aftera long process of reflection, participation and consensus, the work of Agenda 21 in Barcelona, promoted by the Municipal Councilfor the Environment and Sustainability, culminated in the Civic Commitment for Sustainability, signed by 400 actors, organisa-tions and institutions of the city.

As stated in the preamble to this Commitment, we need a city that is mixed and compact, efficient and diverse—in short, a moresustainable city. In order to achieve this, we must create new instruments and policies related to mobility, biodiversity, social cohe-sion and the use of resources. The Agenda 21 establishes objectives for progress in this gradual process. These will be achievedinsofar as everyone, individually and collectively, accepts their responsibility and commitment.

In order to move forward in this process it is also necessary to make a better definition of where we want to go. It is not just aquestion of imagining the future—in itself difficult—but of shaping it, of making it visible because the long-term prospects helpus to get moving and because knowing the destination always makes the journey more feasible.

The work presented here—the result of a collaboration agreement between the City Council and the Urban Ecology Agency—is aprospective, integrated and systemic vision of the Barcelona that we want. By making a great effort to establish the environmen-tal, economic and social parameters that will shape it, this vision has the advantage of specifying—and therefore making morereal—this desirable future. In some areas the document goes beyond the limits of the municipal sphere because at the level ofreflection and planning many phenomena fall outside the local reality. We trust that it will be a useful and stimulating materialfor all persons and institutions working to achieve greater urban sustainability. Its aim is to enrich the works carried out in the fra-mework of the Barcelona Agenda 21 with a vision for the future that will be possible if we manage to work together towards sus-tainability.

F O R E W O R D

Imma MayolPresident of the Sustainability Commission

The Marina neighbourhood and the transformation of Poble Nouthrough its extension to La Sagrera, which involves above all themodification of the partially obsolete traditional industry and rail-ways, will mark the practical completion of the urban develop-ment of the city. The extension of the port and the Forum areawill complete the changes to the coastline of Barcelona. Theremaining operations are undoubtedly of a more limited scope.

Of course, the position of a municipality is closely related to theurban growth in its area. In Barcelona, the urban growth will the-refore be very limited, and efforts must be focused in anotherdirection to avoid losing the competitive edge. If Barcelona isfull, what remains to be done in order to position it in the domes-tic and international context of cities?

It seems that Barcelona is forced to change its strategy from theone used by most urban systems, in which the town councilsplace their land on sale for new development in order to incre-ase the sustained, rather than sustainable, economic growth andobtain the income in rates and taxes that they need in order tocarry out the municipal projects.

The new strategy must also take into account two aspects that informthe changes in the world today: the arrival of the information ageand the reduction in the uncertainties that now face us due to theimpact that human systems in general, and urban systems in par-ticular, have on the earth’s systems that support our organisations.

It seems that the course to follow is to seek a model that meetsboth challenges and achieves competitiveness through a newstrategy based on information rather than consumption ofresources. This is the aim of the urban model presented below,which will be put to the test by time and by the future events.The results, however, will largely depend on us, on the intentand the will that we apply to focus the changes in the direc-tion proposed here.

The strategic outlines include the measures that may lead to areduction in the current urban malfunctions, and an increase inthe environmental quality of the city. The lines of this vision forthe future trace a Barcelona that would clearly improve the urbanreality in general and the public space in particular. A proposal

is also made to stabilise the system and give it greater socialcohesion, without forgetting co-development with third coun-tries.

The model of Barcelona towards sustainability seeks coherencebetween the parts and formalises for the physical, social andeconomic areas the basic features that fill the initial theoreti-cal framework with content.

I N T R O D U C C I Ó

Salvador RuedaDirector of the Urban Ecology Agency of Barcelona.

B A R C E L O N A I N T R A N S I T T O W A R D S S U S T A I N A B I L I T Y


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The main aim of the present document is to build a prospective scenario for the Barcelona of the 21st century using criteria ofacademic ecology in general and urban ecology in particular. It is an intentional model (like everything proposed and carried outby man) that aims to lay down the patterns and the direction that Barcelona must follow in a process towards sustainability inthe new information age.

The proposals presented here are the translation into the form of strategic proposals of the process of participation that wasinitiated in Barcelona, in order to define the city's Agenda 21.

This document contains schematic proposals for Barcelona and ones that go beyond the municipal limits to include theMetropolitan Area of Barcelona (the counties of the Maresme, Barcelonès, Baix Llobregat, Baix Penedès, Alt Penedès, VallèsOriental and Vallès Occidental).

The proposals for the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona are also schematic and are intended to serve as a basis for the discussionof the Strategic Plan of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona and the next Metropolitan Plan of Barcelona. A more sustainablemodel for Barcelona that fails to include the metropolitan reality is unviable. The outlines that are presented here attempt to

achieve coherence in their criteria and in the area theyconsider, and this coherence is precisely why they wereselected.

The document is divided into four main sections, coinci-ding with the structuring lines of the model. Each line contains schematic proposals of different aspects of the urban and regio-nal reality.

The proposals are drawn up in strategic terms, but the economic, legal, organisational and educational instruments that will benecessary if they are accepted have not yet been fully developed. However, there is a section that presents some general ins-truments that make the proposal viable.

There is also a section of synthetic indicators for monitoring the model.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

In the diagrams on the left, the urban system appears at the top and its environment at the bottom. In order to maintain its organisa-tion, the city needs to extract resources from other systems that are converted into its support systems. These flows of resources—mate-rials, water and energy—involve an exploitation (in ecological terms) of the environment, whose structure will in some way be simpli-fied. The management models of these resources that are adopted by the city will increase or reduce these flows.

For example, if our waste management model includes recovering and recycling most of the paper and cardboard that are consumed(newspapers, magazines, packaging, etc.), in the equivalent manufacture of new paper it will be necessary to cut down fewer trees, i.e.the forest systems will be exploited less.

Furthermore, the consumption of resources in the city will involve a new polluting impact, both on the support systems and on the cityitself, and the volume of the impact will also depend on the management model that is intentionally chosen. Continuing the aboveexample, it is concluded that if it is taken to the landfill site, all the paper and cardboard that has not been recovered will release atmos-pheric pollutants (CO

2and others) and liquid pollutants (leachates with inks and others).

If it is taken to the incinerator, most of the components will be emitted into the atmosphere (the atmosphere is one of our supportsystems).

This impact will be increased by the transformations of the extra trees that must be cut down in order to turn them into paper pulp (avery energy-intensive process that therefore emits atmospheric pollution and has a great impact on the water system because it is highlypolluting).

In summary, the city needs to exploit the support systems because it is an open system, but the volume of exploitation and the impactdepends on the management models that we adopt. This is intentional, so it depends on us.

In order to maintain their organisation, cities also need information and knowledge. Part of this already comes with the resources. We bringanother from other places of the world in the form of companies that set up their businesses here (professionals, executives, teachers,artists... a diverse range of people), and with them come new technologies, software, methods and ways of solving problems that togethermake our cities increase their organisational complexity.

Part of our organisation is sustained through the simplification of other systems, above all when there is a reduction in the assets thatwould increase their organised structure.

THE UNITY OF THE SYSTEM AND THE ENVIRONMENTTHE METABOLIC FLOWS

THE INFORMATION FLOWS

MODELS OFURBAN METABOLISM

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URBAN ORGANISATION

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The relations that urban systems establish with other more or lessdistant territories can be characterised by flows of materials,water, energy and information. In order to maintain the organi-sation of a city, enormous amounts of resources must reach it inthe form of raw materials, objects and artefacts, as well as infor-mation. All this feeds the system and maintains the city organi-sed, and it can even increase its organisational complexity.

Furthermore, as a result of the urban organisation, which willtransform and consume the resources that have arrived in diffe-rent ways, a great amount of waste will be generated that cannotbe maintained in the city (it would toxify the system) and will beprojected to other places (other systems), causing a new impact.

The adjoining diagram shows the main flows that are establishedbiunivocally by the urban system and the systems that sustainthe urban organisation.

Exploitation and a polluting impact affect the ecosystems, sim-plifying them, but what is of most concern today is that they areexerted without limits. Indeed, the combination of exploitationand impact is ever greater, making the “pressure” on the supportsystems rise above the "carrying capacity” of some of them.

A reasonable exploitation of the support systems is necessary,but it is not reasonable to carry out the exploitation withoutlimits, i.e. when the systems are overexploited, compromisingthe mechanisms of renewability or leading to the exhaustion ofthe resources.

The same occurs when the disturbance to the ecosystems causedby a polluting impact is so high that the simplification to whichit is subjected does not allow it to recover and achieve a "balan-ced" functioning.

The impact on the systems also affects the human groups thathave for centuries enjoyed the resources of their territory, leading

to migration for ecological reasons in increasing areas of land.

The current pressure on the support systems and its rising ten-dency is clearly “unsustainable”, so the first objective for “sus-tainability” will be to reduce the pressure currently exerted onthe support systems by urban systems in general, and byBarcelona in particular.

In the diagram one can see the greater unsustainability of themodel on the left, which involves greater pressure due to exploi-tation and impact (shown in the size of the arrows) than the modelon the right.

The reduction in the pressure on the environment depends aboveall on the models of management and urban organisation, andthese obviously depend on the will to direct them towards objec-tives of reduction.

Human life and its most complex organisations(cities) are threatened by the increase in the uncer-tainties projected by the earth’s systems in responseto the impacts they suffer from man and his activi-ties. The uncertainties are expressed in several ways:probable climatic change, movement of millions ofpersons for environmental reasons, over-exploitationof fishing grounds all over the world, depletion of fos-sil fuels and basic minerals, human appropriation ofclean primary production, etc.

These show our limited capacity for anticipation withregard to problems on a global scale caused by beha-viours and models of organisation and managementof reality on a local scale.

Cities are without doubt the systems that have thegreatest impact on the ecosystems of the earth, andit is clear that the battle of sustainability will be wonor lost in them. Therefore, the reduction of the uncer-tainties mentioned above depends essentially on theapplication of models of urban organisation aimed atreducing the impact on the systems that “support”us (because they provide us with resources and takeour waste).

However, urban systems and regions compete witheach other for their position in the national and inter-national ranking of cities. The urban strategies usedto obtain positions of advantage are based, unfortu-nately, on a growing increase of resources, i.e. on anincrease in the impact on the support systems, whichconsequently leads to an increase in the uncertain-ties in the earth's systems.

The process, based on this strategy that is today glo-balised, is simply unsustainable. We must thereforeseek a strategy for competing that is not based on theconsumption of resources, and at the same time amodel of urban organisation that reduces the impactthat we have on the earth's systems.

URBAN SUSTAINABILITY: THE THEORETICALBASES OF THE MODEL

THE PRESSURE EXERTED BY URBAN SYSTEMS ON THE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Reducing the pressure on the environment should not, in theory,involve a reduction in the urban complexity, i.e. it should not invol-ve a simplification of the city and compromise its future.

It is well-known that the first thing that is lost with a cut in basicmaterials, water or energy is the organisation. Furthermore, thesimpler systems show a greater dependence on energy centres; asthe systems become complex, energy plays a more secondary role,

until it becomes a very small support in the construction, main-tenance and changes of the system.

In more evolved and more complex systems, the components useinformation as a centre. As systems reach higher degrees of evo-lution, information becomes the organising centre of the systemand energy is only a complementary medium for it.

URBAN ORGANISATION AND ITS COMPLEXITY AND STABILITY

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In the diagrams, the size of the arrowss is proportional to the size of the pressure.

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As stated above, the urban model that is proposed for Barcelonamust allow the city to project itself into the future in competitionwith other cities and urban areas, whilst reducing the consump-tion of resources that it needs to maintain its organisation andincrease its complexity even further. The model also includes aset of interrelated proposals that can significantly improve theurban quality, and in theory reduce most of the malfunctions ofthe current model.

A complementary series of outlines for regional planning are alsoproposed. These are essential for a systemic understanding, basedon criteria of sustainability, of the relations that must be esta-blished between the different parts of the territory.

The model is based on four structuring lines: compactness, com-plexity, efficiency and stability. Each of the lines explains a partof the reality, the part that is closest to it, but all of them areencapsulated in a single, integrated proposal.

The proposal focuses on Barcelona and also—schematically—onthe Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, because the two are con-demned to understand each other in their strategies. The currentmalfunctions must be understood partly as a result of the currentdisconnection and lack of coherence.

Of the four structuring lines of the model that guide Barcelonatowards sustainability, two of them, compactness and efficiency,include the strategic proposals for reducing the pressure that ourcity exerts on the support systems.

Compactness is a line that articulates the models of land occu-pation and new planning, mobility, public space, building typesand the underground city, i.e. the aspects that deal with the formand functionality of the city.

Efficiency is a line that proposes the adopting of a new metabolicsystem that reduces the disturbance of the ecosystems. It articu-lates the models of urban metabolism: water, materials and energy,i.e. the flows that provide the city with resources and that must bemanaged appropriately after they have been consumed in order toavoiding polluting both the city and the wider environment.

The other two lines that sustain a more sustainable model ofBarcelona, complexity and stability, deal with the organisation ofthe city and a new strategy for competing based on information andknowledge and give meaning to the model of the knowledge city.

Stability deals with social cohesion and also covers co-develop-ment, on the understanding that solidarity, equity and the reduc-tion of conflicts necessarily involves giving all human groups ashare in sustainable development.

A limited number of synthetic indicators are proposed for moni-toring the different lines of the Barcelona Model.

THE COMPONENTS OF A MODEL OF BARCELONA IN TRANSIT TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

Increasing the organised information is the urban strategy for com-peting that could replace the current strategy based on the con-sumption of resources. A greater urban complexity (the secondaspect to take into account for sustainability) provides a positionof advantage over other, more simplified systems, because infor-mation is multiplied whereas energy is only added.

An increase in complexity also involves an increase in the urbanfunctions that give it stability.

This new strategy based on information should make it possible toachieve compatibility between the terms “development” and “sus-tainable”. Indeed, with the current strategy for competing basedon the consumption of resources, which is the meaning of the termdevelopment, the pressure on the support systems increases, andis translated into an increasing unsustainability. With this strategy

“development” and “sustainable” is an oxymoron, i.e. a combi-nation of contradictory terms, because the term sustainability islinked to the idea of reducing the pressure on the support systems.Therefore, either one changes the strategy for competing or oneceases to speak of sustainable development because the currentstrategy makes them contradictory.

The equation of sustainability is solved if one manages to applyan urban model that incorporates an increase in the urban orga-nisation and at the same time a reduction in the pressure on theenvironment. The schematic proposals presented below attemptto approach this equation in a coherent and integrated fashion.Developing these proposals will involve major changes in the waywe understand urban issues and the action we take.


C O M P A C T N E S S

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COMPACTNESS COMPACTNESS VS DISPERSALCompactness is the state or quality of being compact.According to the Cambridge International Dictionary ofEnglish, the adjective compact means "consisting of partsthat are positioned together closely or in a tidy way, usingvery little space."

In the field of urban planning, compactness expresses theidea of proximity of the components that make up the city,i.e. the location of the urban uses and functions in a limi-ted space.

Compactness therefore facilitates the contact, exchangeand communication that are, of course, the essence of thecity. It increases the probability of contacts and thus rein-forces the relation between the elements of the urbansystem.

The conditioning factors imposed by formal physical proxi-mity are of special relevance in order to get an idea of theobjectives expressed above in relation to sustainability.

a) The formal solutions adopted in the compact city, both inthe public space and in the buildings, allow a separation tobe made between the city and the country; this is not possi-ble in the diffuse city, which is configured as an immensesuburb. Indeed, the functionalist zoning and the network ofinfrastructures imposes an orderless mixture that simplifiesthe urban parts as well as the rural and natural ones.Horizontal transport destroys the mosaic of areas that couldhave an independent development.

b) The Mediterranean city at our latitudes is characterised subs-tantially by the public space, which is the place where civic lifetakes on meaning. Its functions go beyond mobility and inclu-de many others such as leisure, markets and festivals.

The public space characterised by the corridor street, which iswhat mostly shapes the urban landscape, is lengthened andextended in each of the public facilities: markets, libraries,sports facilities, cultural facilities, civic centres, schools, bea-ches, parks and gardens, etc. Together, the street and the faci-lities form a unit, an interconnected mosaic that revitalises civiclife every day.

Public space in the diffuse city is compartmented, and in eachplace it can fulfil a function. For example, the motorways thatplay the role of the main streets only allow the function of mobi-lity. The market and its functions, and trading, have been shif-ted to the superstores, which have everything (in residential esta-tes there is nothing). The aisles of the shopping centre play therole of streets, though they are regulated by the commercial inte-rests rather than by municipal regulations.

The single-family house acts as the core of a star that extendsits points to connect to the exterior and covers many of the func-tions of the public space of the compact city. Many houses beco-me in rotation social clubs, bars, restaurants, etc.: the weekendbarbecue is the excuse to bring the friends and/or relatives toge-ther, and each person takes turns at being the host.

c) In the compact city one can consider building its mirrorimage underground. Today, most of the frictions that arise atground level due to traffic, loading and unloading, parking,etc. can be resolved below ground level. In the diffuse city,of course, this is not possible.

d) The conflicts of transport generated by the diffuse city canonly be solved by increasing the infrastructure to restore thelost speed or to desaturate the network. This dynamic pro-cess is complementary to, and generally predates, new dis-persed urban settlements that will make any extension of thenetwork insufficient, because they will transfer the problemof congestion and the variables that accompany it (atmos-pheric pollution, noise, pollution of the landscape, greaterconsumption of energy and time) to increasingly large areas.With the current technology, it is only possible to increase thenumber of contacts and physical relations in the diffuse cityby increasing the road network.

The proximity of uses and urban functions in the compactcity allows public transport to reach a sufficient critical massto maintain itself and offer a regular and comfortable localservice, as well as facilitating movement by bicycle and onfoot. In the compact city, the great majority of citizens have“access” to the city and can enjoy it without depending onanyone. The elderly, children and persons without a drivinglicense or car represent 70% of the public, and when theylive in dispersed housing estates they lack autonomy and the-refore access to the city: they only obtain access to the ser-vices if someone drives them there.

e) The number of potential contacts per unit of energy andtime consumed in transport is far greater in the compact citythan in the diffuse city. In the same proportion, the emissionsof pollutants for each contact are far lower in the compactcity than in the dispersed city.

f) The separation between persons with different incomes inthe compact city is less than that imposed in the diffuse city.The public space in Barcelona can be occupied by any per-son, whatever their social condition. Furthermore, the mix-ture of incomes that is found in much of the built fabric is asubstantial element of social cohesion and co-habitation.

The housing estates of the dispersed city are occupied accor-ding to income, leading to a social segregation that is incre-ased through the almost exclusive use of the public space bythe residents of the estate, who consider any person from out-side the estate who uses it as an “intruder”.


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THE CORRECTION OF COMPACTNESS One of the dangers faced by Barcelona (though it may seema contradiction) is the development of an excessive com-pactness arising from speculation or poorly applied policiesin relation to this concept.

The current tendency of producing city (different cities in allcontinents show this) does not end with the dispersed occu-pation of the land but (following the same model) continueswith the vertical growth of central areas that are mainly filledwith tertiary activities, in some cases driving out the residentcommunities. These business districts control the develop-ment and the destiny of large areas of land.

The resulting proportions between buildings and public spaceare in favour of the former, breaking the balances of civic life,which are those related to urban quality and quality of life.

Therefore, the idea of compactness must be regulated andcorrected, because in excess it can generate more malfunc-tions than solutions, at least from the viewpoint of sustaina-bility. But what are the rules for correcting compactness, andwhat are the points of balance and the theoretical basis forapproaching it?

At this point, following some of the proposals already put for-ward by Cerdà and adapted to our current knowledge, onemust revive some of the dichotomies that he considered forthe planning of the Eixample. In particular, the dichotomyrelation-isolation led him to divide the Eixample into 50%buildings and 50% green and open spaces.

For the inhabitants of a town the civic life, which is carriedout in the public space, represents a basic dichotomy simi-lar to their own personal life. Indeed, the life of an individualis essentially two things: inner life and relation. Civic life isalso on the one hand interaction and communication, i.e. rela-tion, and on the other hand peace, silence, relaxation andcontact with nature, i.e. isolation.

The history of Barcelona is full of examples and actions (somelegal, others illegal) that have subverted this dichotomy follo-wing the logic of speculation: one need only consider the plan-ning regulations introduced successively since the early daysof the Eixample, all increasing the building density and rapidlyeliminating all the green spaces.

The proportion of built space to green space in Barcelona istoo much in favour of the former, involving a deficit of one ofthe parts of civic life. This is translated into an increase in

the urban pressure that has a variety of consequences for thecity and the region (for example, the proliferation of secondhomes).

The compactness of the different urban fabrics shows thedeficit of green spaces, above all of those used daily that areless than 200 metres from one's home.

On the other hand, private vehicles occupy 65–70% of thetotal public space for moving, parking and loading and unlo-ading. This massive presence of artefacts dissipating energybehaves like a single reticular machine (in fact when there isa problem at one point of the network, it affects the whole),emitting noise and atmospheric pollution, causing accidents,etc. This is added to the pressure caused by the excessivebuilding density and makes the public space, which is themain characteristic of our Mediterranean city, “unlivable”.

Therefore, the uses and functions of public space have beenlimited by speculation, which replaced green spaces with buil-dings, and cars, which have invaded most of the urban space.The city is therefore on its hands and knees, and restoringpart of the balance is one of the objectives of the model fora future city. The partial recovery of the balances betweenrelation and isolation can only be achieved by reconsideringthe use of the space above and below ground.

A MODEL OF MOBILITY BASED ON SUPERBLOCKS

Grid of basic routesfor private vehicles

Grid of basic routes forabove-ground public transport

Grid of basic routes for cycle transport


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A MODEL OF MOBIL ITY BASED ONSUPERBLOCKSThe structuring of the transport networks into superblockscan resolve most of the current urban malfunctions linkedto mobility and the use of public space.

Cerdà showed that the most efficient network in urbanfabrics is an orthogonal one. Radial networks and onesthat contain diagonals are inefficient.

The intersection between the different components of thenetwork causes “frictions” that do not arise in orthogonalnetworks.

SUPERBLOCKS1

FOR PRIVATE VEHICLESThe superblock (in physical terms) is composed of a set of basic roads forming a polygon or inner area (intervia) that containswithin it several blocks of the current urban fabric.

The network of superblocks extended over the municipality of Barcelona should form a mesh that is as isotropic as possible,covering it in its entirety. The basic roads are in general between 400 and 600 metres apart.

The through vehicles only occupy the peripheral roads that define the superblock and are considered as basic roads. The inte-rior (intervia) is closed to through vehicles and open (by means of a system of cards and bollards) to residents, public trans-port, disabled persons, emergency vehicles and, in some streets, bicycles.

In the course of time the superblock can be opened and disappear as such when it is considered suitable; the idea of thesuperblock is therefore as flexible as one wishes to make it.

Loading and unloading is performed mostly in the interior of the intervias during certain periods of time. It therefore does notinterfere with the traffic flow on the basic roads.

A system of underground or closed car parks peripheral to the intervia with access from each of the basic roads guaranteesthat any person can reach the centre of the superblock in a couple of minutes.

The residents can park at any time in the interior of the superblock if they have a parking space off the public thoroughfare.

The network allows the connection and accessibility of the entrances and exits to the city and the itineraries that connect withand between the districts.

THE SUPERBLOCKS FOR ABOVE GROUND PUBLIC TRANSPORT (PT) The current network of buses does not operate as a network. In the best of the cases, the citizens know the bus line near to theirhome. The metro, on the other hand, works as a network.

A network of buses that comes close to the idea of a network may take shape if it is designed on an orthogonal basis, i.e. in orderto go from one point to another one needs to make at most one change.

The bus network would form an orthogonal mesh of vertical lines from the sea to the hills and of horizontal lines from the RiverBesòs to the River Llobregat, with pairs of routes travelling in both directions.

In most stretches the lines of the basic network would have segregated lanes and a frequency of about 5 minutes. The increasein frequency, the segregated lane and efficient traffic-light sequencing in a grid with a section of 400 m would mean that thebuses would be faster than they are now, and even faster than private vehicles at peak times.

The proposal represents a relatively small modification of the current transport network, though it would eliminate many of thediagonals that are now used.

The bus network, and the extended network proposed by the Master Plan of Infrastructures (MPI) and shown in the diagram“Movement of Persons and Goods” presented below, form the public transport proposal that will make it feasible to reduce vehi-cle traffic, as laid out in the previous section.

1. In the Ribera neighbourhood of Barcelona a superblock has already been inoperation for quite a few years.

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THE SUPERBLOCKS FOR BICYCLES The network would again be structured orthogonally following the idea of the superblock so that much of the land would be cove-red except for part of the northern area of the city and Montjuïc (at least in the uphill routes).

The bicycle becomes a true means of transport if:

1. It has its own interconnected network covering the wholearea and most of it is segregated.

2. It is safe.

3. It has secure parking facilities. A space for bicycles is pro-vided in the peripheral car parks of the intervias.

4. Several units of PT are fitted out for transporting bicyclesto overcome the impediment of slopes with a gradient ofmore than 4%.

Gradients of over 8%

Gradients of 6-8%

Gradients of 4-6%

Gradients of 0-4%

THE SUPERBLOCKS FOR PEDESTRIANS

1. Intervias connected by a network of green areas and qua-lity materials for all pedestrians (without physical barriers).

2. Most of the network for pedestrians has sound levels ofLeq < 65 dBA.

3. It is a safe network with fewer accidents.

4. It is an attractive network because it combines greeneryand urban design with spaces for spending time and com-mercial activities.

5. The section has a single level in the interior of the inter-vias to indicate that the main form of transport is walking.

6. The architectural barriers are removed and the whole cityis made accessible to disabled persons.

The number of journeys on foot represents over 26% of the internal journeys. This percentage may be increased because theproposal includes:


THE PUBLIC SPACE THAT APPEARS IN THE PROPOSAL OF SUPERBLOCKS

Current and future green space

Diagram of the green spaces and spacesfor spending time that appear in the proposalof superblocks

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The combination of certain formal solutions in both the buil-ding and the public space may allow us to partly control thevariables of the environment or of the medium as we do in theinterior of buildings, where we control the temperature, thelighting and the relative humidity.

One must therefore control the environmental variables in thepublic space in order to improve the urban and environmentalquality (comfort), which involves a relative control of the sun-light and shade, the temperature and the air movement, thesound scenarios and the polluting immissions, the security andurban relations. The control of the medium provides the bestscenario for the new uses and functions of the public space.

The idea of controlling the medium brings us towards the moreadvanced stage of an ecosystem in its succession, on theunderstanding that an ecosystem is the multivariate relationbetween bodies and environment in a given space and that itmanages to achieve a certain control of this medium.

In the intervia of the superblocks, the design of the section ofthe street and of the furniture, the use of quality materials andwater, the placing of two green zones at different heights (atstreet level and on the building, see the section on urban bio-diversity), and the definition of the uses and functions of theurban fabric can allow one to control the variables of themedium: the sound scenario, the urban landscape, the clima-te and the security.The control of the environmental variablesin turn affects several aspects of the urban metabolism: energyand its consumption, water and the quality of the air.

Apart from the proposals of recent planning, the proposals con-tained in this document could significantly increase the urbangreenery.

a) Inner streets of the intervias. The purpose of freeing urbanland is to increase the urban functions linked to isolation: con-tact with greenery, birds, water, the earth, the soil... all immer-sed in a high-quality urban landscape. The crossroads of theCerdà grid cover an area of 1900 square metres, which is a simi-lar size to the Plaça del Sol. This means that one would haveover 150 potential squares of greenery, linked to multifunctio-nal streets in which greenery rather than the road is the struc-turing component.

b) Inner courts of blocks. The construction of underground carparks in the inner courts of the blocks, as laid down in the pro-posal for peripheral car parks of the superblocks, would allowgardens to be built at ground level in the inner courts, and partof the profits could be devoted to maintaining them. This pro-posal would increase the number of inner courts from 17 to 45in the medium term (2008).

c) Gardens on the slopes of Collserola. The intersection of thehills with the urban fabrics allows a series of buffer gardens tobe drawn covering the north of Barcelona.

d) Greenery in the new urban projects. The transformation andremodelling of large areas of the city: Poble Nou, Sant Andreu-Sagrera, Nou Barris, Trinitat Nova, etc. provide new greenery thatin some cases links large urban areas.

NEW USES AND FUNCTIONS FOR THE PUBLIC SPACE OF BARCELONAIn addition to journeys on foot, the public space in the intervias can fulfil other functions of civic life: spending time, playing,leisure, contact with greenery, etc. Here the structure of superblocks can partly make up for the current deficit of green and lei-sure spaces that speculation and cars have reduced to a minimum.

The proposal of superblocks mostly involves freeing almost 60% of the public space now occupied by cars in order to increasethe green area. In this area, the aim is not so much to form naturalised areas but to enhance the second aspect of civic life lin-ked to isolation and contact with green spaces.

Civic life, however, is also relation, exchange and communication. The mixture of legal entities in a place—i.e. economic acti-vities, associations, facilities and administration—attracts a certain number of persons who give life to this part of the city.

The intersection between relation and isolation determines the variables of the medium and its quality, and fills the idea of thecity with content.

PUBLIC SPACEThe public space is the main element defining the model ofthe Mediterranean city. It is where the life of the city deve-lops, and embodies its essence: contact, exchange and com-munication.

As stated above, for the inhabitants of a town the civic life,which is carried out in the public space, represents a basicdichotomy similar to their own personal life: relation andisolation.

The proportion of built space to green space in Barcelonatips too far in favour of the former (for example, in theEixample buildings occupy 61% and green spaces 6%) andthe same can be said of the occupation of the public spaceby private vehicles (between 65 and 70% of the total).

This involves a deficit of one of the parts of civic life andleads to an increase in the urban pressure. Continuingwith the example of the Eixample, the proposal of super-blocks would increase the green and residential spacesby almost 30%.

THE CONTROL OF THE ENVIRONMENTALVARIABLES IN THE PUBLIC SPACE

An example of a superblock in the Eixample of BarcelonaSource: Drawn up by the author for ProEixample

URBAN GREENERY


BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: REHABILI-TATION AND MORE SUSTAINABLE NEWCONSTRUCTIONMost of the work that is currently done on buildings inBarcelona consist of conversions and rehabilitations ofinterior and exterior elements.

The adaptation of these processes of rehabilitation andnew construction to the criteria of sustainability shouldlead to a better quality of life for the inhabitants (“hou-sing for all”), an improvement of the urban landscape,greater efficiency in the consumption of resources andthe availability of new technologies. The creation of anenvironmental quality certificate must be promoted (rela-ted to the incorporation of water saving systems, facili-ties for selective collection, reduction of internal noise,use of natural lighting, use of renewable energies andmaterials with ecolabels, bicycle parking, accessibility,domotics, etc.).

Furthermore, in the new developments and in the revita-lization of neighbourhoods, the new habitability must beincorporated in residential building construction in orderto adapt it to the new models of family structure, link itto nearby basic services and use local resources in theconstruction.

URBAN AREAS OF INTEGRAL ACTION

Integral actions

THE BIRTH OF A NEW URBANISM: AN URBANISM ON THREE LEVELSBarcelona is almost completely built. Its land is fully occupied and at most only 50,000 more dwellings can be built. However, it is proposed to plan the newurban developments by introducing a new urbanism that faces our current challenges as a society: sustainability and the coming of the new age of infor-mation and knowledge. The new urbanism, called "urbanism on three levels" (elevated, on the ground and underground) is composed of three layers (threehorizontal planes on an urbanistic scale) that are planned with the same precision as that used in current urban planning in a single layer at ground level.Present-day urbanism is insufficient to deal with the variables of the new challenges. It fails to take into account the problems of water, energy, waste, biodi-versity, urban distribution, services, the incorporation of new technologies, and the development of areas with knowledge-dense activities (among other rea-sons because planning tools as they are currently conceived are unable to do so), and this makes it more difficult to achieve the model of a more sustaina-ble city and the model of a knowledge city. One of these models without the other is doomed to failure.

In an urbanism on three levels one can link metabolic flows to the idea of efficiency, coming close to self-sufficiency through the use of renewable resources(rain and aquifers for water, sun for energy and recovered materials for construction, etc.). A new layer of biodiversity is developed at the top level. A publicspace is conceived on three levels, with the ground-level public space being reserved for the citizens. Urban distribution, parking and services are plannedunderground. As explained in other sections, there is a development of complexity, complexity in the new age and social cohesion.

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The urban landscape of Barcelona has improved considerablythanks to the smartening up of its facades.

The purposeful combination of facade smartening (above allwith colour) and the distribution of vegetation, water, furni-ture, etc. can create (many) spaces of great urban quality and

a control of the environmental variables can create comfor-table microclimates.

The restoration of the external elements of the building pro-vides a suitable level of safety for the use of the public spacewithout problems.

The double glazing proposed for the façades of the buildings ofthe basic network also leads to efficient energy consumption.The same is true of the construction of green roofs that lead toa significant energy saving in winter, and above all in summer.

This increase in efficiency can be complemented with the pla-cing of thermal solar panels, which save a great deal of energy.This saving will be increased if the rehabilitation work includespassive solutions of cross-ventilation.

The demolition of part of the rehabilitated buildings generateslarge amounts of rubble that must be recycled or, in some cases,reused. It should not be directly tipped in landfill sites.

The internal components (the lighting fittings, facilities, etc.)of the rehabilitated buildings must be chosen for their efficiencyand long life cycle.

MORE SUSTAINABLE NEW BUILDINGSThe model of the compact city involves multi-family housing as the main building type.

The new buildings must allow for mixed uses and have public establishments on the ground floor. The buildings must form streetswith formal continuity.

The formal solutions that are adopted in buildings will determine the uses to which they may be put and will therefore have anextremely important effect on the city model. A model with a mixture of uses and functions such as the one proposed here can-not be developed with buildings of a single function repeated over large areas.

The buildings in the areas of renewal must form part of an integral project that creates a new piece of complex “city”.

The new buildings must have suitable dimensions, structures and facilities to house the activities of the new economy.

Following the criterion of compactness, the urban mix must take into account the spatial proximity between residential, labour,leisure, shopping uses, etc, involving accessibility to the basic services and at the same time self-containment.

Also, the new buildings must take into account the criteria of orientation, management and efficiency of energy, water and mate-rials for a rational use of resources, and provide comfort and quality for the users.

The design of the new buildings must be of high architectural quality and it must be identifiable, avoiding the homogeneous formalsolutions of recent decades that are more appropriate for suburbs than for cities.

For both the new and the rehabilitated buildings one must create an environmental quality certificate that includes the aspectsrelated to metabolic flows: energy, water and materials. The new buildings must have a hypothetical qualification of 10 out of10, and in rehabilitated buildings it is proposed that they at least increase the qualification by 2 points.

REHABILITATION AND QUALITY OF LIFESome of the dwellings that are built fail to reach suita-ble levels of habitability. Also, the buildings do not havethe basic facilities such as lifts, which are vital for theinhabitants, especially the elderly.

The processes of rehabilitation undertaken inBarcelona—especially the major works undertaken inCiutat Vella—have led to a significant improvement inthe quality of life of the inhabitants. Aspects such ashealth, security, comfort (redistribution of the internalelements of homes, common facilities, etc.), have beentaken into account in the rehabilitation work.

Also, in order to achieve a level of comfort in the inte-rior of the buildings with façades giving onto the basicnetwork of the superblocks (with daytime noise levels ofover 65 dBA), subsidies should be provided to installdouble glazing on the façades in the line already initia-ted by the Urban Landscape Institute.

Rehabilitation of buildings in Ciutat Vella (1987-2001)Source: Rehabilitation Office of Ciutat Vella

REHABILITATION AND URBAN QUALITY

REHABILITATION AND EFFICIENCY

Full rehabilitation

Medium rehabilitation

Slight rehabilitation


CROSS-SECTION VIEW OF THE URBANISM ON THREE LEVELS

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FLOWS OF MATERIALS AND ENERGY. SERVICE GALLERIESThe L/U galleries connect to the surface by goods lifts for business, lifts for persons, and underground containers for waste.The waste collection services would use the galleries for removing the flows of domestic and commercial waste.

The service galleries form a separate system. It seems that these would take priority in the intervias of the superblocks, andthe interruption of the flow of mobility must be reduced to a minimum.

The service galleries could have a prismatic structure similar to that proposed in the 22@ area.

In addition to the channelling and transport of drinking water,sewage and rainwater, there would be a series of tanks forregulating floods and combined sewer overflow, and one couldalso add a separate water supply from the aquifers of theRiver Besòs or from the treatment plants for use in publicservices, industry and the corridors of green roofs.

MOBILITY AND PARKINGFor some time the main aim of underground construction has been mobility. Underground railways have lightened the burden ofmobility on civic life and have increased the speed of other forms of transport due to the lack of obstacles and friction. However,motor vehicles now occupy most of the built area underground.

Underground car parks have partly reduced the over-occupation of the public space, though there are parts of the city with a shor-tage of car parks that must be resolved in the near future. There is also a need to reduce the shortage of parking for motorcyclesand bicycles. The proposal of superblocks requires a plan of car parks on the peripheries of the intervias covering the whole city.

New railway and metro lines must also be laid underground in Barcelona.

L/U causes an increasing impact on the functionality of thecity, above all in the central areas. Apart from the time regu-lations that might be established, using the space below groundmay provide the great solution to the current frictions in mobi-lity imposed by L/U. With this aim it is proposed to create asystem of interconnected galleries.

The priority for building the galleries would be to combine thevariables of motorised pressure at ground level and green areaper inhabitant. The L/U performed with motor vehicles mustbe complemented by the railway, for which space must be pro-vided on the railway network at strategic points of the city fordistributing loads.

LOADING AND UNLOADING (L/U)

ACTIVITIES AND FACILITIESIn the major urban remodelling projects, and in the future ifthe formulas for managing energy and materials change inline with the proposals of this document, space must be reser-ved below ground to house the facilities that provide collec-tive services.

Also, a list of activities that can be carried out undergroundmust be drawn up and the ones that are strategic must bechosen.

Source: Drawn up by the author for ProEixample

THE DESIGN OF THE UNDERGROUND CITYUntil now, experiences of underground urban design havebeen limited, though in cold climates the galleries built insome cities are over thirty kilometres long. Extreme climaticconditions force people to seek underground the meetingpoints with the characteristics of public space that we areused to experiencing above ground.

It seems a totally reasonable and even strategic objective todesign an underground city of Barcelona that will organiseand distribute functions to solve some of the current mal-functions and reinforce the future development of the citybased on more sustainable criteria. The lack of planning andlegislation is partly undermining the future of Barcelona, andan improvised occupation will be a handicap for the plan-ning of the area below ground that will have to be underta-ken sooner or later. One must revise the current legislationand create new laws and/or modify those aspects that arenow an insurmountable obstacle.

The area below ground should be a public resource and theurban plans must permit the differentiation of each part ofthe buildings, particularly the parts developed underground.However, caution will be necessary in order to combine thedesign of the underground city with the archaeologicalremains.

L/U emergencyexit

L/U emergencyexit

L/U entrance

L/U exit

UNDERGROUND GALLERIES FOR LOADING/UNLOADING


A MORE SUSTAINABLE MODEL OF LAND OCCUPATION: MORE COUNTRY AND MORE CITY

Current railway network

Proposed railway network

Built-up land

Proposal for urban compaction

Green corridors, Plans for Spaces of Natural Interest (PANIs) and reserves

Free space

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A MORE SUSTAINABLE MODEL OF LANDOCCUPATION: MORE COUNTRY ANDMORE CITYThe aim of developing a more sustainable model forBarcelona without including the metropolitan reality (ordeveloping a sustainable model of the metropolis withoutincluding the reality of Barcelona) is unreasonable, if notimpossible, because any idea based on criteria of sustai-nability must approach the problem systematically, andsuch an approach must take into account the main cha-racteristic of any system, i.e. the fact that it is open. In otherwords, Barcelona and the Metropolis are so closely rela-ted that anything that happens at one point of the territoryhas repercussions on others.

Consequently, the agreements that can be reached inBarcelona in relation to its strategic plans must be coordi-nated with those of the municipalities of the MetropolitanArea.

Though the agreements must be reached through institu-tional and territorial consensus, this section includes somestrategic aspects for the discussion that are, in theory, cohe-rent with the schematic proposals for the municipality ofBarcelona.

In order to reduce the malfunctions of the current model ofproducing “city” and to adapt it to new, more sustainablescenarios, one must stop the current process and reconsi-der it in the terms laid out below.

THE TERRITORIAL MODEL The territorial model that has proven to be sustainable for centuries in our temperate latitudes is the mosaic formed by farm-land, forest and pastures, linked by riverbanks, hedgerows, irrigation ditches, streams, rivers... and in the middle the compactand complex city that spreads over the land as a polynuclear network of cities. Making more city and at the same time morecountry would be the synthesis of the urban and territorial models. Experience shows that these two models can be maintainedand developed if the model of mobility fosters the configuration of nodes or centres, preventing urban sprawl.

THE DIFFUSE MODEL OF LAND OCCUPATION

DIFFUSE URBAN PLANNING(current)

URBAN SYSTEM


DIFFUSE CITY

irrigatedfarmland

dryfarmland

offices

housing estate

airport

protectednaturalspace

housing estatefor income X

housingestate

officearea

hiper

university campus

naturalpark

housing estate

motorway

energy

energy water

water

minerals

timberraw materials

oil

waste

networks

types oftransport

transformationactivities

buildings

infrastructures

waste

disperse buildings

housing estatefor income Y

airport

shoppingcentre

universitycampus

segregated road

Consumption ofland and loss of

fertile land

Impermeabilisationand channelling of

water courses

Insularisationand loss ofbiodiversity

Conservation offarming and

natural systems


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THE COMPACT MODEL OF LAND OCCUPATION

COMPACT URBAN PLANNING


URBAN SYSTEM

COMPACT CITY

water

minerals

networks

buildings

infrastructures

typesof transport

transformationactivities

timber

raw materials

oil

railway

farmlandforest

pastures

road

accessibility

Building densityProximity of uses and functions

town centre

airport

Consumption ofland and loss of

fertile land

Impermea-bilisation

Insularisation Supportsystems

Conservation offarming and

natural systems

The territorial model is accompanied by the models of mobi-lity, energy, water, materials, etc. that characterise it and keepit organised and functioning:

1 The model of urban land occupation. It is proposed to chan-ge from the model of the diffuse city to the polynuclearmodel of compact and complex cities and towns. It is the-refore proposed to change from suburbanisation to asystem of cities. The polynuclear structure takes on theform of a split star, whose tips are organised as compactcentres (similar to the beads of a necklace) separated bythe green matrix.

2 The network of free systems. It is proposed to create aninterconnected green matrix of great biodiversity with afarming component that is to be promoted.

3 The model of mobility. It is proposed that most of the mobi-lity between centres should depend on a railway networkthat creates urban nodes. A high-speed intercity type rail-way in some cases and local lines and the metro in others.It is proposed that the structuring and compaction of theurban centres should be carried out in a radius of two kilo-metres around the stations. Two kilometres is the ideal dis-tance for access by bicycle or on foot.

4 Metabolism models (energy, water and materials). Themodel of mobility, the building types and the model ofregional development based on a polynuclear system ofcompact cities have a far lower consumption of naturalresources, including land—and are therefore more sustai-nable—than the metabolism models of the dispersed city.

A POLYNUCLEAR NETWORK OF COMPACT CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF BARCELONA

The current railway network

Inter-urban trams

Other lines

Proposal of high-frequency local lines

Proposal of low-frequency and regional lines

High-speed train

Proposal for urban compaction with the current andfuture railway network

Urban centres outside the proposal for urban compaction

Free space


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A POLYNUCLEAR NETWORK OF COM-PACT CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE METRO-POLITAN AREA OF BARCELONA2

The first action to be taken in the future Regional Plan,Strategic Plan, etc., is to determine where the city starts(and ends) and where the country ends (or starts). Thedefinition of limits in this case is strategic and the muni-cipalities must promote the specific projects of the pro-blems of “gradient” in the border areas between the cityand the country.

The compact network of cities and towns in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona would take on the shape of a split star, inwhich the tips are compacted around the railway stations serving the urban land and the programmed and unprogrammeddevelopment land. The reinforcement of the polynuclear character of the model of urban settlement requires the creation ofnew centralities in the low-density areas through the introduction of suitable activities and the proposal of higher densitiesin certain areas. The growth must be centripetal, stitching together the current suburbanisation with operations that structu-re new centrality, always respecting the boundaries linked to the node-creating collective transport. Centrality, as will be seen,involves reinforcing the mixture of uses and functions.

At the same time, attention must be paid to maintaining the central cities, to renewing and transforming the existing urbanfabrics coherently with the criterion of minimising the development of new land. With this aim, suitable criteria and guidan-ce must be provided for rehabilitating the central urban areas, structuring and densifying the peripheral urban fabrics andmaintaining isolated urban areas basically for second homes. The proposal would have to be articulated rapidly in order tochannel the current demand. Indeed, the estimated housing demand in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona in the next 20years is between 250,000 and 400,000 new units, which must be programmed in the areas to be compacted with basicallymulti-family building types, with the aim of making cities rather than housing estates.

The unprogrammed development land must in most cases become undevelopable land and the development land that has notbeen developed would be revised. Development on the latter would be allowed if it fits in the areas of new centrality or itwould be transferred with systems of compensation if it is beyond the boundaries. The introduction of new uses in the terri-tory must be accompanied, as a condition sine qua non, by a suitable rail mobility infrastructure. As the rails have a linearstructure, one must determine which nodes are to be reinforced and which must serve to stitch together, structure and com-pact the current urban chaos.

The occupation of new undevelopable land is not acceptable in any cases, and existing operations of this type must be retur-ned to their original state or—if this is not possible—equivalent areas and strategic locations must be applied. One must startwith the public or private cases that most affect the development of the green matrix. Another solution to the buildings cons-tructed on undevelopable land complementary to the above would be to set an expiry date for the occupation (25, 50 years).

2. The proposal of structuring of compaction centres stems fromthe intersection of the circumferences around the railway sta-tions and the green matrix. The compaction is applied only toland that has previously been classified as urban, programmeddevelopment land and unprogrammed development land. Themap is therefore a simple diagram that provides an approxi-mation of the idea of urban polynuclearity and is merely inten-ded to serve as a basis for the discussion of the model of urbanland occupation. The lines are not precise and are not inten-ded to be so. Therefore, one should not seek any boundaries orthe correspondence of any urban fabric to the patches that havebeen drawn.

THE MOVEMENT OF PERSONS AND GOODS

The current railway network

Other lines

Inter-urban tramway

High-frequency local lines

Low-frequency local and regional lines

High-speed train

Basic road network

Free space


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One must first consider the interactions and potential of thelocal services of RENFE and FGC, which were not included inthe MPI, in order to seek synergies and substantial improve-ments in the rail services. The FGC lines, for example, do notcross the city, and this could be solved by using the potentialof the combination of the Diagonal-Meridiana corridor.

It is essential to take advantage of the future regional systemassociated with the high-speed train, including the stations ofVilafranca del Penedès, Martorell, Sant Joan-Hospital Generalde Catalunya, Cerdanyola-Ciutat Badia, Granollers.

Furthermore, the modernisation of the regional system shouldnot focus exclusively on the potential of the high-speed train.It must consider the modernisation of the regional system ofRENFE, adding the necessary tracks for competitive intercitytrains, as is being done in other metropolitan regions of Europe.

The specialisation of long-distance networks and the relatedinfrastructures may partly remove the bottlenecks in the local

network of Barcelona, which could lead to an increase in localtrain journeys of approximately 50% (in 2001, RENFE locallines transported an average of 377,000 passengers per day).

For a viable connection of the county capitals to the rest of theMetropolitan Region, it is proposed that the stations of theregional system be connected with two branches proposed inthe RMPB (Mataró-Granollers and Vilanova-Vilafranca), in addi-tion to the radial lines already laid down in the MPI.

The semi-direct lines from Barcelona to Vilanova and fromBarcelona to Mataró should be extended respectively toVilafranca and Granollers in order to provide access from theexterior to any point of the Metropolitan Region, and to givethe towns of the coast access to the regional service withouthaving to go through Barcelona Centre.

PUBLIC TRANSPORTIntegrated fares, together with the promoting of local lines, have been the most important actions taken by the rail managementin the last 20 years. In this same line the idea of the network should be extended so that all rail lines in the Metropolitan Areaof Barcelona are under a single management.

The proposal of the rail network (metro, local lines, FGC, RENFE) shown in this strategic diagram includes all the proposals ofthe Master Plan of Infrastructures (MPI, 2001) and almost all the proposals of the Regional Metropolitan Plan of Barcelona(RMPB, 1998). The MPI was a quantum leap in public transport services, but it failed to deal clearly with a rail model for thearea outside the conurbation.

The RMPB proposes a grid network without taking into account the system of exploitation of the rail system, which is an essen-tial factor for its viability.

As stated above, the linking of urban centres must be fostered through the rail network and the proposal of regional compactingmust be based on railway stations within cycling distance (approximately 2 km).There are recent studies on the Metropolitan

Area of Barcelona that show that there is a long-term correlation between the existence of stations and urban compaction.

PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN THE CONURBATION OF BARCELONAThe MPI has focused mainly on the conurbation of Barcelona, covering an area that goes from El Prat de Llobregat to Badalona.It thus marks a qualitative change in the new layout of lines 9 and 12, in the stretch to Esplugues de Llobregat. Nevertheless,there are certain sectors of the conurbation that require an improved service.

The service could be extended with the aim (among others) of taking the economic heart of the city that follows the axis fromPasseig de Gràcia to Maria Cristina as far as the 22@ sector in Poble Nou. The axis could be structured following the Diagonalto the sea, with a combined service of local lines and metro that is currently not offered. The proposed tram service will be insuf-ficient if Barcelona decides to establish a powerful area of new centrality in the 22@ district.

THE MOVEMENT OF PERSONS ANDGOODS IN THE METROPOLITAN AREAOF BARCELONAThe key element of any Plan, that which clearly determinesthe final configuration of the territory, is the model of mobi-lity that is chosen.

Attempting to create a polynuclear model of regional plan-ning with a proposal that defends a network of roads andbasic routes such as that proposed in the General RegionalPlan of Catalonia is unviable.

A dense network of roads and segregated routes clogs up theterritory. On the other hand, models based on public trans-port—particularly railways—create nodes.

THE LOCAL RAIL SYSTEM AND THE REGIONAL SYSTEM

In addition to the conurbation of Barcelona (Barcelona,Hospitalet, Esplugues, Cornellà, Santa Coloma de Gramanet,Sant Adrià, Badalona), one must add a second multipolarconurbation defined by the municipalities of Terrassa,Sabadell, Barberà, Cerdanyola, Sant Cugat and Rubí, whichmust have services of the same level but a different nature.

In this case, one must reconduct the settlements and adaptthem to an extension in linear axes connected to the local sta-tions, in addition to the proposals of layouts laid down in theMPI and the creation of new stations on the existing lines. ThePapiol-Mollet goods corridor will shortly offer passenger servi-ces and take advantage of the synergies of regional transport.

The new linear axes for picking up passengers could have tramservices. One of the possibilities would be to create linear axeson the corridors Mollet-Palau-Caldes, Martorell-Abrera-Esparreguera, and Vallirana-Cervelló-Sant Vicenç dels Horts-Molins de Rei.

One must consider an integral inter-urban bus service in theother corridors in which the demand does not call for a tramservice.

The road network must be contained in its current situationand any new infrastructures (whether or not roads) must runover land that has already been designated in order to avoidthe current increase in partitioning of the land, new unusableinterstitial spaces, and the consequences of the barrier effect.Proposals such as the fourth ringroad and the Horta tunnelmust be revised because they are incoherent with the model.From the viewpoint of roadways, one must clearly distinguishbetween the industrial district of Martorell and the area for-med by Sabadell, Terrassa, Rubí, Sant Cugat and Cerdanyolain the Vallès Oriental and the Alt Penedès.

The former is composed of compact, polynuclear sectors, whe-reas the latter corresponds to a diffuse urban development.Therefore, the former must be provided with the basic net-work whereas the latter must be provided with a local network.

In the free spaces the mobility with private vehicles (parti-cularly four-wheel drive vehicles) must be effectively limited,and the best way to achieve this is to redraw a basic networkof dirt tracks of limited, pre-established size that would beconsidered as heritage tracks (like the network of cattletracks).

The port, as was determined in the sixties, is strategic for theinterests of the metropolitan region and even for Catalonia.The volume of goods arriving by sea should be restored to thelevels of a few decades ago.

Furthermore, most of the containers should be transported byrail (from the port and to the port), which is why it is impor-tant to unify the European gauge in Catalonia and the rest ofSpain.

Goods transport, including transport to and from the port,should be improved through Integrated Goods Centres con-nected by rail with areas for distributing the loads, for whichsome currently underused stations could be used.

The new use of the territory through transport has led to thecreation of a new, parallel network of distribution and con-sumption based on Logistic Goods Centres and ShoppingCentres. In the future one must revise their evolution and dis-tribution in order to adjust them in a system that fosters mobi-lity in a compact fabric. The Sectoral Plan for Shopping Areasmust be revised and a Sectoral Plan of Logistic Centres mustbe created.

The airport is once more a strategic infrastructure that mustchange its status as an international airport, as has been sta-ted repeatedly. Aviation must be used to cover large distan-ces and medium distances must be left to high-speed trains.

INTERRELATION BETWEEN REGIONAL COMPACTION AND TRANSPORT SERVICES

Actions of the MPI 2001-2010Source: Metropolitan Transport Authority


C O M P L E X I T Y

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COMPLEXITYEtymologically, complexity (from the Latin complexus, mea-ning entwined, twisted together) denotes a fabric of hete-rogeneous constituents that are inseparably associated: ithas the paradox of being at the same time a unit and mul-tiple.

At first sight, complexity is a quantitative phenomenon, anextreme quantity of interactions and interferences between avery large number of units. But complexity not only includesquantities of units and interactions, but also uncertainties,indeterminations and random phenomena. In a sense, com-plexity is always related to chance.

Complexity is thus linked to a certain mixture of order anddisorder, an intimate mixture that in urban systems may bepartly analysed using the concept of diversity. Living orga-nisms, and especially man and his organisations, are infor-mation carriers that accumulate, dynamically in time, cha-racteristics that indicate the degree of accumulation ofinformation and the capacity to have a significant influen-ce on the present and to control the future.

In principle, the fabric of heterogeneous constituents (com-plexity

3) that we wish to see grow in the municipality of

Barcelona is composed of the economic activities, institu-tions and urban associations, i.e. everything that is orga-nised and that adapts to the set of strategic objectives ofthe city.

The urban organisations have different attributes involvingspecialised activities that make the division of labour pos-sible. The vast majority of citizens form part of one or seve-ral urban organisations, either voluntarily or in exchangefor remuneration. These organisations have specific objec-tives that during working hours are imposed on the aimsof the individual members of the organisation.

In fact, urban organisations have the status of legal enti-ties, with similar rights and obligations to those of persons.

Agricultural societies in our region have been characterisedby limited urban concentrations where much of the surplusfrom the country was brought together. These urban centreswere surrounded by enormous extensions of farmland. Farmsare in fact ecosystems in their first stages of succession, i.e.they are highly simplified areas. This is because man esta-blishes a direct and self-interested relation with certain vege-tables and does everything within his power to keep out therest of the organisms with pesticides, guns and fences. Whenman abandons the crops, the field fills with weeds, thenshrubs and finally trees, which are accompanied by a throngof animal organisms that, in the process, increase the com-plexity.

In industrial societies, particularly Anglo-Saxon ones, thecrops have given way to the “planting” of buildings that haveoccupied entire regions, separating the residential uses fromthe industrial uses, from the shopping uses, from the tertiaryuses, from university campuses, and from leisure areas.

This is the so-called functionalist model, which assigns “one”function to each territory, with the aim of seeking rationality.Each urban function (residential, industrial, etc.) is compa-rable in terms of organised information to a field of potato-es, barley, etc., and the result is a simplification of the terri-tory in which workers meet only workers on the industrialestates, students meet only students on university campuses,and very similar people interested in similar questions meeteach other on the housing estates of single-family dwellings.

The surpluses, the increases in value, etc., end up in theurban centres, which become business centres and controlthe territory. Their position is expressed formally throughskyscrapers and the fact that each activity occupies the mostcentral (most expensive) land.

The complexity of all these urban systems is great, but thatof their constituent parts is not. They occupy large extensionsof land and are the best example of the strategy of competi-tion based on consumption of resources. The vegetation hasbeen replaced by buildings, which are more profitable becau-se they raise the price of the land and consume more mate-rials, more energy and more water. Whereas for farms oneneeds rapidly growing plants, for urban systems one createsstructures of greater and faster consumption. One must cre-ate new urbanised areas that have very little diversity and reapthe fruits of a new and simplified organisation. In thesesystems, the efficiency—i.e. the amount of resources thatmust be consumed in order to maintain (or create in somecases) a unit of organised information—is very low.

This is the tendency of producing company cities that hasbeen observed since the early 1970’s in the metropolitan Areaof Barcelona—a clearly unsustainable tendency that is lea-ding to a widespread, irreversible artificialisation of most ofthe urban land with a gradient of less than 10% (i.e. flat land).This is an explosive process similar to the process of urbanoccupation of the coast (some experts have qualified it as adestruction).

The Mediterranean cities of southern Europe have long trea-sured their characteristic mix of uses and functions. Many ofthe buildings house several uses and each neighbourhood hasa lot of everything. The home, the market, the church, theshop, the services, etc. are near at hand, and provide mostof the urban functions. There is a high level of complexity inmost of the urban fabric of these Mediterranean cities.

THE TENDENCY TOWARDS COMPLEXITY OF THE SYSTEMSEverything that is organised in the Biosphere tends to increase in complexity provided that there are sufficient resources for thisto happen. Indeed, the two evolutive processes of the systems on earth, the evolution of the species and the succession of ecos-ystems, have undergone and are undergoing changes in time that tend to increase in complexity. The urban systems also incre-ase in complexity and one can thus distinguish—at least intuitively—between the current urban systems and the human settle-ments of any other period. With the passing of time we have incorporated new, different activities and we have increased thenumber of activities.

COMPLEXITY VS SIMPLIFICATION

3. The calculation of complexity (H) is included in the section of indi-cators.


COMPLEXITY, A BASIC CRITERION FORPLANNING

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Having said this, it is proposed to increase the complexity in general and in certain areas in particular, and that this increaseshould be an objective of the future planning of our city. The reasons for this objective include the following:

• The increase in complexity in the city involves increasing the mixture of urban uses and functions, which allows unres-tricted access to the city. As has been seen in the section on compactness, the dispersed distribution of the diffuse cityover the land does not allow the majority of citizens to have access to the city.

• The increase in complexity in a limited space involves an increase in the trajectories of relation between the various infor-mation carriers, which allows an increase in synergies of all types, including the economies of agglomeration and of urbandevelopment. Also, systems composed of heterogeneous parts include more recurring regulating circuits.

• The proximity between complementary elements (companies, research centres, training centres, administrative offices,non-governmental organisations, etc.) allows the human, technological and financial resources to have a greater proba-bility of bilateral encounter and integral and multiple encounter.

• The increase in the probabilities of contact between diverse elements provides one of the basic characteristics of com-plex cities: creativity.

It is also proposed to increase the complexity of the urban centres that are to be compacted in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona.It is proposed to design the increase in diversity in the natural systems of the region with greater maturity. Between the com-plex urban and natural systems, one must maintain (because it is strategic) a dissipative system formed by areas of farmlandthat feed both poles.

As a result of the tendencies mentioned above, some of thesecities have suffered from an acute tertiarisation of their cen-tre and a displacement of their populations. In the case ofBarcelona, for several reasons, part of this process was pre-vented, which has allowed—and still allows—new centres witha considerable complexity to be added to the city.

The strategy of increasing the complexity without needing tosubstantially increase the dissipative system is the alternativeto the current model, which bases its competitiveness on incre-asing the dissipative outskirts. The same competitiveness, oreven more, can be achieved by increasing the organised infor-mation of the current centres without needing to waste more

space, and making the organisation and the processes of energyconsumption more efficient. One must make more "Eixamples"and fewer scattered housing estates. Within the strategy ofincreasing the complexity of urban ecosystems, it must betaken into account that adding a similar amount of informa-tion to two different systems is more enriching for systems thatalready have more information. Information is not added, butmultiplied.

This is a strategy that marks a possible path in the competi-tion between urban systems, which in this case would involvethe factor of entropy.

AREAS OF NEW CENTRALITY

Diversity Index (H)Bits of information per individual


MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CENTRAL AREA OF BARCELONA

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1 The buildings of the central area allow for a mixture of usesand functions. Housing, retail, the tertiary sector and in somecases even manufacturing are found in most of the buildings.

2. There is a great mixture of uses and functions in the territory(H is very high) and it is divided into neighbourhoods aroundthe market. The proportions of housing, retailing and tertiaryactivities are balanced. The relations that are established areanonymous but also neighbourly.

3. The connection between the different uses and functions has for-mal continuity and can be made on foot. Public transport comple-ments the accessibility to the central city.

4. The public space is public and regulated by ordinances.

5. The central area combines the activities of proximity and themetropolitan activities.

6. The space is occupied by the citizens 24 hours a day withoutcreating deserted areas.

7. The centre is still being made (this has been going on for 150years) because the architectural solutions allow for this. Theactivities change as times changed without the need to chan-ge the scenario.

8. The model of centrality is completely Mediterranean.

1. Outstanding buildings with a single function are promoted.

2. The formula used so far to achieve centrality has focused on themixture of large shopping centres (6 cases), central railway sta-tions (2 cases), office buildings (7 cases), hotels (7 cases) andleisure areas (3 cases). Sometimes, coinciding with projects ofa certain scale, other uses of different natures are located inthem, such as university premises, cultural centres, etc. In thecase of the areas of new centrality beside the sea, each one isaccompanied by a marina.

Today the proportions of housing, retail and tertiary activity arenot yet balanced. The predominant relations are anonymous andless neighbourly.

3. Journeys with private transport are encouraged. Some of thesecontainers have 5,000 and even more parking spaces. The sepa-ration between built volumes desertifies the area and hindersjourneys on foot.

4. The central spaces of the new areas are located in the interior of thelarge containers, which become semi-public and are regulated by com-pany regulations rather than municipal ordinances.

5. Metropolitan activities are predominant.

6. Large deserts are created during many hours of the day.

7. The rate of transformation is rapid and one must assess the degreeof flexibility of these containers to change their function.

8. The model has been imported from the Anglo-Saxon world.

A MIXTURE OF URBAN USES AND FUNC-TIONS: AREAS OF NEW CENTRALITYThe measure of the complexity (H) per block reflects thedegree of maturity or centrality of each territory. On themap, the darker colours denote greater complexity. Thedensity of information per block (measured in bits of infor-mation per legal entity) shows the degree of centrality ofthe different parts of the city, which allows one to know thedegree of maturity of the areas that are to be developed.As can be seen, the Eixample is the district with the grea-test amount of organised information, not only in Barcelonabut also in Catalonia. It is the heart of the city and theremaining districts are balanced around it.

From the map it can also be seen that the areas of newcentrality that have begun to be filled with content are thosethat have an umbilical cord with the heart of the city, andconsequently it is strategic to articulate the related varia-bles (design of the public space, introduction of new acti-vity, facilities, etc.) in order to trace the corridors of com-plexity from the heart of the city to the nucleus of the areaof new centrality. An in situ analysis allows one to conclu-de that the umbilical cords have urban continuity when themix of activities comprises niches into which things can befitted and the journeys can be made on foot. There is adirect relation between the diversity of activities and thedensity of pedestrians occupying the space for differentreasons.

The central heart of Barcelona has been shaped over 150years and the areas of new centrality are to be shaped ina shorter period of time. The teachings that we can obtainfrom the Eixample and from the analysis of the new deve-lopments must lead to new configurations of centrality thatmust reinforce our urban identity and our competitiveness.

CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AREAS OF NEW CENTRALITY

ADAPTATION OF THE AREAS OF NEW CENTRALITY TO THE COMPACT AND COMPLEXMEDITERRANEAN CITY MODEL1. The outstanding buildings must be stitched into to the existing

urban fabrics with buildings that accept the mixture of uses.

2. The urban functions in each area must be rebalanced. There isno point in maintaining the areas of Diagonal-West and Montjuïcas areas of new centrality. In the new areas of centrality onemust include all the activities (even manufacturing), seekingthe best technology to achieve compatibility. One should analy-se the mixture of University/Research, Companies andAdministration and its probable introduction in some of theareas of new centrality.

3. The itineraries on foot must be recomposed following the ideaof superblocks. The same with public transport.

4. The public space must predominate over other options, on theunderstanding that public space is the main characteristic ofthe Mediterranean city.

5. The activities of proximity must be combined with metropoli-tan activities.

6. The mixture of uses and functions allows the street to be occu-pied—and therefore controlled—by the residents most of thetime.

INFORMATION AS A STRATEGY FOR COMPETING: DENSITY OF LEGAL ENTITIES


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In urban systems, an increase in the GDP and in the macroe-conomic indicators is translated into an increase in the con-sumption of land, materials, water and energy. The socio-eco-nomic and political actors have sought suitable mechanisms(technological, organisational, etc.) for increasing the con-sumption of resources and obtaining, as a result, better com-petitive positions in the national and international ranking ofcities.

In the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, the consumption ofland in a period of just 25 years (1972-1997) was 30,000ha, compared with 20,000 ha in the whole of its previous his-tory. The consumption of energy and materials has followedsimilar proportions, as if the resources or the containers wherethe waste is taken had no limit.

The current competitive strategy is based on the consump-tion of resources, and it is understood that the advantage isfor the competitor who is best placed to consume the mostresources. This strategy is consolidated and expanded throughthe use of new technologies which have allowed it to be glo-balised.

Sustainability, as stated above, is based on the increasingreduction of the pressure on the support systems. This means,among other things, reducing the consumption of resources orlimiting the exploitation of the ecosystems.

The strategy for competing that is used is therefore increa-singly unsustainable. We will call it the E strategy, which indi-cates the consumption of resources represented by the energyconsumption.

The question now is whether there is another strategy for com-peting. The answer is yes, if we apply the principles arisingfrom the evolution of complexity in the biosphere. It is thestrategy based on information, the only one that can makedevelopment and competitiveness compatible with the idea ofsustainability.

The strategy consists in increasing the organised information(complexity) in time, by making an increasingly lower use ofresources.

This strategy is based on the principle of Margalef, which pos-tulates that the maintenance and/or increase in complexity ofa space occupied by a system develops at the expense of redu-cing and simplifying other spaces4. There is a net flow of mate-rials, energy and information from the less mature (less com-

plex) space to the more mature (more complex) space. In thiscase the complexity (the organised information) would be theforce and the flow would be formed by the traffic of matter,energy and information from a less mature ecosystem to a morecomplex one.

Each time that a legal entity is created in an urban system,organised information is added, so knowledge is added. Whenthe system has a high variety of information carriers and alarge number of each one (i.e. when it has a high level of com-plexity) the attraction of new and innovative informationcarriers increases and the maintenance of unique activities ispossible.

Increasing the organised information intentionally is the stra-tegy to follow because information complexity confers anadvantage over other systems with a less complex organisa-tion, and information is not added but multiplied (money showsa similar behaviour). It is the H strategy that shows us thedegree of organised information of the urban system.

If this is the strategy, we should place all our efforts at its ser-vice, particularly those arising from the knowledge society andthe new economy.

In a certain state, the increase in H provides us with criticalmass (which is why it is so important to develop the areas ofnew centrality), because new and innovative activities appe-ar. In this strategy it is especially interesting to have thoseactivities that best control the present and most anticipate thefuture, i.e. those that control most knowledge and informa-tion: these are the @ activities and also those that incorpora-te the @ activities in their processes and make them more effi-cient in the consumption of resources.

Furthermore, the incorporation of information in goods andtechnology must seek the development of “clean production”and the dematerialisation of the economy.

The following diagrams summarise some aspects of the twostrategies that are presented: in the first case (the currentsituation), the E strategy is imposed over the H strategy, whe-reas in the second case (the knowledge city), the H strategydrives and leads the competitive process.

The competitiveness that is consubstantial with life itself isthe vital tension of any system. It is intimately related to the“power” (P) that the system holds within it. Here it is consi-dered that the power of influence and control is a function of

INFORMATION AS A STRATEGY FOR COMPETING

4. This principle shows similarities with the laws of Fourier, HartleyFix, Om, etc., in which to each force X there corresponds a flowJ. Examples of these homologous quantities are the thermal gra-dient and the heat flow, chemical affinity and speed of reaction,electric potential and electric current, density gradient and massflow, etc.

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the organised information in the space (H) and its capacity to consume energy (E). Between two inter-acting systems, where P1>P2, it seems, according to Margalef's principle, that the net flow of materialsand/or information will go in the direction of maintaining or increasing the complexity of P1 and of sim-plifying or reducing the complexity of P2. It may also happen that the flow of materials or even of energyis inverted, but this must be attributed to the role that this flow plays in the increase or decrease in com-plexity of the two systems. For example, the input of waste materials from a more mature space to a lesscomplex one is merely a flow of matter that may seem to be inverted, but this flow frees the more com-plex space from a certain impact and degrades the more simplified space. The flow, therefore, must beunderstood in the context of creation or reduction of structure and organisation.

The first diagram, corresponding to the current situation, shows a central urban system that bases itscompetitive strategy on a growing increase of resources and a slight increase in the organised informa-tion. Its central position5 is based on a largely inherited complexity and the control and exploitation ofincreasingly extensive peripheral areas.

In the second diagram, which we have intentionally called the “knowledge city model”, there is a signi-ficant increase in the organised information as a motor of a strategy for competing based on knowledge.This is a contextualised information that is fed by the “richer” flows that come from the extensive peri-phery. Barcelona should attract and create new legal entities with a high level of technology, knowledgeand potential influence that are distributed over the whole city, filling especially the areas of new cen-trality, beginning with the 22@. One must also attract, “create” and retain new brains, executives, inte-llectuals, professionals and artists, who increase the current stock of knowledge.

The current loss of population and—more worrying—the ageing of the population in many areas of thecity must first be halted. Then, one must introduce new residents with a diversity of ages in order to sta-bilise the system, which is in danger of being lost through this problem.

The flows towards more simplified systems must reinforce the model of polynuclear cities with a highlevel of organised information, so that the set of “central city and nearby cities” acts as a single kno-wledge system towards areas that are further removed. One must therefore increase the level and diver-sity of the legal entities in technology and knowledge of nearby cities.

The transmission of knowledge from other cultures should be fostered for mutual benefit with the newly-arrived members of the first generation, by promoting the cultural mixture and above all the territorialmixture. With regard to their areas of origin it is proposed to establish programmes of co-developmentthat allow future flows to be based on information and not only on the flow of resources as now.

The increase in the complexity in the polynuclear system of cities should be accompanied by a new equi-librium of the jobs, so that housing and employment are located in the same municipality. In order toachieve this, of course, other complementary measures, such as those related to housing policy, must beimplemented.

5. The limits of the central city are arbitrary and have different exten-sions in each case, as also happens with the periphery. Barcelona,for example, is central for the Catalan region and beyond, but itmay be the periphery of other, more complex urban areas in theinternational ranking of cities.

FLOWS TO MAINTAINTHE CONTROL AND THESPECIALISATION OF P2

FLOWS THAT INCREASETHE ORGANISED INFORMATIONIN P1 AND SIMPLIFY P2

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FLOWS THAT INCREASETHE CO-DEVELOPMENT ANDFOSTER POLYNUCLEARITY

CENTRAL URBAN SYSTEM

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FLOWS THAT INCREASE THEORGANISED INFORMATIONIN P1 PROPORTIONALLY

PERIPHERAL URBANSYSTEMS

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CURRENT SITUATION

THE KNOWLEDGE CITY MODEL

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AXES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF BARCELONA

Training and research centres

Airport

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The first axis of support of the economy of Barcelona is still, as was stated in the Master Plan of 1968, the port of Barcelonain combination with the airport. The pole of logistic activities of the area and the supporting activities such as the trade fair canbe converted into one of the most important distribution centres in the Mediterranean. However, after the mobility model pre-sented above, one must link the flows of materials and energy entering and leaving the port to the railway or to other appropriatechannels rather than to road transport.

The port of Barcelona must be consolidated as the great logistic and maritime platform of southern Europe. The expansion ofthe port, which is already underway, the arrival of the European gauge railway, the extension of the logistic area of Barcelona(Logistic Activities Zone and the logistic park of the Free Zone) and the extension of the airport (passengers and goods) are thebasis for a new positioning.

The airport must be the gateway for direct flights to most cities in the world. Such a connection attracts companies and quali-fied persons, as well as tourism.

The extension and improvement of the trade fair sites and the creation of congress halls of different sizes should consolidatethis line of attraction (new companies and professionals, executives, etc.) and act as the showcase of the innovative position ofCatalonia and Barcelona. A rapid public transport connection between the different elements, such as the Congress Centre ofForum 2004, Plaça Espanya and the Pedrosa Estate, is strategic.

STRATEGIC LINES FOR THE ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT OF BARCELONAThe geographical position of Barcelona gives it advanta-ges that should be reinforced in the line that has alreadybeen taken. The compact and complex model of theMediterranean city that already exists must also be rein-forced and improved through the strategic proposals pre-sented here.

THE LOGISTIC BARCELONA

The second axis is linked to the development of the new eco-nomy and to the construction of the new model of a knowledgecity. The proposal presented in the territorial model involvesthe reinforcement of the city of cities working together to seeksynergies and productive specialisations.

The new polynuclear metropolis shows territorial features ofcompetitiveness that partly characterise its economic modelbecause it is diversified overall but specialised in the diffe-rent centres that comprise it. The small and medium-sizedimension of the business fabric and the regional externali-ties of the economies of localisation, urban development andnetworks give the region great flexibility and the capacity toadapt its production. Overall, the factors of competitivenessplace us at levels of technological intensity and knowledgeclose to the EU average.

The reinforcement of these competitive factors must be com-plemented with those linked to the change in the economicbase (today 63% of employment is tertiary in the province ofBarcelona), which can be incorporated in the strategy for com-peting based on the information presented in this book.

Indeed, the extension of “clean production”, the Eco-Management and Audit Schemes (EMAS) and the design ofgoods with criteria of dematerialisation, must be added to the

creation of ICT activities and the application of information(knowledge-dense @ activities incorporate more research andinnovation) and criteria of sustainability to any urban activity:industry, construction, facilities or public space. This is thebasis for the digital Barcelona.

The proposal for areas of new centrality, with the 22@ districtat the forefront, must grow through the application of the fac-tors shown in the following strategic diagram. Important initia-tives of training and R&D have already been undertaken inthe field of ICTs and biomedicine. They should be extendedto the field of culture, multimedia, publishing, urban ecology,oceanography, the environment and sustainability. The urbanquality of the Barcelona of the future and the critical mass ofdiverse activities should reinforce the attraction of new designcentres in any field.

Finally, one must guarantee the connection of the network ofcities via optical fibre and/or other emerging types of con-nection (such as satellite connection).

THE DIGITAL BARCELONA


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The fifth axis is the area below ground. The city at ground level is already practically fully occupied, and the tendency of verti-cal growth must be inverted and aimed towards the area below ground. The design and the construction of the undergroundBarcelona could become one of the most successful economic lines of the city.

As is described in the strategic outline dedicated to the design of the underground city, public transport, loading and unloading,parking, the services that manage the metabolic flows, the introduction of certain activities, etc. are an open path for the sec-tors of construction, security, new technologies, logistics and the environment—and with them banking, insurance and advan-ced services.

For example, according to the MPI, the planned investment in the construction of the new metro lines and the extension of exis-ting ones in the conurbation of Barcelona is 7,300 million euros.

The third axis is quality tourism. The first asset of the city is still the city itself, which combines a public space of high qualitywith an exceptional architectural heritage. In addition to this base there are the cultural, scientific, educational and sports faci-lities, each of which should have a strategic plan. The trade fairs should also have a strategic plan and grow substantially incombination with the first and second axes.

At certain times of the year the arrival of large numbers of tourists in Ciutat Vella leads to a series of malfunctions in the publicspace that must be reduced. The carrying capacity of the centre and the number of tourists it can hold must be determined.

THE SUSTAINABLE BARCELONA The fourth axis focuses on the environmental sector, the urbanecology and sustainability. As well as cities, some countriesare reinforcing their economic development by applying crite-ria of sustainability that are giving them an added value inaddition to the criteria of the new economy: Sweden andDenmark are clear examples of this. The development of theset of proposals presented here opens a major path of econo-mic development because the proposals cover the urban rea-lity in its totality.

The proposals presented here with regard to the public space,in which criteria of urban ecology and sustainability areapplied, represent a Copernican change in the urban quality.Urban quality is one of the most important intangibles forattracting business, executives, researchers, professionals andartists. Barcelona is already high in the international rankingof cities with regard to quality of life. The execution of the pro-posals included here would make it one of the most attracti-ve places in Europe.

Also, the proposals related to production and services repre-sent a profound change in the business culture, by internali-sing the environmental costs, using clean (efficient and inno-vative) production and technologies with a lesserenvironmental impact and incorporating a new generation ofjobs, both in the emerging environmental sector and in theadaptation towards sustainability of the traditional sectors ofproduction. This change requires economic, organisational,legal and educational instruments, as well as mechanisms ofcontrol to promote the orientation of companies towards sus-tainability.

The new economic sector requires the collaboration of thepublic sector and universities, which must help to promote andadapt research and technological innovation, and to providevocational and university training.

The public administration must stimulate green purchasingand adapt public calls for tenders for works and services tothis aim.

THE TOURIST BARCELONA

THE UNDERGROUND BARCELONA

The new model for Barcelona involves, among otheraspects:

• creating new knowledge-dense and technology-inten-sive activities

• conceiving the design of goods, buildings, public space,etc., with new criteria

• applying new technologies to all areas

• opening new applied research centres

• adapting training and education programmes to thenew systemic scenario

DENSITY OF @ ACTIVITIES IN BARCELONA

Number of @ activities per block


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THE CITY OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE FAC-TORS THAT FOSTER THE NEW ECONOMY:THE 22@ DISTRICT

1. TrainingTechnological change occurs jointly with an organisational andsocio-economic change.

The level of training of the workers determines the possibili-ties of innovation and adaptation.

Continuing training, the new skills of the workers and a lesshierarchical business organisation are basic aspects of the neweconomy. Another important aspect is the ability to retain trai-ned people (to avoid the brain drain) and to attract many othersno matter where they come from. One must increase the num-ber of persons and companies with a high knowledge density.

At the same time, one must develop specific training plans toreintegrate unemployed persons, in particular the least favou-red groups.

These objectives make it necessary to assign more funding toeducation and research, and to adapt and modernise the struc-ture of universities and education to the new times, combi-ning aspects of the knowledge society and sustainability.

• increasing the public and private funds assigned to rese-arch and innovation that facilitate scientific and technolo-gical applications in economic activities of the MetropolitanArea of Barcelona

• creating concerted infrastructures between the public andthe private sector that support innovation

• creating networks (technology transfer centres) that fosterexchanges of information and knowledge and connectingscientific research with production systems and funding,and

• fostering the creation of favourable environments for inno-vative activities.

In the 22@ district synergies are sought by bringing togetherin a relatively small area universities, technology centres, rese-arch centres and production. However, the compatibility of theactivity with the rest of the urban uses and functions, whichare mixed, makes it necessary to incorporate clean productionin the production processes. This involves designing the newproducts with a minimum use of resources and production ofwaste and applying new technologies in the processes and inthe whole organisation.

Barcelona must attract leading research institutions to pro-mote this activity.

2. Research and innovationThe capacity to generate and incorporate innovations, no matter where they come from, is strategic for the knowledge city.

To this end, it is necessary to create suitable conditions of incubation and dissemination by:

THE FACTORS THAT REINFORCE THE NEW ECONOMYAs stated above, at a given stage the increase in H provides the critical mass (this is why it is so important to develop the areasof new centrality) for the appearance of new and innovative activities. In the competitive strategy that models the knowledgecity, it is particularly interesting to include those activities that best control the present and most anticipate the future. Theseare the ones that have the greatest information density and that control the most information: the @ activities.

The new economy, however, is not limited to the companies of the ICT sector or those that produce or design Internet, becausemost production activities are progressively incorporating ICTs in their organisation. As a result, changes are occurring in thebusiness models, with an increase in the importance of network functioning.

In the knowledge city the sources of the growth are different. The fundamental factor is the knowledge that, with the existingtraining and capacity of innovation, will determine its capacity of growth.

3. Intangible factors for the location of companiesIn addition to the known factors for the location of companies, other factors known as intangibles have recently become veryimportant in tipping the balance towards setting up a new business in a given area.

The quality of life, the existence of a favourable environment for attracting professionals from all over the world and a goodscience-company-funding connection are basic intangible factors for the creation and introduction of new companies.

Also, contrary to what was previously thought, it is now known that emerging business are concentrated even more than tra-ditional ones. This is due to that the essential element of knowledge, whose transmission is performed by persons more thanby technology, though the latter helps. Persons seek compact areas (the 22@ district could be an ideal area) with high qua-lity of life and cultural attractions that are dynamic and generate creativity, where they can develop and obtain benefits fromthe application of their knowledge.

The proposals for improving the public space with the proposal of superblocks increase the urban quality of Barcelona andsignificantly reduce the most dissuasive factors of living in Barcelona, which are linked to the current model of mobility.

The 22@ district and other areas of new centrality may be ideal for creating networks for exchange of information and kno-wledge, and for connecting research, companies and funding. Work is already being done to reduce the current deficits.However, the importance of certain emerging sectors (telecommunications, environment, audio-visual, biotechnology, aero-nautics) must be increased, as must investment in R&D and infrastructures of international telecommunications and rail andair transport.

4. FundingThe companies that use venture capital funding tend to leadthe growth in turnover, research and employment in their res-pective sectors.

The differences in the financial system—especially the capa-city to fund venture capital projects—determine the develop-ment of innovation and the activities of emerging sectors suchas ICTs. The traditional instruments for funding investmentsmust be complemented by new ones such as venture capital,the technology securities market or stock-options (which attractand retain professionals in innovative companies).

In addition to initiatives such as Barcelona Emprèn andCatalana d’Iniciatives, others must be added and adjustmentsmust be made to the Spanish legislation and taxation, whichare excessively restrictive with regard to the entrance of capi-tal and other financial instruments of high risk and a longperiod of return.

Also, a network of experts should be set up to assess andaward a guarantee of technical and scientific quality and/orviability to the projects that are presented.

Scenario of maximum diversity planned for the 22@ district Source: Drawn up by the author for 22@ SA


BIODIVERSITY AND THE GREEN NETWORK IN THE URBAN AREA

Basic road network

Boundary of Collserola Park

Linear axes and digitations

Open construction

Marshland

Proposal of green roofs

Current and future urban parks, riversidespaces and artificial reefs

Other types of vegetation

Forest environment

Farmland

Maquis and brushwood

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BIODIVERSITY AND THE GREEN NETWORKIN THE URBAN AREA The consolidation of the city determines to a great extentthe inclusion of new organisations. However, the possibili-ties of growth are necessarily linked to imagination, the fre-eing of space that now has other uses and the will to com-bine uses.

The city is a medium for biodiversity that should not beundervalued. In fact, some species in certain geographicareas find their only refuge in urban environments. Also,the more or less naturalised periurban spaces allow ani-mal and vegetable species to exist, forming their own ecos-ystems in the biogeographic area in which they are loca-ted.

These territorially discontinuous spaces, surrounded mainlyby highly artificial urban fabrics, form valuable islands ofbiological diversity.

In a relatively small area Barcelona has more or less resi-dual examples of several natural ecosystems and environ-ments as a result of its privileged geographical situation:

• Two rivers with two deltas, one of which, the Llobregat,has recognised ecological value.

• The Collserola range, which is characterised by its woo-dland.

• A sandy coastal strip with a rocky headland (Montjuïc)..

1. The green network at ground levelThe interconnection of parks-gardens-interstitial spaces-inner courts, digitations and inner streets of superblocks would forman integral green mosaic, a veritable green network that would lead to an increase in the biodiversity and also in the qualityof the public space.

In the intervias of the superblocks, over 150 crossroads of the size of Plaça del Sol in Gràcia would be freed for use as squa-res, and with the inner streets they would allow the continuity of the network to be articulated. The design of these spacescould incorporate water and certain original landscape elements.

In the new garden areas and in the existing garden areas of a certain size, landscapes and examples of the Mediterraneanecosystems should be designed and recovered, including autochthonous species (for example, mixed woods of holm oak andoak) like those that had covered the plain of Barcelona, the marshes of the River Besòs, etc.

2. The elevated green networkTaking advantage of the fact that in Barcelona there are veryfew sloping roofs, it is feasible to design a green mantle (aset of green roofs) that covers part of the roof terraces ofBarcelona with small gardens of varied types.

The planting in the public space of trees that are taller thansome lower built fabrics would mean that the green mantlewould form a new green zone connecting areas such as

Collserola, Tres Turons and Montjuïc, which are currently dis-connected. It would also be possible to connect these zoneswith each other (at ground level and at the higher level).

The elevated zone could attract a great number of organisa-tions, particularly avifauna, in areas that are now deserts forthem. The green roofs also provide thermal insulation.

3. Programmes for increasing the urban biodiversityIn order to attract a wide range of avifauna, one must deve-lop specific programmes for creating environments and over-coming the limiting factors of urban territories. In this sense,one must identify and condition certain buildings to accom-modate animal species of rocky environments that would com-plement the rocky environments of Montjuïc.

In order to overcome the lack of food of certain species, theplanting of green roofs with a variety of vegetation would leadto the existence of insects, worms and other organisms thatcomprise the diet of certain bird species. Also, the plantingin the parks and gardens of certain species of trees and shrubs,and the placing of nesting boxes and special feeding boxes,would provide fruits and other foods as well as places of refu-ge and reproduction for certain birds, and even for mammalssuch as bats.

In certain parks small areas could be set aside for the repro-duction of insects to complement the above actions.

For other species in certain parks, microhabitats with andwithout water could be created in degraded areas, former qua-rries, etc.

Finally, new areas (with fewer conditioning factors) should beset aside for the extension of the Botanical Gardens ofBarcelona.

Meanwhile, poaching, illegal trade involving animals andplants, and the abandoning of animals must be prosecuted.


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BIODIVERSITY AT THE FRONTIERS OFORGANISATION

The interface between different media creates organisation; in fact, the biosphere develops at the intersection between theatmospheric medium and the land and water. The same happens between the water medium and the earth at the bottom of thesea, rivers and lakes. The idea of a frontier is also very rich for the interests of Barcelona in relation to biodiversity. The frontiersof organisation between different media can be recognised, in our case, in the connection of Collserola with the city (the slo-pes), in the creation of green mantles along the Rivers Besòs and Llobregat, and in the ecological recovery of the infralittoralarea of Barcelona.

The recovery of the nearby coastline with hard substrate, com-bining breakwaters parallel and perpendicular to the coastwith biotopes of production that link the ribs emerging fromthe coast, would form an area of 10 square kilometres, makingit possible to create a new maritime district of Barcelona (thetwelfth). Artisanal fisheries, sport fishing and oceanographicresearch and education are the main functions of this dis-trict. On land, the natural environments of Montjuïc must berestored, particularly the rocks and cliffs.

The interface of Collserola with the city is essential for thepreservation of the hill and for improving the quality of theurban fabric on the slopes. The penetration of green in thecity must form a transition between the naturalised space andthe urban fabric. The creation of a series of well-designedbuffer gardens such as the Laberint, Park Güell, etc. wouldavoid the degraded vision given by naturalised spaces con-verging with built-up areas, and would increase the urbanquality of the neighbourhoods in contact with the hills. Theseparks would be the front line of the Collserola, which shouldbe connected to other nearby parks such as Les Heures, ElLaberint, L'Oreneta and Els Tres Turons, which must in turnlink other green spaces to reach Montjuïc and the coastalstrip. The connection of Collserola with other natural envi-ronments such as Serra de Marina and Garraf is shown in thefollowing strategic diagram.

In addition to the buffer parks, it is proposed that the inter-face between Collserola and the city should have other tran-sition strips, such as publicly managed gardens (possibly withthe participation of the civil society) and pastures, that couldincrease the presence of organisms at the frontier. They wouldalso reinforce the vegetation representative of the stages ofsuccession of Mediterranean vegetation, in which each unitof vegetation houses a characteristic community of plants andanimals of great interest and potential from the viewpoint ofbiodiversity. With this objective, one could recover the mar-ginal spaces in the border districts with the Collserola Park,which are often used for shanty towns and illegal horticultu-re. This would even make it possible to consider the exten-sion of the Park. In the interior of Collserola islands withoutaccess should be defined as small reserves of biodiversity.

The banks of the Rivers Besòs and Llobregat are the idealconnectors between Collserola, Serra de Marina, Garraf andthe coastline, particularly the mouth of the Llobregat thatadjoins the lakes of El Prat. The banks of the Llobregat mustbe lined with riverside woods. The final stretches of the Besòsshould act as urban connectors and a green lung for the townsof Santa Coloma and Sant Adrià. In the final section of theBesòs, a marshland zone will be created as the continuationof the future Zoo at its encounter with the sea.

BIODIVERSITY. THE GREEN NETWORK AND ECOLOGICAL CONNECTORS IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF BARCELONA

1 Olèrdola - GarrafCorridor

2 Foix - Garraf Corridor

3 Garraf - AgriculturePark Corridor

4 Remolar - MurtraConnection alongthe Coastline

5 Ricarda - RemolarConnection

6 Baix LlobregatAgriculture Park

7 Güell Colony

8 Sant VicençCorridor

9 Garraf - AgriculturePark Corridor

10 Collserola -Montserrat Corridor

11 Sant Llorenç -Montserrat Corridor

12 Collserola - SantLlorenç Corridor(Green Route toCerdanyola delVallès)

13 Collserola – SantLlorenç Corridor(Green Routebetween Sabadelland Terrassa)

14 Collserola -Serralada de MarinaCorridor

15 Santiga Corridor

16 Serralada Marina -Gallecs Corridor

17 Gallecs - SerraladaPrelitoral Corridor

18 Serralada de Marina -Montseny Corridor

19 Nou Pins - El RocarCorridor

20 Riera de TeiàCorridor

21 Cisa Corridor

22 El MontcabrerCorridor

23 Montnegre -Serralada LitoralCorridor

24 Montnegre -Montseny Corridor

Source: Drawn up by the author for 22@ SA

Green corridors, Plans for Spaces of Natural Interest (PANIs) and reserves

Free space


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BIODIVERSITY. THE GREEN NETWORK ANDECOLOGICAL CONNECTORS IN THEMETROPOLITAN AREA OF BARCELONAGiving a conservation name (PANI, Natural Park, etc.) toa space is obviously no guarantee of practically anything.

The mixture of free spaces with infrastructures, the isola-tion imposed by mobility routes, the construction of buil-dings of doubtful legality, and the construction of reser-voirs and other artificial structures that are always claimedto be essential are part of the pressure that must be borneby natural spaces and that degrade them to the point atwhich, in some cases, they are not even worth conserving.

The maintenance or increase in the complexity of a given space that is to be conserved depends on the size of the area, theproximity of areas of supply and the real connection with other natural spaces that allow exchanges of information betweenliving organisms.

There must be a sufficient number of green spaces in the city and the region. The sufficiency of greenery in the region is gua-ranteed if a clear division is established between the country and the city, breaking with the current mixture in which one can-not see where one ends and the other begins.

The ecological stability of natural systems is greatly facilitated by the non-isolation of these spaces and the promotion of amodel to distribute them that tends to form a grid of natural systems.

When reserves are created or natural areas are isolated, for example, with the implementation of a road plan such as the currentone, species are lost; this loss is related to the land area and is the result of the differential rates of extinction and immigra-tion. One must therefore reduce the probability of extinctions. The reserves must be as large as possible and have no barriers.If the reserves are small they will contain fewer species in equilibrium than a single reserve of the same total area, so they mustbe placed together so that each one can be a source area of species for the others; the effect improves if the small reserves areconnected by means of suitable habitat corridors.

Interconnecting the natural systems and reserves in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona and preventing their impoverishmentand regression involves:

The structure of open spaces must guarantee the territorial equilibrium between areas that are highly exploited, those that arenot very exploited and those that are unexploited, in order to guarantee the desirable ecological diversity within the physicalmedium that we inhabit. It should also be taken into account in decision-making on regional planning and management.

Elaborating on the proposal by J.M. Carreras (1992), within this continual structure formed by the green network of the MetropolitanArea of Barcelona, one could establish the following spatial typologies:

• extending the planned areas and merging some of themthat are now separated

• joining spaces that are now separated by means of protec-ted habitat corridors of different sizes and characteristicsadapted to the natural spaces, and

• ensuring a minimum degree of protection of the unprotec-ted interstitial areas and providing legislation to protecthabitat corridors that are now degraded or destroyed: bor-ders, hedges and windbreaks.

BIODIVERSITY IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF BARCELONA

1. Large forest masses in the coastal and pre-littoral ranges.

2. Agricultural areas such as that of the Penedès and-at ano-ther level but with equal importance-the Llobregat delta.

3. Continuous corridors in the river valleys of the RiverLlobregat and the River Besòs.

4. Maintenance of the agricultural and forest strip in thenorth of the Eastern and Western Vallès counties and ofthe agricultural and forest strips that complement the

comb-shaped structure of the continuous city of theVallès.

5. Articulating threads, which may in many cases followthe secondary streams of the main hydrographicsystems, the streams of the Maresme, etc., penetratingthe built fabric and forming possible networks of urbanparks. In other cases these threads may even be itine-raries or urban routes with the presence of greenery(landscaped areas, trees).

THE GREEN NETWORK IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF BARCELONA

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THE STRATEGIC CONNECTORS OF THE GREEN NETWORKThe connections between the different types of green spaces are threatened by the current urban expansion. They are currentlystrategic spaces for the maintenance of the green matrix of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona. Safeguarding certain connec-tors and replacing others must be the priority strategy of conservation. Some of the land occupations that currently most com-promise the articulation of the network of biodiversity of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona must be revised and reversed. Themap shows with a number the strategic connectors of the Metropolitan Region, which can maintain the interconnectivity bet-ween green spaces and are essential for maintaining the biodiversity in this area.

6. Interstitial separators in which one can recognise theindividual nature of the different urban centres of thecontinuous city as a territorial reference value. This wouldbe one of the roles that could be given to the Maresmeirrigated area.

7. A green structure of connection between the differentgreen units in the compact city, with the creation of aground level zone and an elevated zone, forming a unitconnected to the green matrix.


E F F I C I E N C Y

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EFFICIENCY. THE URBAN METABOLISM ADOPTING AN OLD METABOLIC MODELThe Earth is a system that is open in energy and practically closed in materials, but the systems that it supports are open systemsboth in energy and materials

Organisms in general, and man in particular, need to degrade energy and to use materials to maintain their life and that of thesystems that support them. The only way to prevent this from leading to an entropic deterioration of the ecosystems and thro-wing us into balances that are different to the current ones, thus creating uncertainty for the future, is to articulate this energydegradation and the transformation of the materials through the only renewable flow of energy that we receive, that coming fromthe sun and its derivatives. In doing so one must maintain a complete recycling of the material cycles, as is continually shownby the functioning of the biosphere.

Man is currently going through his third metabolic regime:the one that is supported by the consumption of fossil fuels.The uncertainties (a probable climate change, human appro-priation of almost 40% of the net primary production of theearth's ecosystems, over-exploitation of fishing resources inall the oceans and seas of the Earth, depletion of mineralsand fuels, etc.) projected by the current mode of production(based on the above metabolic regime) and the strategy usedfor competing are increasing as the limits of the ecosystemsto accept certain carrying capacities become visible.

With the increase in uncertainties, at the same time there isa reduction in our capacity to control the future, i.e. our capa-city for anticipation.

The only way to reduce the current uncertainties is to redu-ce the disturbances that we inflict on the ecosystems at anyscale-in other words to reduce the entropy that we impose onthem. This means that what is really important is the level ofdisturbances (entropy or simplification of the systems) thatwe generate with our action. The metabolic regime must the-refore be linked firstly to the entropy generated and secondlyto the consumption of resources, including energy6.

In nature, both the process of evolution and the successionof ecosystems are linked to the increase in efficiency in the

consumption of resources to obtain equivalent or greaterlevels of organisation. Those that fail to fulfil this law end updisappearing.

Our way of acting is just the opposite because, as statedabove, we obtain advantageous competitive positions if weare capable of consuming more resources than others; it doesnot matter how efficient we are. Efficiency, which is a law innature, is a minor issue for us. However, this strategy for com-peting based on the increase in the disturbance of the systemsis simply “unsustainable”. The way to increase our capacityfor anticipation is to follow the law of efficiency and there-fore to modify the rules for competing.

Our strategy for competing must be based, as stated above,on information and knowledge, and increasingly less on theconsumption of resources. Obtaining greater organised infor-mation (H) with a lower consumption of resources (E) is theequation of sustainability and is therefore the direction totake in all the areas and policies of planning in general, andof the metabolism in particular.

In a process aimed at sustainability or at increasing the capa-city for anticipation, the quotient E/H must become increa-singly small. The current tendency, however, is the opposite,and inefficiency is the best ally of competitiveness.

LINKING THE METABOLIC REGIME TO THE DISTURBANCE OF SYSTEMS

LINKING EFFICIENCY TO URBAN MODELSFrom the outset, the planning of any organisational aspect of the city or the territory must take into account the natural resour-ces. The relation established must be purposeful and aimed at achieving maximum efficiency in the use of resources andminimum disturbance to the ecosystems.

6. Man may reach the point at which he is able to sustain his orga-nisation with clean, renewable energies. However, if he does notchange the strategy for competing it is highly likely that he willuse these energies to disturb the functioning of the ecosystemseven further. The use of renewable energies is a necessary butnot sufficient condition.


THE CYCLE OF MATERIALS: WASTE MODELSThe idea of sustainability is based on the level of pressurethat the action of man exerts on the earth's support systems.The human systems that exert most pressure on the earth'ssystems are urban systems. These need enormous amountsof materials and energy to maintain their organisation-andif necessary to increase it.

The adjoining diagrams show two scenarios that represent the material flows (the size of the arrows is proportional to theflow) that go from the support systems represented here with a globe (in fact the materials that reach the city now come fromany part of the world) to the urban system. The raw materials taken from the support systems are channelled towards the net-work of industrial transformation that converts them into consumer goods that will be consumed in the city.

Furthermore, the treatment and disposal of the materials consumed (waste) channel their return to the support systems, whe-ther in the form of polluting impact or as recovered resources that will be dumped in the form of compost or enter the indus-trial network as raw materials.

The centre of the diagram shows the model of municipal waste management. The modification of the material flows in thewhole scenario will depend on the management model that is chosen. A waste management model in the framework of sus-tainability must reduce the exploitation of materials, i.e. it must reduce the amount of raw materials extracted from the sup-port systems and also reduce the pressure caused by the polluting impact on the earth's systems.

THE CURRENT MODEL OF MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT A FUTURE MODEL OF MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

URBAN SYSTEM URBAN SYSTEM

CURRENT WASTE MODEL

FUTURE WASTEMODEL

(proposal)

WASTE

INCINERATORS

LANDFILLSITES

TREATMENTPLANTS

WASTE

INCINERATORS

LANDFILLSITES

TREATMENTPLANTSRECOVERY

ACTIVITIES RECOVERYACTIVITIES

TRANSFORMATIONACTIVITIES TRANSFORMATION

ACTIVITIES

CONSUMERGOODS

CONSUMERGOODS

RAWMATERIALS

RAWMATERIALS

ENVIRONMENT: SUPPORT SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENT: SUPPORT SYSTEMS

The second scenario represents the system-environment unit with a model of waste management designed to reduce the pres-sure on the support systems of both exploitation and the polluting impact.

The network of flows has the same meaning as in the previous diagram (the current model of waste management). The futuremodel of waste management proposes:

1. To increase the flows of reuse of materials (f), (g) and (h).

2. To increase the flow of organic and inorganic waste collec-ted selectively (i) and recovered for use in industry (j) or depo-sited on the land in the form of compost (k).

A greater reuse and recovery of materials makes it possible toreduce the level of pressure caused by exploitation of the sup-port systems: in other words, the introduction in industry of agreater amount of recovered inorganic materials (j) means thatthe amount of raw materials (a and b) is lower. Also, a greatercontribution of compost to the land involves a greater bioferti-lity of the soils and also a reduction in the use of inorganic fer-tilisers that ultimately come from the support systems.

The future scenario also proposes:

3. To reduce the amount of materials abandoned (m).

4. To reduce emissions and dumping in landfill sites. To achie-ve this, the amount of waste taken directly to the landfill sitemust be reduced. In the future scenario there must be no resi-dual flow that has not previously gone through a treatment orrecovery facility, i.e. only rejected material may be dumped.Finally, the biogas of the landfill site, which is currently oneof the factors that most contribute to the greenhouse effect,must be used.

Progress in the proposal of the future scenario involves movingtowards sustainability because it reduces the pressure on thesupport systems both by reducing the extraction of raw mate-rials and by reducing the polluting impact of the municipalwaste management model.

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The first diagram represents the current model of municipal waste management. In order to maintain its organisation, the cityneeds to contribute materials and energy from the support systems (the environment); these will be exploited in order to extractthe natural resources [raw materials, see flow diagram (a)], which will be transported to the industrial network of transfor-mation (b) where they will be converted into consumer goods (c) for consumption in the city (e). Some of these consumedmaterials-such as returnable containers, furniture and clothing-can be reused (f) (g) (h), but reuse currently represents a tokenamount in comparison with the volume of waste generated.

At present, the materials consumed (e) are mostly abandoned (90% of the materials become waste) and only 10% are collec-ted selectively as potential resources (i). The selected materials go through processes of recovery: the inorganic materials arerecovered for introduction in the industrial network (j) and the organic materials are stabilised for returning to the land (K).The unsuitable materials collected selectively will be separated and considered as waste for disposal (h).

The flows of ordinary waste that are abandoned (m) are converted into waste that will be dumped in landfills (most of it) (q)or sent to the incinerator of Sant Adrià de Besòs (n). When the materials consist of-or contain-special waste (batteries, fluo-rescent tubes, refrigerators, etc.), they will be sent to treatment plants (r).

The current management of the disposal installations means that their polluting impact is considerable, as is shown in flows(o) (s) and (l), though this impact is currently being reduced significantly, thanks to the incinerators that reinforce the treat-ment system and the fact that the Garraf landfill site will treat its leachates and use part of the biogas that is currently emit-ted into the atmosphere.


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THE WASTE MODELBarcelona City Council and the Metropolitan EnvironmentAgency (EMSHTR) have started a process of waste mana-gement (PMGRM) that is currently one of those that is mostcopied by other cities in Spain, both in its theoretical fra-mework and in its specific proposals in the different areasof management. The transition from one model to anotheris taking place more quickly in the treatment than in thecollection.

MINIMISATION AND REUSE OF WASTEThe best waste is no waste, so one must minimise the generation of waste, especially containers and packaging and specialwaste materials.

Though the municipality has limited competences for adopting measures aimed at minimising waste, it must take all theaction within its power, such as the regulation of advertising delivered to homes, the replacement of plastic bags, etc.

One of the most problematic plastic materials is plastic film, because it creates cross-pollution in the rest of the waste frac-tions. It is therefore proposed that its consumption be reduced to a minimum.

Though the programmed scenario meets all the prevailing regulations, one must advance progressively in the application ofthe deposit system for packaging and containers (in the participation process, the representatives of the superstores votedagainst the recommendation made in this document) because it is the most effective system for these fractions when onewishes to apply the principle of the three Rs: reduction, reuse and recovery. The introduction of the deposit system also dras-tically reduces the number of containers in the public thoroughfares.

Because (until the deposit system is introduced) the proposed model depends completely on the will and awareness of thepublic, one must implement an information and education programme, with sufficient funding, in the terms laid down in thePMGRM, in order to encourage responsible consumption and reduce waste.

It is also proposed to promote the second-hand market (electrical appliances, clothing, furniture, etc.) in shops, trade fairsand dumps.

RECOVERY AND SALVAGE OF MATERIALSThe goods consumed are not considered as waste but as recoverable resources. Applying the aims of recovery of the PMGRM itis proposed to collect selectively 60% of the materials released into the system, of which around half are organic and half areinorganic. The rest of the materials released will initially be waste for disposal.

It is proposed to first separate (in the kitchen) and then selectively collect the following fractions: organic matter, paper andcardboard, glass, light containers, furniture, textiles and special waste. To achieve this one must redesign the material elements(bins, containers, lorries, etc.) of the various waste fractions from the kitchen to the treatment and disposal plants.

In a compact and dense city such as Barcelona, it is abso-lutely essential to coordinate the model of waste manage-ment with the model used for managing urban space. Forexample, one must redesign the collection points for wasteand access to the same. The block as a unit of managementand the area below ground could both play a special role inthe collection system.

It is proposed to collect the organic matter selectively, becau-se it is one of the fractions that the public is best able toseparate and that can cause the greatest damage in the restof the fractions due to cross-pollution.

The organic fraction must be collected in a specific contai-ner for domestic waste generators, and the large-scale wastegenerators (the food markets and Mercabarna - the central

distribution market) must separate and collect it carefully.The organic fraction would be sent to ecoparks that will cre-ate compost (or stabilise the organic matter) and biogas.

The compost generated can be used in state programmes forimproving the biofertility of Spanish soils (which have a defi-cit of organic matter) and to combat desertification. Theseprogrammes must regulate the quality of the compost andmust be developed through consensus with the institutionsand appliers.

Paper and cardboard are the second fraction of municipalwaste in weight. Printed paper forms the largest part of thefraction. It is therefore proposed to collect it door-to-door, asthey do in cities such as Vienna and Munich, which showresults of over 60% recovery of the paper. Paper and card-

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DISPOSAL OF UNRECOVERED FLOWSOne must apply suitable measures to limit the flow of rejected waste.

It is proposed that no waste should reach the landfill site in massive amounts: only waste arriving from previous treatmentcentres should be accepted.

It is proposed that the biogas of the Garraf landfill site should be collected and used (along with the biogas from the metha-nation plants) as fuel for the fleet of metropolitan buses and the fleets of lorries for cleaning and waste collection.

It is proposed that the leachates of the Garraf landfill site should be processed with tertiary treatment.

One of the most strategic aspects of waste management by Barcelona and the municipalities of the Metropolitan Authority isthe capacity of the Garraf landfill site, which has practically been exhausted. There is an urgent need for new tips. If noneare found, one must reconsider what is done with the flows that cannot be recovered at present, whether for technical or eco-nomic reasons.

board containers will be placed in the refuse deposition areasfor domestic paper and cardboard of residents who do nothave space in the hall of their building.

Shops are the greatest generators of cardboard (80%), sodoor-to-door collection is also proposed for them.

Waste tips must become material recovery centres rather thancollection and transfer centres.

The hotels and catering sector generates the largest amountof waste glass, so door-to-door collection is also proposed inthis case. Domestic glass must be collected at refuse depo-sition areas.

Until the deposit system is introduced, it is proposed thatlight containers be collected mostly at the refuse depositionareas. However, it is proposed that 25% of this fraction becollected on the pavement.

It is proposed to apply clearly the principle of "those whopollute must pay", though it should not represent a licenceto pollute. This means that for the collection and treatmentof the containers and waste of containers, ECOEMBES wouldhave to pay the real costs of the process.


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Energy balance.

In the energy balances of the two models of waste manage-ment one finds that energy consumption in fossil fuels is204% greater in 2006 than in 1996. On the other hand, therecovery of electrical energy is 194% higher in 2006 than in1996. This recovery of energy could increase even further ifsuitable technological measures were adopted to increase theperformance. The saving due to recycling is far greater(711%) in 2006 than in 1996. The balance is clearly grea-ter (404%) in the scenario of 2006 than in 1996; indeed,the energy balance for the future scenario involves an energysaving of two and a half million Gjth, when in the current sce-nario the saving is only half a million of Gjth.

Emissions to the atmosphere.

In the table of emissions to the atmosphere one can see thatwith the application of the proposed measures the CO2 equi-valent* of the future scenario is 619,000 mt per year and2,150,000 mt per year in the current scenario, involving areduction of four times the emission of CO2 equivalent.

The future scenario only takes into account the use of 40%of the biogas of the landfill site, though this could be incre-ased, thus improving the reduction in the CO2 equivalent emit-ted to the atmosphere.

The rest of the indicators of pollution are reduced (exceptheavy metals), and those that are not reduced are negative,which means that in both scenarios the waste managementinvolves a reduction in emissions.

Disposal of liquids. With the exception of ammonia, the pollu-tant load of liquid disposal in the future scenario is alwayslower than in the current scenario.

Balance of masses.

As stated above, one must reduce the pressure on the support systems caused by the extraction of resources. Therefore, thefuture scenario involves the introduction into the industrial network of 200,000 mt per year of inorganic materials and the spre-ading on the land of 28,000 mt per year of good quality compost. In the current scenario 60,000 mt are recovered per year,not counting rejected waste, and only half of this (30,000 mt per year) not counting private collection. If we leave out privatecollection in the future scenario, the recovery of inorganic materials of the management model reaches 170,000 mt per year,that is, six times more than today.

COMPARISON OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE CURRENTAND FUTURE SCENARIOS

* After adding proportionally, according to its greenhouseeffect, the set of gases that affect this phenomenon.

* In both diagrams, the size of the arrows and the tubesis proportional to the water flow.

7 . The current tendency of occupation and artificialisation of theterritory progressively increases the rate of rainfall runoff from anypoint of the basin to the sea, reducing the recharging of aquifersand the provision of water for the earth's ecosystems.

The lack of a conservation and management policy to deal with the demand for water and include it in the general planning poli-cies leads to the urgent need to convey water from other basins or to desalinate seawater. This is a reckless measure that hasserious ecological, economic and/or social impacts. The decision to convey water from the Rhone would also involve an additio-nal risk, because it first goes past five nuclear power plants, one of which reprocesses plutonium. A leak would at least ruin thechannelling and therefore the investment. It does not seem very wise to adopt such solutions, or to continue with the policy ofwasting such a strategic resource.

The strategy that must be adopted is therefore related to the programmes of conservation and management of demand that takeinto account at all times the role of water and the fact that it is a scarce resource. After the application of the proposals for con-servation and management of the demand for water, some of which are presented here, one must ensure the supply of water toall the municipalities of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona. The supply sources (desalination and/or conveyance) would only beincreased when it has been demonstrated that the initiatives of conservation are insufficient.

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THE WATER CYCLEWater is probably the most limiting factor of the develop-ment of Catalonia and the semi-arid regions of Spain. It istherefore a strategic liquid for Barcelona. The policiesapplied so far by local, regional and national governmentshave not been based on the limitation of water use.

They have continued to treat urban development, industry,farming, tourism, etc., as if water were not a scarce resour-ce and Spain had a surplus of it. This is particularly thecase in the regional planning policies set up thirty yearsago, which promote and encourage the spread of single-family dwellings with swimming pools and gardens withlawns and water-hungry plants; in the tourism and eco-nomic promotion policies that foster the proliferation ofgolf courses with Scottish turf; in the intensive farming poli-cies that have ruined and continue to ruin the aquifers ofentire counties; and in the water policies (water conve-yance, channelling...) that spoil the fishing in large areasof the territory and increase7 the speed of rainwater runofftowards the sea.

SLUDGE

GROUNDWATER

SYSTEM: CITY

LOSSES

SEWERS

wells

EVAPOTRANSP.

CONSUMPTIVE USEINCORPORATIONIN THE PRODUCT

DWELLING TERTIARY

DRINKING WATER NETWORK

BASIN EXTERNALBASINS

PURIFICATION PLANT

ENVIRONMENT: HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN

URBAN MANAGEMENT OF WATER. THE CURRENT MODEL

WASTEWATER

TREATMENT PLANT

H2 O

FR

OM

WW

TP


The three thirds ruleThe general rule of dividing water into three thirds, a third forthe earth's ecosystems, a third for the marine ecosystems anda third for human activities, should guide the programmes ofconservation and management of demand.

The third that in theory corresponds to us should guide ourmanagement of water.

Retaining the water in the basinReducing the current speed of the water on its journey to thesea is strategic. In order to achieve this, one must maintainthe current areas of forest and farmland and extend them,especially with riverside woods. Farmland and open spaceswith a gentle slope should be maintained, and if necessaryextended, and impermeabilisation and other uses should beprevented in areas of infiltration and recharging.

Furthermore, urban growth must be limited in the MAB to theproposed areas of compaction, avoiding the increasing imper-meabilisation caused by the current tendency to produce citythrough buildings and infrastructures.

Saving waterIn general, farming is the activity that consumes most water,though in the central basins it is a limited resource. The flowsconsumed currently can be reduced significantly by using effi-cient irrigation techniques.

With the same idea of efficiency, one must act in the fieldsof industry and public services. The margin for applying effi-ciency policies is still wide in both cases, though a substan-tial improvement has been seen since the introduction of thetreatment tax.

The current gardens that consume large amounts of water andinorganic fertilisers must be replaced by “xerophytic” gardenscontaining plants that consume little water and compost.Moreover, the current irrigation systems must be replaced bymore efficient nocturnal systems. These ideas should be exten-ded to golf courses, which should replace the current type ofturf with one that is adapted to our country. Also, the cons-truction of new golf courses must be halted until they are con-sidered feasible according to the new culture of water use.

The use of water for swimming pools must be regulated, whichmeans first regulating the use of water from the aquifers. Thecurrent lack of effective regulation means that the level of theaquifers falls significantly during the driest seasons: late springand summer.

Other measures of water saving, such as those in domestic faci-lities, are discussed below.

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The aim of water conservation programmes is to reduce the demand for water, improve the efficiency of use and avoid the dete-rioration of water resources. Managing the demand means obtaining the greatest possible volume of water services with thesame amount of water.

CONSERVING AND MANAGING THEDEMAND FOR WATER IN THE CENTRALBASINS OF CATALONIA

EVAPOTRANSP.

TERTIARYSAVINGRAINWATER

SAVINGNON-DRINKINGRAINWATER

PURIFICATION PLANT

NON-DRINKING WATER NETWORK

SYSTEM: CITY

GROUNDWATER

LOSSES

SEWERS

wells

H2O

REUSED

DRINKING WATER NETWORK

H2O

FR

OM

WW

TP

SLUDGE

CONSUMPTIVE USEINCORPORATIONIN THE PRODUCT

ENVIRONMENT: HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN

URBAN MANAGEMENT OF WATER. THE FUTURE MODEL

SAVINGNON-DRINKINGRAINWATER

WASTEWATER

TREATMENT PLANT

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CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OFTHE DEMAND FOR WATERIn order to get close to the theoretical third of the water ofthe basin that corresponds to human activities, we mustdevelop a series of initiatives that would be expressed inthe following programmes.

THE QUALITY OF WATER IN THE BASINSThe programme for managing demand must be accompanied by another programme for conserving water resources in order to res-tore the deteriorated quality of the bodies of water and-with the increase in quality-to increase the biodiversity and extend the usesto which the water can be applied. The impact of diffuse pollution is growing, and it is threatening part of the existing water resour-ces (pollution of aquifers and eutrophication of water courses and reservoirs) in places where the activities that generate it are mostintensive. The creation of “banks” of organic matter in specific areas of the territory may reduce the current impact. The areas withan organic matter bank must be forced to use compost to replace manure, purines and most inorganic fertilisers.

The current treatment plants and the technology used in them, added to the low flow of our rivers, means that the water qua-lity is insufficient to fill the rivers with life. The degree of execution of the Plan for the Treatment of Waste Water already showsthis. One must thus apply the programmes included in the Sewage Plan and extend the treatment of waste water to all urbancentres through the introduction of specific treatments (in some cases tertiary) in industry, on industrial estates and/or in thecurrent WWTPs.

QUALITY OF WATER IN BARCELONABefore it reaches the filtration plants, the route taken by waterin the Llobregat and Ter basins takes it through uses and reu-ses that leave their mark on the content of the water in theform of pollution. The filtration processes are intensive andallow the water to be qualified as “acceptable in terms ofhealth”. However, though the organoleptic properties, con-ductivity, etc., of the water supplied have improved in recenttimes, most citizens choose not to use it as drinking water. Theapplication and extension of the programmes laid down in theSewage Plan would make it possible to obtain a higher quali-

fication of the water as “drinking water”, and it could thus beconsumed as it is in Madrid and New York. The citizens ofBarcelona currently spend almost 180 million per year onbottled water for consumption. To allow the network of tap waterto be used generally as drinking water, one would probably alsohave to add top-quality water from the River Noguera ratherthan from the River Ebre, whose level of salinity makes it unsui-table for use as drinking water.

1. INFRASTRUCTURE PROGRAMMEa. The creation of separate networks. The proposal of super-

blocks is accompanied by a network of service galleries thatfollow the mesh of secondary streets. This network, whichis connected to the above-ground routes, is an interme-diate stage that allows two separate networks to be deve-loped throughout the city. The process of execution couldbe in the medium or long term, depending on the debateon the water policy and its degree of sustainability.

b. The repair of networks and the blocking of leaks is themost advantageous procedure for saving water, and a widerange of technologies and advanced systems for leaks andsealing are available. The losses of water to the distribu-tion network, considering as such the difference betweenthe water pumped and the water invoiced, is estimated tobe about 25%. Between 8 and 10% of this corresponds toreal losses due to breakdowns and leaking valves and pipes.

The remaining 15-17% corresponds to uses of water thatare not accounted for, such as fraud and bulk agreementswith organisations. The cost of repairing the networks andremoving leaks is lower than that of obtaining, filtering andpurifying the water that leaks into the sewers.

c. Location of illegal dams. The identification and removalof illegal dams can save a considerable volume of water.

d. Individual meters for users who have bulk agree-ments. In the event of agreements with a maximum flow,regulations must be established to ensure a rational use ofwater and to prevent water from being released into thesewers without having been used.

e. Reduction in the supply pressures. Significant savingsin non-volumetric use can be achieved through measu-res such as the correct management of the pressures


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through the regulation of the daily cycle so that the pres-sure does not rise at night, leading to an increase in thenumber of leaks, and the use of a pressure of between3.4 and 4.1 atmospheres to obtain the maximum effi-ciency.

f. Computerised management of the networks. This mustinclude the parameters that allow a more efficient mana-

gement of the network and a service of better quality. Thecomputerisation should include the climatological para-meters, the adaphic parameters, the components of thesystem and their state, the quality of the water, the con-trol of pressures, operations control, meter control andmanagement of operating and maintenance costs.

a. The new culture of water must be spread to the personsand legal entities that use it. To this end, public aware-ness programmes must be created to provide people withinformation, education, training and demonstrations, andto involve the civil society.

b. Pricing. As is known, one of the most effective instrumentsfor saving is to adjust the price of water for specific aims.Prices in increasing brackets, seasonal differentiation andspecial surcharges pass on the responsibility for savingwater to the consumers, thus making careful consumptiona habit.

2. SAVINGS PROGRAMMES

3. EFFICIENCY PROGRAMMES a. Residential programmes. Hydraulic and sanitary effi-ciency devices in dwellings: water saving aerators, toilets,dishwashers, washing machines and the control of leaksand dripping can achieve a potential water saving of around35%. Kits with shower attachments, two aerators, simpledevices for reducing the flow of the toilet and several leakdetection tablets pay for themselves in less than a year.

After observing the success of programmes of this type inother cities, it is proposed that the new and rehabilitatedbuildings should incorporate the above devices and applian-ces. In order to achieve this objective it will be necessaryto introduce legal and economic instruments, etc.

The programme should also be extended to current buil-dings through subsidies and technical assistance.

b. Programmes for gardens and other outdoor uses.Though the number of private gardens and swimming poolsin Barcelona is small, efficiency programmes must be esta-blished to reduce the current consumption of water for thisreason. A garden with water-thirsty plants may consume up to60% more water than a Mediterranean or xerophytic garden.

c. Programmes of public parks and sports areas. Thepreliminary planning of the gardens, the reduction of lawns,the use of compost, night-time irrigation with efficient tech-niques, the selection of plants requiring small amounts ofwater and good maintenance would lead to a lower con-sumption of water.

It must be taken into account that maintaining a lawn cantake up 90% of the water consumption when it occupiesonly 40% of the garden. Reducing it by half can lead to a50-60% reduction in the water used.

d. Commercial, industrial and institutional programmes. Developing a water audit programme in companies con-suming large amounts accompanied by measures thatallow a rapid return on the investment is the first measu-re to apply to business.

For sectors that have the possibility of recirculating thewater (car washes, dry cleaners, laundries, cooling indus-tries, etc.), a specific efficiency programme must be deve-loped.

Other sectors such as hotels and catering may includeactions and instruments of management, as well as mar-keting programmes based on water saving and measuresinvolving design and infrastructures.

The government and the public companies must incorpo-rate the efficiency programmes and savings in their faci-lities. Also, new commercial activities and of tertiary acti-vities must include water efficiency devices as a conditionfor obtaining an operating licence.

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a. Reuse and recycling programmes. A list of industriesthat can use treated water must be drawn up and a sepa-rate network must be created to supply them. The FreeZone, the Bon Pastor industrial estate and the industrialarea of Badalona-Saint Adrià are candidates for this.

The list would be extended to companies that can recyclewater (by using it in the same application).

Before building desalination plants, one must study theadvisability of building sophisticated tertiary systems thattreated water to be used for a wide range of purposes (agri-culture, industry, etc.) and the advisability of building large-scale separate networks (and pumping water uphill).

The development of new or remodelled urban fabrics suchas Trinitat Nova, Sagrera, Bon Pastor, Vall d'Hebron andthe 22@ district should include a separate network for theuse of replacement water.

In order to reduce the effects of salination caused by theuse of treated water, one must develop a system of rain-water collection from the south face of Collserola before itenters the sewage system. The mixture of the two waterswould lead to a substantial increase in the water resourcesfor the city of Barcelona and other nearby municipalities.

The advisability of building several reservoirs along the slo-pes of Collserola for irrigating the buffer gardens proposedabove and part of the green roof included in the proposalmust be studied.

b. The use of the Besòs aquifer and the urban ground-water. Firstly, a programme of preservation from chemicalpollution must be implemented in zones with groundwaterreserves, and a programme for the recovery of aquifers thatare currently little or very polluted must be developed.

In the areas that do not yet have a sewage network, aninfrastructure programme must be developed in order toavoid groundwater pollution.

The Besòs aquifer and the facilities of the waters ofMontcada must be used again (replacing the water of thedrinking water network) for various uses. The initial eleva-tion would allow the water to be channelled by gravity sosupply a large area of Barcelona. The combination of waterextracted from the Besòs aquifer and urban groundwatershould make it possible to supply a large part of theindustry, the municipal services, and the areas of Barcelonathat are being remodelled (22@, Sagrera, Bon Pastor, Valld'Hebron and Trinitat Nova).

c. Other replacement programmes will be studied: domes-tic waste water, brackish water, etc.

5. MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES The current structure of water management is not adapted to replacement water, though it is a strategic need for a policy ofconservation and management of the water demand. With this objective it is proposed to create, under the auspices of theMetropolitan Hydraulic Services and Waste Treatment Authority (MHSWTA), a joint-stock company to manage the new waterculture.

The company would have a “water bank” supplied with treated water, groundwater and rainwater. The clients of the companyare the public sector, industry and the urban fabrics undergoing profound restructuring.

4. REPLACEMENT PROGRAMMES


THE FUTURE ENERGY MODEL (tendency)

THE CURRENT ENERGY MODEL

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* In both diagrams, the thickness of the arrows is propor-tional to the flow of energy and pollution.

ENERGYThe plans and programmes that have been approved at avariety of levels affect mainly some aspects of energy mana-gement. However, they take a sectoral approach, failing todeal systematically with the management of companies andtherefore failing to modify the reality of energy generation,distribution and consumption.

The concern about the systems focuses mainly on climatechange. The initiatives for reducing the emission of green-house gases concentrate on the energy cycle rather than onthe aspects that could lead to a new metabolic regime basedon a reduction in the disturbance of systems, i.e. on entropyand the consumption of mainly renewable energies.

The change in the metabolic regime, and therefore thereduction in the disturbance of systems-including the atmos-pheric system-can only come about through a change inenergy culture, which involves profound changes in the waywe understand regional planning, urbanism, architecture,industry, water management, waste, mobility... i.e. every-thing related to the use of energy, i.e. everything.

HEAT ISLAND

HEAT ISLAND

SYSTEM: DIFFUSE CITY

SYSTEM: CITY

HEATTREATMENT

BIOCOMBUS-TION

HEATTREATMENT

BIOCOMBUS-TION

biomass

biomass

mobility

mobility housing and tertiary

efficient and compatibleproduction activity

services

services

energy

coal

oil

refinery

refinery

energy

energy

coal

oil

single-family dwellingsproduction

activity

POLLUTION

POLLUTION

DIFFUSE URBAN DEVELOPMENT MODELINEFFICIENT IN CONSUMPTION OF RESOURCES

COMPACT CITY MODELTECHNOLOGICALLY EFFICIENT

ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT

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Combined cycle plantsFor reasons of efficiency, the new combined cycle power plants(with a power of 800 MW) that are being built beside the RiverBesòs must give priority to supplying the conurbation ofBarcelona.

Their installed power covers the current needs of the urbancontinuum. With the coming into operation of the new plant,the electricity generating initiatives in the conurbation willmake sense, in theory, if they are more efficient or renewable.

Wind farmsThis technology has recently made a major advance in effi-ciency and is expected to become even more efficient in themedium term. The installation of an off-shore wind farm onthe continental platform in front of the Forum area and at thebreakwater of the Port de Barcelona could contribute a peakpower of 15-30 MW .

Thermal solar collectorsThe excellent Solar Ordinance shows the path to follow for thedevelopment of this technology and its application in newcases. In newly created urban areas or ones undergoing majorrenewal, the installation should be accompanied by seasonalheat storage systems and should be set up to cover most domes-tic hot water and heating needs. The combination of the twotechnologies allows domestic hot water and heating to be sup-plied in our climate with performances of no less than 60%,regardless of the meteorological phenomena (periods withovercast sky, rainfall, etc.).

Biogas The Garraf landfill site (with an energy generating potentialsimilar to that of the Sau Reservoir) and the methanation plantsincluded in the Metropolitan Municipal Waste ManagementProgramme (MMWMP) are today the most important potentialsources of renewable energy of the conurbation of Barcelona.For various reasons involving energy use, economics and impro-vement of the urban quality, after cleaning the biogas will beused in the natural gas network or in public transport: buses,taxis and refuse collection vehicles (the biogas generated atthe landfill site can cover the fuel needs of all three fleets,which are equivalent to about 22,000 litres of diesel fuel).

The biogas would require a special system similar to that forelectricity generation using renewable sources. In these con-ditions, the cleaned biogas would be supplied through thenatural network gas.

BiofuelsThe introduction of these fuels should be encouraged in publictransport and favoured or given positive discrimination in pri-vate vehicles, for example with hybrid engines, etc.

Thermal treatment of wasteThe selection and subsequent treatment of organic matter laiddown in the MMWMP will lead to a better energy performan-ce of the waste incinerated at Sant Adrià del Besòs.

Photovoltaic solar panelsSolar collection is perhaps one of the renewable energies withthe brightest future. However, at present, technical, econo-mic, legal or educational factors-or all at the same time-arehindering the introduction of solar panels.

The Solar Ordinance should be extended progressively anddynamically, by applying it to new cases as the above impe-diments are resolved. It should first be extended to the com-mon facilities of buildings: lifts, stair lighting, etc. The reha-bilitation or construction of new public facilities (schools,cultural facilities, etc.) and important buildings of a certainsize used for retail trade, offices, etc., must generate part ofthe energy they consume as laid down in the Energy ActionPlan (EAP).

ENERGY GENERATION


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In transportThe current mobility model is the greatest consumer of energy.The proposals of superblocks and those arising from the regio-nal planning model for the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona thatare included in this document define a scenario that wouldreduce the energy consumption of mobility by no less than30%.

In the city, the reduction would have to be promoted throughtax measures, positive discrimination and the use of high-effi-

ciency hybrid vehicles. The incorporation of the best techno-logies would also have to be promoted through the use of kine-tic energy storage systems in trains and the metro and fuelcells, etc., in private transport.

The proposal of superblocks involves eliminating a very largenumber of traffic lights and sundry signs. The energy savingwill be proportional to the number of traffic lights eliminated.The rest must be LED traffic lights.

In buildingsThe proposals included here are the consequence of-and the-refore give coherence to-some of the outlines and strategiclines presented in this document, in some cases expanding onthose included in the EAP.

The proposal of superblocks creates a network of basic roads,which in most cases will be subjected to levels higher than 65DB(A) during the day and 55 DB(A) at night. In order to gua-rantee quality of life and comfort of the residents who live orwork in buildings located on these roads, priority should begiven to soundproofing programmes (such as the one beingdeveloped by the Institute for the Urban Landscape) and theinsulation of facades through double glazing. This measurewould be applied potentially to 23,000 buildings.

The proposal of green roofs included in the section on urbanbiodiversity with the aim of creating elevated green corridorsconnecting Collserola, Els Tres Turons and Montjuïc is a meansof saving energy and providing a green roof surface.

The new buildings and rehabilitated housing must includeenergy-saving criteria from the design to the use of the buil-ding when the dwellings are occupied. The criteria shouldinclude the location of the building within the compact city,its connection with public transport, and the affect on thelandscape. They should also include the orientation, sunlightand shade, natural cross-ventilation, the behaviour of the buil

ding with regard to the prevailing winds, and the shape andvolume of the buildings. These criteria allow the energy rela-tionships of the building with the environment to be optimi-sed. This is also the aim of the energy efficiency criteria pro-vided by passive systems linked to the design, such as thermalinsulation, solar protection, inner courts and natural lighting,and facilities designed for greater energy efficiency.

All the new and rehabilitated buildings should incorporatesystems of solar collection for domestic hot water and heating,whenever possible in combination with larger-scale seasonalheat storage.

The energy efficiency of electrical appliances and low con-sumption lighting should be included in the manual of all dwe-llings, particularly new and rehabilitated ones.

For new and rehabilitated buildings, the environmental certi-ficate mentioned above in the section on building should inclu-de an energy certificate that takes into account these criteria.

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENTOF ENERGY DEMAND: SAVING AND

EFFICIENCY

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In town planningThe ultimate aim of an energy plan based on sustainable cri-teria is to come close to energy self-sufficiency with renewa-ble sources. In this direction, the neighbourhoods undergoingrenewal and new neighbourhoods must be designed to incor-porate energy self-sufficiency right from the start. The 22@district and the Trinitat Nova neighbourhood are the first can-didates.

The proposal for controlling the environmental variables invol-ves the use of vegetation, water, lighting, paving, colours, etc.that leads to a reduction in the energy consumed in publicspaces and buildings (the vegetation and water provide shadeand cooling in summer and insolation and insulation in win

ter) and by nocturnal lighting, which also reduces the lightpollution.

Furthermore, the design of public space and the use of qua-lity materials will increase the number of journeys on foot andby bicycle. The proximity of uses and functions provided bythe model of the compact and complex city multiplies theprobability of contacts (the essence of the city) at a lowerenergy cost.

In the cycling of materialsIt is well known that the consumption of energy needed to produce a ton of paper, glass and other materials from raw materials(cellulose, sand, etc.) is far greater than that needed to produce a ton of the same materials from recovered paper or glass. Thisis why the programmes of selection and recycling of materials in the flows of waste are important, and the programmes of mini-misation are even more important.

In economic activitiesThe measures of efficiency that are being applied are still timid and the question needs to be reconsidered. This, however, meansapplying energy criteria to analyse any aspect of clean production and the workplace, starting with the design of the products.

In manufacturing one must foster the networks of subproducts that operate like the trophic networks in nature. Recycling andreusing material and energy flows that would otherwise be tipped and treated leads to a considerable energy saving.

MANAGEMENT PROPOSALS The current panorama of energy management follows a logic that is far removed from the criteria presented here. A management bodymust adopt the strategic lines we have put forward if their objectives are to be achieved. To this end it is proposed to create a jointstock, non-profit, energy service company to manage the generation, distribution and certain aspects of the consumption of energybased on criteria of sustainability. The company will have an “energy bank” fed by renewable energies and if necessary by energiesfrom efficient technologies. It will provide services of heating, cooling, electricity and piped gas (from biogas).

The special system for generating electrical energy from renewable sources must extend its legal framework to all renewable sourcessuch as biogas and biomass. In this scenario, the profits of the company are proportional to the energy saving and to the source of theenergy flow, which increases if the energy comes from renewable sources.

The first customer is the public sector (municipal buildings and facilities, schools, universities, public transport, decorations, etc.), forwhich integral energy services are provided.

Certain projects, such as electricity generation by wind farms that have long periods of return on investment, may be funded throughcontributions by private individuals (limited amounts), which will be returned with an interest similar to that of a fixed-term investment,but far lower than the return on a business investment.


FUTURE EMISSIONS TO THE ATMOSPHERE (proposal)

CURRENT EMISSIONS TO THE ATMOSPHERE (tendency)

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ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTIONIn Barcelona, atmospheric pollution is a direct consequenceof the consumption of energy rather than the processes oftransformation of materials.

The most important action taken in the last 20 years wasthe great change from liquid and solid fuels to gas in theperiod 1986-89. In the early 1980’s, the electricity gene-rating plants of Sant Adrià de Besòs had already madethe change from fuel-oil to gas. These fixed foci burnedhalf of the fuel-oil of the province of Barcelona, 1.1 millionmt, and they emitted the frightening amount of 57,000mt/year of SO2 (a gas) into the atmosphere.

In the case of Barcelona, the replacement of liquid andsolid fuels represented a change of 400 million therms,which in combination with the beneficial effects of thereplacement of fuels at Saint Adrià brought the classic com-ponents of atmospheric pollution, SO2 and particles, toacceptable levels. Since then there have been no signifi-cant changes in the sources of pollution, or in the mainsource of atmospheric pollution of Barcelona that remainsto be solved, road traffic, which has increased rather thandecreasing. This is partly due to the growth of the disper-sed city model, which led to a spectacular increase in thenumber of vehicles entering and leaving the city, above allafter the construction of the Ringroads.

HEAT ISLAND

SYSTEM: DIFFUSE CITY

SYSTEM: CITY`

HEATTREATMENT

BIOCOMBUS-TION

HEATTREATMENT

BIOCOMBUS-TION

MOBILITY HOUSING AND TERTIARYEFFICIENT AND COMPATIBLE

PRODUCTION ACTIVITY

SERVICES

MATTER

TRANSFORMATIONACTIVITIES

ENERGY ACTIVITIES

RAW MATERIALS

CONSUMERGOODS

ENERGY

SERVICES

MATTER

TRANSFORMATIONACTIVITIES

ENERGY ACTIVITIES

RAW MATERIALS

CONSUMERGOODS

ENERGY

SINGLE-FAMILYDWELLINGS

PRODUCTION ACTIVITY

POLLUTION

HEAT ISLAND

POLLUTION

DIFFUSE URBAN DEVELOPMENT MODELWASTEFUL IN CONSUMPTION OF RESOURCES

COMPACT CITY MODELEFFICIENT IN CONSUMPTION OF RESOURCES

ENVIRONMENT: ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM

ENVIRONMENT: ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM

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The components of air pollution in Barcelona have thus changed from the classic SO2 and fumes from fixed sources to pri-mary pollutants from mobile sources (CO, NOX, VOC, benzene, particles, etc.) and secondary pollutants (oxidants such as O3),which come from the photochemical reaction between NOX and hydrocarbons. Also, the episodes of atmospheric pollution thatoccurred in the early 1980’s in the coldest months of winter are now experienced in the hottest months of summer, whenthere are high concentrations of O3 and NOX.

Furthermore, the volatile organic compounds from the combustion of petrol, and above all of diesel fuel, include moleculesthat have been proven to be carcinogenic, such as benzene, 1,3 butadiene and derivatives of the same. These compounds arethe main source of cancer in the urban environment.

A significant reduction of the emission of pollutants in Barcelona could be brought about by the superblocks. Indeed, theemission of pollutants by traffic could be reduced to a third of the current level, on the assumption that the network of throughvehicles would, as now, be saturated. The percentages of reduction would, of course, be similar to those expected in the areaof energy.

One of the consequences would be the reduction in photochemical oxidants, which are today, along with nitrogen oxides, thepollutants with least flexibility (the ones with the smallest margin before they reach the legal limits).

This measure would easily compensate for the emissions generated by the new combined cycle power plants.

Another important measure for reducing atmospheric pollution is the replacement of diesel fuel by natural gas, biogas or LPGin public transport, which must be extended to the whole fleet of buses and taxis. The number of kilometres covered daily,particularly in the centre of the Eixample, more than justifies this measure.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION AND THE FORMATION OF THE HEAT ISLANDThe emissions of fumes and hot gases produced by the combustion of fossil fuels, in conjunction with the thermal behaviour ofbuildings and the materials of public thoroughfares, leads to an increase in the heating of the air masses that are closest to theground. The temperature in the city centre is a few degrees higher than that on the outskirts, and in winter there may be diffe-rences of 3-10º (Oke 1980, Hobbs 1980).

Hot air carrying suspended particles and chemical pollutantsrises, is cooled, and falls again following a convective cell, cre-ating a sort of dome called a "heat island”.

In winter, on sunny days with anti-cyclonic conditions, whenthe sun sets and the heat accumulated in the ground duringthe day is released, an inversion of temperature is formed thatmay have a height of several tens of metres and is called a sur-face inversion. The pollutants trapped in this layer close to theground accumulate until the solar radiation on the followingday breaks the inversion. Occasionally, when an anticyclonesettles over the Iberian peninsula for a few days with high pres-sures, another inversion is added to the surface inversion. Thisone is more dangerous because it is not dissipated during theday, and is called a subsidence inversion. When this falls belowone thousand metres, retaining the pollutants of several days,it can cause episodic situations of high atmospheric pollution.

The incident radiation on the flat and vertical surfaces of thepublic thoroughfare and buildings, which have a different ther-mal behaviour to water and green zones because of the coloursand the type of materials, increase the average temperature ofthe city. Another contributing factor is the higher long-waveheat radiation in more densely built areas due to the recipro-cal effect of absorption and reflection.

The increase in the average temperature is greater in winterthan in summer; there is less snowfall and freezing than in therural environment, which represents a greater storage of heatin the land.

The formation of fog in winter and the increase in cloudinessin summer cause a decrease in the number of sunny days inurban zones.

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION


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The emission of greenhouse gases in the city of Barcelona is between 3 and 5 mt of CO2 equivalent per capita. This is rela-tively low, particularly compared to other cities in developed countries. The two most important emitters are vehicle trafficand waste management, which account for more than 60% of the greenhouse gases. The rest of the emissions (36%) are dis-tributed mainly between the industrial sector and building conditioning (heating and cooling).

In order to reduce the contribution of greenhouse gases, priority must be given to taking action on the main emitters. Thevarious proposals of the Barcelona model clearly include action on both traffic and waste management. The proposal of super-blocks could lead to a reduction of over 30% of the greenhouse gases emitted by this sector. In the case of waste manage-ment, the proposals of collecting biogas from the Garraf landfill site (as a fixed source, it is the largest individual generatorof greenhouse gases) and converting the organic matter of the waste in the ecoparcs into biogas, along with greater efficiencyand increasing the calorific power of the incinerator, would lead to a greater than fourfold reduction in the emissions of thissector.

The measures included in the different sections of the document, particularly the models of regional planning and mobilityand the metabolic models referring to energy and the water cycle, would reduce the remaining emitters of greenhouse gasesin all cases.

Furthermore, the proposals related to biodiversity would lead to a significantly higher volume of CO2 than that taken up bythe existing vegetation.

GREENHOUSE GASES

The gases that destroy the O3 layer are also greenhouse gases, but local action can make only a small contribution to redu-cing them. The programmes for reducing these compounds are mainly in the hands of national governments. However, acontribution can be made at a municipal level by raising civic awareness about buying certain products or taking used pro-ducts to the tips.

THE REDUCTION OF STRATOSPHERICOZONE (O3)

The cooling effects caused by evapotranspiration are lower inthe city, where there is a lower vegetation mass and fewer waterbodies, which means that water drains rapidly from the surfa-ce to the sewage network, largely independent of the naturaldrainage network. However, there are also periodical increasesin relative humidity, particularly at night, in periods of goodweather and in winter, as a result of the condensation causedby the overheating of the land.

Clouds form due to the presence of condensation nuclei cau-sed by pollution and heat stagnation, which with a decrease inthe air circulation due to the building density leads to greaterprecipitation.

The difference in temperature between the centre and the outs-kirts could be reduced through the introduction of the propo-sals presented here, related to the new configuration of thepublic space resulting from the creation of the superblocks andthe increase in biodiversity in the urban area.

The two proposals would lead to a significant increase in thearea of greenery. The evapotranspiration from the green roofs,the new squares, the new trees and the shade cast by the treeson sunny facades would lead one to expect a new balance oftemperatures between the centre and the outskirts.

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As in the case of atmospheric pollution, horizontal mobilityis the main cause of environmental noise in cities. Noise isa consequence of rapid energy consumption. Like mobility,it is closely related to the functioning of the city. Today, howe-ver, it is considered to be one of the malfunctions that is mostdifficult to solve because, as will be seen below, it involvesa change in the mobility model in the city.

This is why no regulations on environmental noise have beenapproved in the autonomous communities, the state or theEuropean Union. Solving the problem of noise involvesmaking profound modifications to the current mobility model.

An analysis of the data of the noise map of Barcelona showsthat most streets with a daily traffic flow of over 10,000veh./day have noise levels of over 70 dBA. These sound levelsare clearly attributable to the traffic density in the street inquestion.

In order to reduce the sound level generated by traffic to below65 dBA, one must significantly reduce the number of vehi-cles circulating. As a guideline, a reduction of 10 dBA in stre-ets with over 10,000 veh./day requires a tenfold reduction intraffic, assuming that the sound emission of each of thesevehicles responds to the current standard technical charac-teristics.

Of course, the reduction in the number of vehicles decreasesthe sound level, though it follows a logarithmic function. Forexample, if in a four-lane street cars are only allowed to driveon two lanes, with the same traffic density the noise levelwould fall by 3 dBA.

These considerations have immediate repercussions on traf-fic planning, because in order to decrease noise to accepta-ble levels (< 65 dBA), the reduction in traffic volume is sodrastic that it becomes necessary to classify the streets intomain routes and those with residual traffic (residents, emer-gency vehicles, deliveries at restricted times, etc.), whichbecome practically pedestrian streets.

Noise is an environmental variable that for the purposes ofmanagement follows the principle “all or nothing”. Again, theproposal of superblocks appears to be the best solution.Indeed, freeing 60% of the road network from through traf-fic reduces noise in the interior of the intervias to levels ofless than 65 dBA during the day and 55 dBA at night.

The improvement of the environmental quality through theexecution of this proposal would undoubtedly be spectacu-lar.

On the main roads of the city carrying through traffic, it isproposed that the programme of soundproofing windows onfacades that is today being developed by the Institute for theUrban Landscape should concentrate on the streets that formthe basic network for traffic.

Following the line that has already be initiated, sound redu-cing road surfaces should also be included in this network.The problems of clogging of the sound absorbent surfacescurrently used may be solved through the use of new elasticroad surfaces with an optimised absorption behaviour and along useful life.

Until now, the attempts to reduce environmental noise haveshown few results and the proposals have been defensive.

In urban spaces where the daytime equivalent sound level isover 65 dBA (approximately 50% of Barcelona; above thislevel the intelligibility of a conversation at a distance of onemetre without shouting is less than 100%), the urban qua-lity suffers. With the proposal of superblocks, most of thepublic space in the intervias (the spaces between the basicroads) has lower noise levels. More importantly, with the pro-posals included here for the public space and urban biodi-versity, particularly the proposal of green roofs, it is intendedto create a programme for generating sound scenarios. Theattraction of avifauna, particularly insect-eating birds, wouldcreate a new sound scenario that in some places could bemixed with the sound of running water to create sound micro-climates of great environmental quality.

NOISE


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STABILITY, SOCIAL COHESION, CO-DEVE-LOPMENT AND CAPACITY FOR ANTICI-PATION

STABILITYAs stated above, in the metropolis the complexity increasesoverall, but if we analyse the parts of which the present-daycity is composed, we find that they have a reduced diversitybecause of their functional zoning. The homogeneity of the sin-gle-function zones of the city is the prime cause of most of themalfunctions of our urban systems. Functional zoning placesthe same things in the same spaces.

The study of the increases or decreases of the mixture-the mix-ticity or the diversity in a given territory-reveals some of thepotential malfunctions of the system, as well as the elementsthat give it stability. Indeed, the analysis of diversity gives anidea of who occupies the space and the probability of exchan-ges and relations between the components with informationwithin the system. If one chooses a similar surface of space ina compact city, the value of diversity is higher than that in thediffuse city. This is easy to understand because the diffuse citygives each space a predominant-and often almost exclusive-function. As stated above, workers relate with workers duringa large part of the day in large areas called industrial estates;students relate with students on university campuses; house-persons relate with housepersons in residential areas; in thesuperstores the persons shopping have little contact withothers, except those who weigh the food or those at the check-out. We could continue this list to include all the large single-function areas of the zoned city, in all of which we would dis-cover a reduced diversity. This is the model of organisation ofthe city that planners in the course of the twentieth century-and particularly those of the Modern Movement-considered thebest way to rationalise urban space and to respond to the incom-patibility of functions in the same space. The application ofthe functionalist model reveals profound unsolved malfunc-tions. The spaces with a predominant function are left deser-ted and without life in certain time periods (certain times ofday, holidays, etc.). The separation of functions leads to a socialsegregation because it brings groups with similar attributestogether in different spaces. People are segregated particularlyby their income level and by ethnic group, religion, etc. Thefunctionalist model therefore generates instability.

The analysis of certain realities allows us to deduce that thesocial segregation that is observed in the peripheral areas andpart of the centre of our cities is leading to certain problemsof instability: lack of security, social exclusion and civil diso-bedience. In these spaces we find a low diversity of incomes,qualifications and professions, in addition to shortcomings inthe associative network and in other aspects normally asso-ciated with diversity. It is also found that the energy flows thatare used to maintain the structure and order are weak, and con-sequently the organisation becomes unbalanced.

On the other hand, in the parts of the compact city in whichthe values of diversity are high, these problems are less acute.In fact, to increase the diversity is to impregnate the area ofland in question with a city full of opportunities, informationexchange, and control of the future through the generation ofstability. The systems composed of heterogeneous parts inclu-de more recurring regulating circuits. The stability is sustainedprecisely by the existence of recurring regulating circuits.

The mixture of diverse people in the same space, as we haveseen in Cerdà's Eixample, in which different incomes, trades,qualifications, etc. live in the same building or in close proxi-mity, is the guarantee of survival of these systems because itprovides stability and maturity.

Furthermore, a greater diversity of uses in a specific area, i.e.a greater mixture and density of uses (residence, services, eco-nomic activities, facilities, etc.) provides the right contextbecause it increases the exchanges of information and conse-quently allows the creation of channels of energy flow that sus-tain the complex organisation. In the same sense, there is anincrease in the associative network.

However, one must also consolidate and increase the strate-gies of cooperation between the public sector and the non-pro-fit sector, in order to promote civic participation, volunteer workand the coordination of efforts. One must foster and facilitatethe development of civic networks as one moves towards par-ticipatory budgets.

The process of introduction of new urbanised spaces is necessarily slow in order to fit together and interrelate their different com-ponents in a time arrow pointing towards increasing complexity.

In the sectors of the city that have been developed slowly and uninterruptedly, without major disturbances, by consolidating andrenewing the supporting structures (for example, the Eixample of Barcelona), the diversity of the components has gradually incre-ased, and consequently the stock of organised information that provides stability and opportunities has increased to the detri-

SLOWNESS AND STABILITY


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ment of an excessive increase of new structure supported by a waste of land, energy and time and a growing consumption ofresources.

Explosive growth such as that which has happened in the last 25 years in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona provides a grea-ter input of energy and more opportunities for new colonisation and new starts. However, in more mature structures, a greaternumber of testimonies of the past tend to be conserved in the same place, including supplementary information.

Also, when a great amount of energy is applied in the development of planning, or economic activities are introduced that havean impact on the fabric of activities that has already been structured, etc., there arise disturbances that are capable of destro-ying information. This normally occurs in discontinuous situations in time and space, and as a consequence of events that canbe considered to arise in larger or more developed systems (such as superstores).

In addition to the strategies arising from mixture and mixticity, one must also add the ones that meet the basic needs and esta-blish the balances between the various actors in the city: work, housing, education, culture, health, security, etc. must be gua-ranteed in the solution to the current problems.

Creating the conditions for fostering equal opportunities regardless of gender, age, race, religion or physical condition in the“growth” of individuals and groups becomes the guiding function of the social programmes.

SOCIAL COHESION

The analytical System-Environment model indicates with aglobe where the exploitation of the earth's systems starts andwhere the polluting impact occurs. The support systems ofour cities have been occupied for centuries by human groupswho have seen, and continue to see, how the resources areobtained and in some cases how the waste (or pollutingindustry) arrives, thus degrading or impoverishing the systemsthat in turn support their organisations.

This process, which has increased with globalisation, is lea-ding to an annual increase in the number of environmentalrefugees, and is one of the main causes of conflict betweenhuman groups. The movement of persons in search of survi-val is growing and is the expression of one of the uncertain-ties now facing the countries of the first world.

In the countries of the third world the uncertainty has beco-me a harsh reality.

The strategic proposals included in this document (seeDiagram 1) that seek to reduce the pressure on the environ-ment also aim, of course, to promote the growth in the orga-nisation of the groups that live in the support systems. TheSystem-Environment model that forms the theoretical basisfor defining the BCN model includes the idea of co-develop-ment.

Despite the difficulties that this involves for a city likeBarcelona, it would be appropriate for some of its surpluses,which may be of a varied nature, to be sent to cities in Africaor Latin America. Of course, the transfer of surpluses mustinclude the know-how and the criteria that are included here.

CO-DEVELOPMENT

Some variables of the environment, both local and global, aresubject to limits and a lack of flexibility. Therefore, if one wis-hes to maintain or even increase the organisation of our citieswithout compromising the future of the urban systems andperhaps of the urban species, one must first understand thereasons for the increase in the uncertainty of the environmentand then modify the epistemological bases supporting thetransforming action and above all its purpose and direction.This information, this knowledge, must stimulate a rethinking

and a reorganisation of the city in order to respond to the mes-sages sent to us by the environment: this is the so-called capa-city for anticipation.

Increasing capacity for anticipation necessarily involves firstunderstanding and then revising our way of thinking andacting. The change forces all levels of society to become per-meable: individuals and organisations, the new culture of sus-tainability and the relation to the world, at whatever scale.

INCREASING THE CAPACITYFOR ANTICIPATION

STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION

Family economiccapacity

Rate of ageing (%)

Foreign population (%)


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URBAN STABILITY BY FOSTERING ABALANCED MIXTUREEuropean cities in general and those of the south in parti-cular have a praiseworthy level of co-habitation (it is oneof their main assets), though in some cases it has been com-promised recently.

Co-habitation, living together, is intimately linked to mix-ture, and the right mix of incomes, qualifications, profes-sions, religions, ethnic groups and races. However, co-habitation also depends on other factors, such as thesocio-economic scenario, the formal solution provided forpublic space and the diversity and the mix of uses andfunctions in a given urban fabric. As a whole, it allows orfails to allow the public space (the home of all) to be occu-pied by persons of any social condition (income, age, ori-gin, credo, culture, etc.) at any time of the day. These twoconditions give the level of health of a city and are the acidtest of whether a space has been rehabilitated, revitalised.

Living with conflicts that can be controlled by the commu-nity itself provides the framework for developing the essen-tial aspects of civic life, including those that multiply con-tacts, exchanges and communication, which are indeedthose that allow individual and collective growth and fos-ter a sense of belonging, a positive identification with theplace, creativity and innovation.

AGEINGThe evolution of the age pyramid is becoming one of the most problematic factors for stability in Barcelona.

The adjoining maps show how the rate of ageing (the ratio of persons over 65 to persons under 14 years of age) is increasing,and this phenomenon is spreading to the whole city except in the area of the Olympic Village. The problems that this involveswith regard to social services, health, facilities, mobility and urban dynamism are hard to solve. The rejuvenation of the city istherefore a strategic need.

The experience of the Olympic Village from the viewpoint of rejuvenation was a success and should definitely be extended tothe 22@ district and the rest of Poble Nou. It would be advisable for all areas of integral rejuvenation (La Sagrera, Trinitat Nova,Ciutat Vella, etc.) to incorporate a rejuvenation programme. In addition to the channelling of young immigrant people to theareas with the highest rates of ageing and/or the areas of renewal, one must stimulate the birth rate with programmes that inclu-de funding, services, etc.

Elderly people, however, need a network of specific services that ensure quality of life for this age group, and programmes ofsocial and health care should be increased for people living in their own homes. Day centres should be promoted in order toensure care and coordination between the home, day centres, hospitals and residential centres in the whole Metropolitan Areaof Barcelona. The ageing population makes it necessary to create new places in residential homes for the elderly.

In the areas with the highest rates of ageing such as the Eixample, imagination must be used to establish programmes to inclu-de young people in the central urban fabric. The combination of social, labour and educational programmes, etc., could allowpersons of different ages to share space.

THE MIXTURE OF INCOMESAs we have seen, the current tendency of producing city isseparating uses and functions spatially and segregating socialgroups according to their family economic capacity, ethnicgroup, culture and religion. In the Metropolitan Area ofBarcelona the segregation is mainly economic and the newhousing estates cater for new residents according to their inco-me. In the conurbation of Barcelona, which has now beenpractically built, the segregation of incomes took place duringthe massive immigration of the 1960s and 1970s.

The stabilising effect of placing persons and families with dif-ferent economic capacities together is well-known. TheEixample and other urban fabrics designed in the 19th cen-tury took this into account by including several income levelsin the same building. The magnificent results are clear to beseen. In Barcelona in general, and in particular in the areasof integral renewal, the revitalisation programmes must inclu-de the mixture of incomes as a priority subprogramme.

IMMIGRATIONSince the 1990s (especially towards the end) in our country ingeneral-and in Barcelona in particular-there has been a newflow of immigrants from Latin America, Asia, Africa and Europe.In the city, the immigrants with a low income are mainly con-centrated in Ciutat Vella, creating pockets of population inwhich survival (everyone's first objective) dominates over otheraims.

In the early 1990s, before the flood of immigrants, one of theaims of the revitalisation of the historic centre of Barcelona wasa mixture of incomes within each neighbourhood of Ciutat Vella.

The newly-arrived residents with higher incomes occupiedmainly the periphery, though a few ventured into the centre ofthese neighbourhoods. The investments made in public spaceand building were accompanied by ordinary budgets for cultu-re and social compensation policies. Though this was one ofthe most important processes of this type in Europe, it waspartly weakened by the concentration of new residents with lowincomes who made it necessary to reconsider the policies.

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Each community, each urban area has a capacity to hold a limi-ted number of new residents whilst maintaining a permeablemixture of cultures. When the percentage of immigrants goesbeyond certain thresholds (however high the income of the newresidents is: see the case of the Balearic Islands), mistrust andconflict soon follow. At that time, the stability and social cohe-sion suffer.

Though it is highly complex, immigration must be planned. Aswe have seen, aspects such as housing, education, politicalparticipation, jobs and even the need to rejuvenate our socialfabric cannot be ignored. Also, one must foster the mechanismsthat favour rights and obligations in equal conditions as well

as providing immigrants with knowledge of Catalan culture.

One of the formulas for reducing conflicts that will probably beextended is that of co-development with the main areas of ori-gin of the immigrants. Sharing growth (fair trade, technology,etc.) and establishing suitable bonds of trust and transfer ofknowledge, is a long-term project but the only one that followsthe principles of solidarity and equity, which are fundamentalfor the stability of the system.

The arrival of new residents is strategic for the dynamics ofBarcelona and the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, but theymust have a variety of incomes, knowledges and cultures.

The areas undergoing integral remodelling must resolve partof the problems, which are complex and cannot be solved bythe mechanisms of the market. The factors involved are sen-sitive and problematic: an integral solution to the problemsof ageing, immigration, employment and housing must achie-ve a balance of ages in all urban areas, a non-conflictive mix-ture of immigrants in all districts, economic growth, and self-contained employment in the city.

In the areas undergoing integral remodelling one must seeka balance between residential and commercial uses that pro-vides stability and allows the city to be created. In order toprovide solutions to the lack of housing and the rejuvenationof the town, the 22@ district must significantly increase thenumber of dwellings in the remodelled area.

In view of the situation, the intervention of the public admi-nistration in the housing market is inevitable.

It must apply a public policy against speculation and seekinnovative solutions to encourage renting, foster the active

policy of public housing at the service of young people andlow-income families, and provide independent dwellings withcommon services for the elderly and people with physical disa-bilities. Otherwise, large parts of the city will fall into deca-dence (this has already happened in other cities) and will beoccupied by the tertiary sectors and large buildings.

Furthermore, public policies must be based on the followingcriteria:

• Tax incentives for rehabilitation and rented housing

• Modulation of capital gains

• Development of stricter regulations on sustainabilityand habitability

• Penalties for unoccupied or abandoned dwellings

The current situation of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona is complex. The city has been losing inhabitants since the mid-1970s and the population is ageing. Though the number of residents aged 15-30 is the highest in history, and they form thelargest group seeking jobs and housing, in the next fifteen years the decline in this age group will coincide with the death ofthe older age group. If the current dispersal of population in search of "greater quality of life" continues, in this period the citycentre is in danger of falling into decadence. Immigrants are coming to fill existing jobs and the moderate number of new onesthat would otherwise remain unfilled. Housing prices are high and there are relatively few empty dwellings.

In this situation, housing becomes one of the most strategic aspects of the city. The latest studies show that the number ofdwellings must be increased in order to satisfy the main groups of house-seekers: persons aged 18 to 35 years who wish toleave the parental home, and immigrants.

A HOUSING POLICY ADAPTED TO THECURRENT PROBLEMS


RATIO OF UNIVERSITY GRADUATES

Ratio of universitygraduates (%)

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STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION EDUCATION, CHANGES IN THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIALREVITALISATIONThe level of school failure, or rather the level of failure of schools, is high in specific areas. In the neighbourhoods of the coas-tal strip (except the Olympic Village) and those parallel to the River Besòs, it is exceptionally high. The challenges of the newinformation society, access to new technologies, access to urban services, social position, etc. are closely linked to a profoundremodelling of schools and educational institutions. The lack of prestige of state schools in general, and especially in the aboveareas of the city, means that the mixture of children from families with different incomes does not take place.

Children from families with average incomes are sent to study in the schools in the northwest of the city. One of the conse-quences of this is that the percentage of young people who obtain university degrees in the low-income areas is significantlylower. Furthermore, the lack of quality perceived in schools is a dissuasive factor for certain couples with children who couldchoose to live in areas undergoing revitalisation.

The “growth” of the population, in the sense of having moreopportunities in all fields of life, is linked to growth in thenumber of university graduates who train and live in a givenarea of the city. The desired mixture of incomes, as one ofthe fundamental factors of stability and social cohesion, maycome about due to the choice of persons with different inco-mes to live in a given neighbourhood, or due to the educationof children who later obtain university degrees and live in thesame neighbourhood.

There is a clear link between university degrees and incomelevels because of the employment opportunities that they pro-vide. People who have accumulated information for longperiods of time, through qualifications or professions thatrequire a high level of knowledge, are less affected by thecyclic components of the economy and the declines in pro-duction.

During periods of general decline in production, the less-ski-lled workers (and urban areas with a lower density of kno-wledge) suffer more from declining employment.

Schools are therefore a strategic catalyst for social cohesionfrom all points of view: employment, mixture of incomes,access to the city, etc. depend on a sufficient number of pla-ces in state schools and high-quality education.

The profound change in the educational institutions, howe-ver, will involve a new education programme and the socialrecognition of teachers, which will come about through a tho-rough renewal of the teaching staff and the mechanisms forsupporting and training them; a change in the school struc-ture, in coordination with the services offered by the city(social services, waste collection, parks and gardens, etc.)

and with the civil society, especially at neighbourhood level;and finally a change in the structure to adapt it to the kno-wledge society.

Firstly, the education programme, which must be one of thebasic lines in the process of revitalisation of specific areas ofBarcelona, must be fostered through an educational renewalthat increases our capacity to anticipate the uncertaintiesoutlined above.

This capacity for anticipation is based on an awareness (infact, people are the world's awareness) that we are the mas-ters of our own destiny, and whether or not we guarantee thefuture depends on each one of us. Secondly, the educationprogramme must be dynamic, adapt to the knowledge of indi-viduals and train them to deal with the changing reality.

Thirdly, specialised knowledge must be contextualised insystemic thought. Fourthly, reality is the best school, learningis a coherent motor of action, and the urban reality is the mostcomplex system created by man. The education must be thegateway to the city and to its services, whether or not theyare virtual. Fifthly, in the educational renewal learning musthave no age or limits.

The project of transforming the educational institutions requi-res the support of a modernised network of libraries, a net-work of language-teaching centres, and a cable network thatreaches everyone, giving all citizens e-mail accompanied bydigital literacy campaigns.


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The educational programme incorporates a set of specific lines of action for environmental communication that are presentedin the document “A Civic Commitment for Sustainability”.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONAND COMMUNICATION

The set of programmes presented here, and particularly preventive measures, are strategic objectives for fighting the lack of civicsecurity.

However, as the Charter of Barcelona states, the justice services must be reorganised in order to avoid recidivism by fostering fasttrials and the coordination between institutions and bodies linked to security and justice.

CIVIC SECURITY

The development of the economic lines laid out above, toge-ther with the rest of the measures of the various lines ofaction, must guarantee the future employment of the citi-zens of Barcelona. However, in the active employment poli-cies a major effort must be made through specific plansaimed at unemployed persons over the age of 45, young per-sons and some groups threatened with exclusion. The unem-ployed must be helped to actively seek employment, and spe-cific plans must be created to reduce the difference in theemployment rate of men and women.

Considering the current deterioration in employment quality,one must establish regulations that foster quality employ-ment in all companies (including the special employmentcentres for integration in employment) by improving employ-ment stability, security, working time, contractual conditionsand participation.

The role of Barcelona Activa in promoting new activities andbusiness start-ups, and as the coordinating body of the ins-titutions involved at the various stages of business start-ups,

must be reinforced. Also, the required professional and socialprofiles must be identified.

Furthermore, in order to flesh out the model of the knowledgecity, it is strategic to increase the number of information-dense jobs, because people who are able to carry them outhave greater opportunities to find another in periods of reces-sion.

During certain periods, long-term planning will be necessaryto integrate a significantly higher number of immigrants intoemployment.

Finally, self-containment-i.e. the number of jobs in a givenmunicipality filled by people from the same municipality-must increase. Therefore, the areas of integral renewal, suchas the 22@ district, must incorporate mechanisms for pro-moting proximity between homes and jobs.

EMPLOYMENT

In this area one must guarantee equal opportunities, avoiding discrimination by gender, age, race, religion, physical condi-tion, etc.

One must support the universal public health system and reduce inequalities in the health of the population for socio-eco-nomic or geographic reasons (districts) or for reasons of gender or physical condition. Social protection should be extendedto the sectors in need, and programmes should be set up to fight poverty, paying special attention to the Basic Social Income.

One must also reduce the number of avoidable and premature deaths by reinforcing and innovating preventive medicine pro-grammes (public health, drug dependence, school absenteeism, accidents in the home, traffic accidents, etc.) aimed at thegeneral public and at the causes of social exclusion in specific groups.

The promotion of healthy lifestyles (physical exercise, decrease in the consumption of toxic substances, etc.), the promotionof consumption of food produced by ecological cultivation and a healthy and balanced nutrition are essential to the aim ofimproving public health.

HEALTH SERVICE, PUBLIC HEALTHAND SOCIAL COMPENSATION

PROGRAMMES

1. INDICATORS OF COMPACTNESS1.1. Compactness: CThis indicator is close to the idea of building density or building efficiency in relationshipto the consumption of land.

1.2. Corrected compactness CcFor a given unit of urban area, the indicator CC is calculated:

This indicator corrects the value of the compactness C, on the understanding that it isnot consubstantially good because an excessive compactness may have negative effectsfor the interests of the city.

The replacement of the developed area by the area in green spaces and spaces for co-habitation or spending time allows one to know, for a given urban area, the balance bet-ween building and free spaces and spaces for relations.

INDICATORS THAT CHARACTERISE THE COMPACT, COMPLEX,EFFICIENT AND STABLE MEDITERRANEAN CITY MODELSome time ago hundreds of people were employed in the drawing up of urban indica-tors. This state of euphoria has now cooled down somewhat. When one analyses the con-tent of the lists one realises that the classification of reality by sectors tends to coincide inmost of the A21s, but not in the indicators, which “indicates” that something is wrong.

The number of indicators proposed to characterise each reality is enormous-in fact, itwould give us a list of several thousands, which questions the very concept of indicators.

The aim of the indicators must be to monitor the models over time. As the urban modelsare intentional, the indicators show to what extent the changes that have occurred areadapted to the initial intention.

In this document we propose a limited number of indicators with the intention of charac-terising and creating the model of Barcelona. A more detailed presentation of the indi-cators that affect the processes of urban development, adapted to the proposed model ofa Mediterranean city, has been drawn up by the Urban Ecology Agency of Barcelona forthe City Council of Seville and can be found at www.ecourban.net. Furthermore, for eachof the strategic outlines (the partial models included here of water, waste, energy, etc.) anumber of synthetic indicators must be proposed to allow them to be monitored.

I N D I C A T O R S


2. INDICATORS OF COMPLEXITY2.1. Complexity: HThe measure of H and its evolution is the main indicator of urban knowledge, as it isa measure that synthesises the density of information and at the same time its diver-sity. It is also a measure of the organised information because the calculation of Hcould be a measure of information noise if the components of the message were notorganised. It is a measure of the organised information because each of the informa-tion carriers (legal entities involved in the message) renews its “survival” each day byfighting against disappearance. Its permanence is the guarantee that the measure ofH is a measure of information rather than noise.

The information content calculated as the logarithm of the combinations indicates theuseful amount of information if the system is organised and forms a useful message,or it indicates the useful amount of confusion if it is not organised (Margalef, 1991).

As Margalef stated, when measures of information are proposed for a limited and defi-ned purpose, it is more honest and realistic to use a less committed name such ascomplexity.

Complexity is measured using Shannon's formula and forms part of the theory of infor-mation: H expresses the number of bits of information per individual. Pi is the probabi-

lity of occurrence; it indicates the number of mem-bers of the community that fulfil a specific criterion.The maximum H in a given community is obtainedwith the maximum differentiation of the informationcarriers and the maximum equifrequency of each one.

2.2. Dense complexity in technology and knowledge: H@This indicator gives the degree of maturity in relation to the @ activities that are based

there. The measure of a territory indicates the agglo-meration, and at the same time the diversification,i.e. the degree of structuring of the activities @ ineach urban area.

For the development of the indicator a separate data-base from the general database of information carriers including only the @ activitieswas created. The comparison of H@ and H shows whether or not an urban system isevolving towards the knowledge society.

2.3. Occupation of the @ activitiesEmployment is one of the basic indicators of the model, because the @ activities attracta greater number of qualified persons and a greater intensity of R&D in the final valueof the production.

The distribution of the @ workspaces and the other workspaces (called high and lowtechnology and knowledge by Trullén) allows the two figures to be distributed over theregion.

The relative intensity of @ distributed over the region in comparison with the averagefor Barcelona could give us the degree of intensity of @ occupations in the differentzones of research in Barcelona.

There are many other indicators (qualifications, professions, etc.) that involve indivi-dual attributes, and indicators (degree of tertiarisation, volume of activities, etc.) thatare interesting but only complementary to the above ones, which are intended to bemore synthetic.

3. Indicator of urban efficiencyE is the consumption of primary energy in the urban system that synthesises the con-sumption of all the resources, including the materials that need energy for their extrac-tion, transformation and disposal.

H is the value of the indicator of complexity, i.e. of the organised information in theurban system.

Ef therefore indicates the amount of energy (resources) that is necessary to maintaina given urban organisation H. The evolution of Ef shows the degree of efficiency of the

system, and consequently whether or not we are moving towards a more sustainableprocess.

4. Indicators of urban balance and stabilityIt might be thought that complexity is best in all cases. This is not strictly true, if themain aim is to maintain the urban organisation and everything that this involves. Anincrease in the tertiary sector (however @ it may be) that empties the city of inhabi-tants would, of course, be a catastrophe for the city. Consequently, though here theyare only mentioned, one must achieve in all the areas of the city balanced proportionsof uses and urban functions (housing, business, free space, etc.), a suitable mixture ofgenerations, a suitable mixture of incomes and qualifications, and a suitable mixtureof immigrants and locals.

The calculations of these proportions are simple because the expression is the per-centage of each component in the mixture. In some cases, the use of other indices cancomplete the simpler percentages. In the area of health, the life expectancy at birth isprobably the synthetic indicator; in the area of income it is the Index of Family EconomicCapacity (IFEC); in the area of the mixture of uses it is the number of legal entities per1000 inhabitants. The rate of occupation and victimisation are two measures that pro-vide a synthesis of the realities to be followed.

The building density is related to the area that characterises isolation in civic life: greenspaces, squares, pavements with a minimum width.

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I N S T R U M E N T S


ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTSAs the battle for sustainability will be won or lost in cities, and today cities contain80% of all citizens, it seems highly reasonable that the distribution of the nationalbudgets between the national, regional and local authorities should be modified.

The percentages assigned to the local authorities should allow them to face the currentand future challenges, which is at present impossible with the funding provided bythe State.

The current process by which municipalities are mainly funded by capital gains onproperty must be halted. The result, as we have seen, is an immense suburbanisationof the territory.

In the area of European funds it is probably too late to do anything, but it is clear thatthe funds assigned to transport (theoretically 50% of the cohesion funds) could havebeen used for a more sustainable model of mobility.

ORGANISATIONAL INSTRUMENTSThe close relationship between the individual elements in the Metropolitan Area ofBarcelona and the consequences of failing to deal with the problems in a holistic fas-hion make it necessary to create a metropolitan government to meet the great cha-llenges of planning and the environmental, economic and social issues.

This government must incorporate, for example, such important aspects as the mana-gement of all the rail networks, or rather the management of integral mobility.

This proposal makes it necessary to reorganise the current institutional bodies.

Furthermore, after the Rio Summit there is a need to create mechanisms of partici-pation and e-government both for citizens and for the civil society.

LEGAL INSTRUMENTSIn order to achieve many of the objectives of the various realities presented, part ofthe current legal system must be modified. However, it is also proposed that a TerritorialLaw should allow a more sustainable development of the Metropolitan Area ofBarcelona and its municipalities.

This Law of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona should give the metropolitan govern-ment competences to attain the objectives set by the model.

EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTSIt has been said that the battle for sustainability will be won or lost in cities, and ithas been seen that one of the conditions for victory is that citizens take charge oftheir existence and participate responsibly in the process.

This premise forces one to reconsider regulated and unregulated training program-mes for people of all ages. It also forces one to create suitable educational scena-rios for increasing the capacity for anticipation at various scales, which is currentlyso limited.

THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE MODELEach of the outlines included here is a technical proposal requiring a set of legal, economic, organisational and educational instruments in order to meet its objectives. Forexample, for waste management an effort is being made to separate organic matter and the rest of the waste fractions through educational and communication campaigns,but a series of organisational aspects have also been developed: the New Contract is a civic agreement for the cleaning and recycling of waste, and the “ecoparks” and therestoration of the Garraf landfill site have been funded by the European cohesion funds. In the near future, when all the waste recovery facilities are in operation, regulationsmust be established to limit the generation of mass waste.

In addition to the specific instruments of each aspect (mobility, area below ground, waste, etc.), which in some cases must be developed in the near future, below we proposea set of general instruments that include and transcend them.

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O B J E C T I V E S

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extend the urban greenery

2. To defend the compact and diverse city, with a public space of quality

3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcoming environment

4. To achieve optimum levels of environmental quality and to become a healthy city

5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the use of renewable ones

6. To reduce the production of waste and to foster the culture of reuse and recycling

7. To increase social cohesion, reinforcing the mechanisms of equity and participation

8. To foster economic activity oriented towards sustainable development

9. To make progress in the culture of the sustainability through education and environmental communication

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and to promote international cooperation

Objectives of the Agenda 21 of Barcelona - Civic Commitment for Sustainability

As stated initially, the proposals of this document are congruent with the con-tents of the Agenda 21 of Barcelona and incorporate objectives and strategiclines that the Civic Commitment for Sustainability establishes for the period2002-2012.

In order to highlight the connections, the objectives and lines of action of eachstrategic proposal of the model are specified below.


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OBJECTIVES AND LINES OF ACTIONOF THE CIVIC COMMITMENT FORSUSTAINABILITY (CCS) OF THE AGENDA21 OF BARCELONA (A21) INCORPO-RATED IN THE MODEL OF MOBILITYBASED ON SUPERBLOCKS

The model of mobility based on superblocks

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 4, 6, 9 and 10.

2. To defend the compact and diverse city, with a publicspace of quality. This affects mainly the lines of action:1 and 3. Pending in the streets of Barcelona.

3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcomingenvironment. This affects directly the lines of action: 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

4. To achieve optimum levels of environmental quality andto become a healthy city. This affects mainly the linesof action: 1 and 3.

5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the useof renewable ones. This affects directly the lines ofaction: 4, 6, 7 and 9.

7. To increase social cohesion, reinforcing the mechanismsof equity and participation. This affects directly the linesof action: 6.

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and topromote international cooperation. This affects mainlythe lines of action: 4 and 7.

The model of public space based on superblocks

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 4, 5, 6, 9 and 10.

2. To defend the compact and diverse city, with a publicspace of quality. This affects mainly the lines of action:3 and 4.

3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcomingenvironment. This affects mainly the lines of action: 5and 6.


The building strategies

2. To defend the compact and diverse city, with a publicspace of quality. This affects mainly the lines of action:1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

7. To increase social cohesion, reinforcing the mechanismsof equity and participation. This affects mainly the linesof action: 8.

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The design of the underground city

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 6.

2. To defend the compact and diverse city, with a publicspace of quality. This affects mainly the lines of action:1, 3 and 5.

3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcomingenvironment. This affects mainly the lines of action: 1,2, 3, 7, 8 and 9.


The model of land occupation

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 1 and 2.


5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the useof renewable ones. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 1, 2, 4, 7 and 8 (extended to the consumptionof land).

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and topromote international cooperation. This affects mainlythe lines of action: 4.

The polynuclear network of compact cities and townsin the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 1, 2, 3 and 10.


3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcomingenvironment. This affects mainly the lines of action: 1,2 and 10.


The movement of legal entities and goods in theMetropolitan Area of Barcelona


3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcomingenvironment. This affects mainly the lines of action: 1,2, 3, 4, 9 and 10.

.

The proposal of new centrality areas


3. To improve mobility and to make the street a welcomingenvironment. This affects mainly the lines of action: 1,2 and 5.

8. To foster economic activity oriented towards sustaina-ble development. This affects mainly the lines of action:1, 2, 4 and 10.

The strategic lines for economic development

8. To foster economic activity oriented towards sustaina-ble development. This affects mainly the lines of action:1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

The biodiversity and the green network in the urbanarea

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 10.



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The biodiversity: the green network and ecologicalconnectors in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona.

1. To protect the free spaces and biodiversity and to extendthe urban greenery. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10.

5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the useof renewable ones. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 1 and 2.


The model of waste

5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the useof renewable ones. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9.

6. To reduce the production of waste and to foster the cul-ture of reuse and recycling. This affects mainly the linesof action: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 , 9 and 10.

The proposal of conservation and management of thedemand for water


5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the useof renewable ones. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 1, 2, 3 and 9.

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and topromote international cooperation. This affects mainlythe lines of action:: 2 and 3.

The energy generation and management


5. To preserve the natural resources and promote the useof renewable ones. This affects mainly the lines ofaction: 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9.

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and to promote international cooperation. This affects mainlythe lines of action: 4 and 5.

The proposal to reduce atmospheric pollution

4. To achieve optimum levels of environmental quality andto become a healthy city. This affects mainly the linesof action: 1, 5 and 6.

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and topromote international cooperation. This affects mainlythe lines of action: 4, 5 and 7.

The proposal of urban stability and promotion ofmixticity

7. To increase social cohesion, reinforcing the mechanismsof equity and participation. This affects mainly the linesof action: 8 and 10.

10. To reduce the impact of the city on the planet and topromote international cooperation. This affects mainlythe lines of action: 8, 9 and 10.

The proposals of stability and social cohesion

7. To increase social cohesion, reinforcing the mechanismsof equity and participation. This affects mainly the linesof action: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 10.

8. To foster economic activity oriented towards sustainabledevelopment. This affects mainly the lines of action: 7.

9. To make progress in the culture of the sustainabilitythrough education and environmental communication.This affects mainly the lines of action: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5and 6.


To consult The People’s Commintment towardsSustainability - A21 BCN

www.bcn.es/agenda21

"The Barcelona that was always, but not quite

and functions, efficient and

Preamble of The People's Commitmen


we need is the mixed city we have known all our lives, compact,as dense as before and now; a new city with diverse people

d progressive, competitive yet co-operative."

nt towards Sustainability. Agenda 21 of Barcelona

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