Literature Review-Recruiting and Selection-PJohnson

Running head: EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS

Literature Review

Recruitment and Selection of Effective Leaders: Getting the Right Ones on the bus

Priscilla D. Johnson

Prairie View A&M University

Dr. Pamela T. Barber-Freeman

November 17, 2011

Author Note

Priscilla D. Johnson, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling,

Prairie View A&M University.

Correspondence concerning this literature review should be addressed to Priscilla

D. Johnson, Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling, Prairie View A&M

University, Campus Box 519 MailStop 2420, Prairie View, Texas 77446. E-mail:

[email protected].

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EMPLOYING EFFECTIVE LEADERS

Abstract

Hiring effective leaders begins with having a recruiting and selection process that is

sustainable and unyielding. This structure is vital to the success of schools. Student

achievement is highly likely to be effected by a leader’s performance. The review of

related literature in this work reveals similarities in historical and traditional processes

concerning effective hiring. The historical perspective presented in this work allows one

to understand the moral dilemma that created a need for educational programs. This work

is guided by three theories: objective theory of job choice, subjective theory of job choice,

and work itself theory of job choice. Embedded in this literature, these theories remind

hiring administrators and Human Resource leaders why people chose certain positions. In

addition, the researcher presents current models used for recruiting and selection of

leaders. The need for effective leaders is overflowing. The researcher considers issues in

education such as hiring minorities and women and current issues faced by students and

administrators.

Keywords: recruiting, selecting, principals, schools, Human Resources, students

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Literature Review

How a leader enters the educational setting is just as important as their

performance. The goal of both Human Resources (HR) and the school district is to hire

candidates who will effectively flourish as the leader. In a school setting, educators and

administrative staff can both be leaders. For these reasons, the researcher chose to make

this research relevant to the recruitment and selection of both groups. The review of

related literature discusses hiring from a historical perspective and current practices, the

importance of hiring, and need for recruiting and selecting effective leaders in our

schools. This is an incredible feat that requires structure and a strong sense of

commitment. Collins work could help describe this process as “Getting the right people

on the bus, the wrong people off the bus, and the right people off the bus, and the right

people in the right seats…” (2001, p. 184).

Historical Perspective: Function of Human Resources in Schools

“The gap between education’s promise and its achievement is a concern for both

citizens and educators. When the causes of the discrepancies between educational ideals

and actualities are examined, the personnel factor appears to be contributory” (Castetter,

1962, p. 17). During the1960’s the face and demand of education continued to evolve.

Socially, the world began to change as well as the purpose of education. Prior to this

period, America’s culture values transformed. According to Spindler (as cited in

Castetter, 1962), people moved from Puritan morals, of self-renunciation to becoming

more outgoing and involved in the lives of others. Events in life became less focused on

individualism to concern for others. Moral codes and what the group thought were right

became important. People became less and less focused on the future and began to relish

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their current state of living. Group conformity and collectivity emerged as a way to bring

synchronization. These cultural changes led to an increase in the order of education.

During the 1960’s, education encountered many problems including

should the school attempt to open “closed areas of culture” (economics, race and

minority-group relations, social class, sex, courtship, marriage religion and

morality, nationalism and patriotism) for study;

can the recruitment and selection process be designed to identify value patterns of

personnel which will have negative impact on children and youth (Castetter,

1962, p. 9).

Castetter believed, “The extent to which these and other educational issues of equal

significance can be solved satisfactorily depends on the availability of personnel capable

of rendering a high level of educational services” (Castetter, p. 17).

Guiding Theories

Three theories guide this review of literature. The objective theory of job choice,

created by Behling, Labovitz, and Gainer in 1968 proclaims that individuals are

motivated to apply for a job based on the economic opportunities. The subjective theory

of job choice explains how applicants have psychological needs the position could fulfill.

The work itself theory of job choice shows us how applicants place importance on the job

tasks, expectations, and other factors (Young, 2008). Figure one depicts these theories in

a conceptual way. This brings us to the importance of recruiting and selecting effective

leaders for our schools.

Figure 1

Conceptual Framework: Three Guiding Theories

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Recruitment and Selection

Recruitment

Recruiting effective leaders is a necessary process in all schools. Demanding

testing standards, changing demographics of students, and each school’s altering

characteristics leads us to the need to recruit more educators and administrators (Young,

2008). According to Young, recruiting educators and administrators, should be completed

before the actual need occurs (succession planning). Young also establishes two goals for

recruitment. The first goal is to fill empty positions through a search for qualified

candidates. The next goal is to persuade, inspire, and give the candidates a reason to work

for your particular school district. Both goals are part of a strategic approach to human

resource management. According to Castetter

It is not difficult to realize that the investment made in every school employee is considerable; that the success of the local school system depends upon a continuous flow of qualified personnel; that future educational leadership is related to present recruitment policies; that the potential for waste of every kind is enormous if recruitment programs are ineffective; and that solutions to today’s recruitment problems do not possess unchanging validity (1962, p. 172).

Why Choose to Lead?

Recruitment & Selection of

Effective Leaders

Objective theory of

job choice

Subjective theory of

job choice Work itself theory of

job choice

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Castetter’s historical perspective on recruitment shined rays on the significance of

effective management of HR recruiting utilized to hire effective leaders. He believed the

HR director or manager should provide the HR team with data and suggestions for

recruiting leaders. In addition, throughout their leadership, HR professionals should

implement strategic studies regarding the need for additional hiring; with info from all

stakeholders, build a repertoire of standards for all positions; creatively recruit;

collaborate with educational institutions and organizations to prepare future candidates;

maintain a satisfying work environment; and use various technologies to communicate

recruiting needs. Casetter’s work emphasis that some schools large in size, with enough

resources benefit from having an assistant superintendent of HR. Casetter believed “The

more today’s superintendent of schools considers the educational problems which he is

expected to solve, the more clearly he see that his organization cannot function

successfully unless it is fully and competently staffed” (1962, p. 174). Historically,

recruiting educators and other staff was based on

enrollment trends;

staffing standards;

turnover rates;

staffing costs;

future staffing utilization (Casetter, 1962, p. 174).

Today, Young (2008), emphasis how effective recruiting for schools is still necessary to

the educational process. Education is a revolving door, where vacant positions (or even

filled ones) are waiting to be occupied by effective leaders. Interestingly, Gajda and

Militello (2008) conducted a study to find more about principal shortage in

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Massachusetts. Their study was conducted online, with a sample of 523 principal

participants. The researcher’s found that 4,414 individuals were licensed as a principal in

the state, with only 2,377 positions requiring a license. Findings from this research

showed that 63% of respondents planned on leaving the profession within five years.

Nearly 35% of respondents said they would leave because of stress, low salary, and job

complexity. Findings also suggested that some principals are underemployed, while some

who are licensed do not chose to work in the profession. “As an operational task within

the human resources process, recruitment is not an easy administrative endeavor for

school districts” (Young, 2008, p. 91). Young caste shadows on how recruitment has

become an overlooked process, not being utilized appropriately, and often seen as

needless. He brings to surface, how recruitment is a vital operational service, led by

organizational mission, goals, and aspirations. In addition, recruitment of effective

leaders involves designing effective policies and procedures aligned, with state and

federal standards. “By law, all public school districts must follow mandated public

employment legislation in the recruitment and selection of employees and should develop

well-formalized policies reflecting their intentions” (Young, 2008, p. 95). Some of the

major legislations guiding recruiting today are Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964);

Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967); Section 504 of the Rehabilitation (1973);

and the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) (Young, 2008).

To recruit and select effective leaders, positions must first be outlined. According

to Young (2008), a position is “…a collection of tasks constituting the total work

assignment of a single employee” (p. 106). A job analysis describes a position’s

requirements and duties. This is necessary for both compensation and appraisal purposes.

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A well-completed job analysis forms a physical document called a job description. These

steps make it possible to recruit effective leaders. According to Young, there are several

avenues to recruiting both certified and classified employees. Figure two in the

appendices shows these different avenues (2008).

The external labor market is utilized to recruit employees who are not currently

employed with the school district. Young (2008) proclaims that three recruitment

processes are part of all successful HR undertakings. Communication should be

established between the district and its applicants; establish a budget for recruitment

activities; and monitor the recruiting process continuously (2008). In Gutmore, Strobert,

and Gutmore’s 2009 study, they describe a grow your own leader program between

Newark Public School and a local university. The program was introduced in 2003.

Aspiring teachers desiring leadership positions had the opportunity to gain a Master’s

degree and their principal certification. This program was completed through online,

weekend, and a 600-hour internship. Each participant has a faculty mentor and gains

hands-on-experience in a job-embedded fashion. At the program’s end, 25 people

graduated and 16 were received a principal or assistant principal position at a Newark

public school. The assistant superintendent of Newark public schools was asked to rate

the program and graduates’ performance. The assistant superintendent believed all new

administrators were well prepared and did not require much guidance. This study found it

easier to select qualified assistant principals and principals. This now brings us to the

discussion of selection.

Selection

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Selecting employees is a necessary incurred hiring cost for schools. Rebore

(2001), suggests that hiring a new employee could cost about $1,000 and $25, 000 for a

superintendent. The selection process aims its arrow to “to hire individuals who will be

successful on the job” (Rebore, 2001, p. 114). There are ten major steps in the selection

process as identified by Rebore (2001), they include

1. write the job description (Young (2008), emphasized this in recruitment step);

2. establish selection criteria;

3. write the vacancy announcement and advertise the position;

4. receive applicants;

5. select the candidates to be interviewed;

6. interview candidates;

7. check references and credentials;

8. select the best candidate;

9. implement the job offer and acceptance;

10. notify unsuccessful candidates (2001, p. 115).

According to Young (2008), “The main purpose of employee selection is to fill vacant

positions in a public school district” (p. 129). Selecting employees is a longstanding

problem for education. The community, taxpayers, and students bear the cost of selection

errors. “…Many traditional selection systems used by public school districts to select

employees have ignored these concerns, and this oversight has dampening effect for the

selection of new employees from a strategic planning perspective” (Young, 2008, p. 131).

Just as school districts have specific needs, applicants also have desires motivating them

to apply; these characteristics should not be ignored. Young’s (2008) work revealed that

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individuals are motivated differently, depending on this position they desire,

complementing the subjective theory of job choice theory guiding this study.

Before selecting a candidate, there are characteristics to look for among those

wishing to occupy the leadership position. An applicant’s motive must not be ignored

during the selection process (Young, 2008). SEDL, which is not currently used as an

acronym, describes six characteristics that are found in effective leaders. These

characteristics include being a visionary, believing schools are for learning, valuing

human resources, communicating and listening effectively, being proactive, and taking

risks (2011, p. 1). These characteristics also describe individuals who have the ability to

positively change schools. “The central theme of the research is that those who find

themselves supervising people in an organization should be both good managers and

good leaders” (SEDL, 2011, para. 9). Sorenson and Goldsmith offer a model for

principals and other administrators to use when selecting educators and administrative

leaders. It is referred to as the Selection Criteria for the School Setting and can be seen in

figure three below. “These criteria are typically associated with a candidate’s academic

background, personal, characteristics, and relevant experiences in the field of education”

(2009, p. 112).

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Figure 3: Selection Criteria Relative to the School Setting

Issues in Education: The Need for Effective Leaders

School districts, universities, and colleges educate diverse groups of individuals,

yet teaching faculty still underrepresents women and minority educators. According to

Blount, “Only in desperate situations, do school boards seem willing to hire women or

persons of color for superintendencies” (1998, p. 150). STEM education areas include

science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, where there is a lack of women and

minority educators employed (Bilimoria and Buch, 2010). According to Valian (as cited

in Bilimoria and Buch, 2010) “If…we can change the faculty search process in ways that

encourage more diverse applicant pools and ensure that all applicants are evaluated fairy,

more women should make it to the short list and be invited to campus” (2010, p. 28).

There are ways educational institutions can recruit more women and minority applicants.

Bilimoria and Buch studied this process. Their work describes how business

organizations usually grow their own talent, unlike educational institutions. In six years,

they studied the hiring process at two universities. Their findings were applicable to

Selection Criteria for the School

Setting

1-Organizational

Goals

2-Position Design

3-Positon Performance

Measurements

4-Position Skills and

Performance Success

5-Selection Instruments

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hiring leaders for school districts. According to Turner (as cited in Bilimoria and Buch,

2010) “Historically, institutions have not provided training to faculty on how to conduct

effective searches, especially those likely to yield diverse pools and outcomes.” Findings

from Bilimoria and Buch’s study found that effective recruitment and selection involves

training interviewers about the importance of the organizations mission and goals as it

links to hiring diverse faculty. Interviewers in the study were also trained to identify and

control their own biases and are given tools and resources from HR on how to identify

proper candidates (2010). According to Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, and

Meyerson (2005), selecting effective leaders requires the selector to identify specific

characteristics in applicants. The leaders move students to arching levels of success by

developing teaching staff and creating processes that enhances effective learning

environments. Specifically, effective principals are skilled at

developing a deep understanding of how to support teachers;

managing the curriculum in ways that promote student learning;

developing the ability to transform schools into more effective organizations that

foster powerful teaching and learning for all students (2005, p. 5).

These principals must be skilled at tackling pressing problems. For example, since the

9/11 events in the United States, many Muslim and other immigrant students continue to

face discrimination in America’s schools. This discrimination comes in the form of

verbal slurs, avoidance, violence, and murder (Tindongan, 2011). Another pressing

problem strangling the effectiveness of principals is bullying in schools. “Bullying is

often defined as unprovoked aggressive behavior repeatedly carried out against victims

who are unable to defend themselves, according to Smith, Ananiadou, & Cowie and

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Whitted and Dupper, as (as cited in Good, McIntosh, and Gietz, 2011, para. 1). Students

being bullied are often from a marginalized group, with a physical drawback, or live with

a disability. School campaigns against bullying are often presented after longstanding

events of abuse have occurred, rather than preventing these events. Another rising

problem for school leaders is sexting. Ostrager describes this a sending nude or almost

nude pictures of oneself to another person via mobile communication device, usually

though a cell phone. Students caught sexting could be suspended, arrested, or charged

with handling child pornography (2011). “Texas is among the thirty-two states that

specifically require sex offender registration for juvenile offenders. However, the

offender is entitled to a hearing to determine whether the interests of the public require

registration” (Ostrager, 2011, p. 716). These are only few problems faced by leaders.

Reflecting back on the conceptual model guiding this study, interviewers Young (2008)

suggests that interviewers really understand why one wishes to serve as a leader. These

issues in education makes it important to know before a hiring decision is made if a

candidate has the skills, knowledge, and motivation to be effective leaders.

In the recruiting and selection process leaders have the opportunity to improve

education programs, according to Webb and Norton (as cited in Sorenson and Goldsmith,

2009). This review of related literature revealed how historical HR recruiting and

selection processes are similar. Both aim to hire educators who will plant seeds of

knowledge in each student. This review also expounds on the need for schools to

implement creative recruiting strategies, which should reach the most qualified

candidates. Often, recruiting strategies utilized by schools fail to take advantage of

technologically advanced possibilities. A current practice working for business-like

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organizations is a grow your own leader approach. If implemented effectively by schools,

this approach has the ability to reduce hiring cots and gives the candidate an opportunity

to lead in a familiar setting. Selecting leaders is crucial part of the HR process. “In fact, a

well-planned and carefully executed screening and selection process can breathe new life

into a school where ineffective visioning and planning, low morale, and teacher

absenteeism, low test scores and overall tedium are the norm” (Sorenson and Goldsmith,

2009, p. 107).

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Appendices

Figure 2Avenues for Recruiting from External Labor Market

External Labor Market

Certified Employees

College/Universities

Professional Associates

Job Fairs

Electronic Databases

Web Pages

Walk-ins

Classified Employees

Employment Agency

Volcational Schools

Community Colleges

Local Press

Employee Referrals

Walk-ins

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References

Bilimoria, D., & Buch, K. K. (2010). The search is on: Engendering faculty diversity

through more effective search and recruitment. Change, 42(4), 27-32.

Blount, J., M. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency

1873-1995. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Castetter, W. B. (1962). Administering the school personnel program. Ontario, Canada:

The Macmillian Company.

Collins, J. (2001). Good to great. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Davis, S., Darling-Hammond, L., LaPointe, M., and Meyerson, D. (2005). School

leadership study: Developing successful principals. (Review of Research).

Retrieved from The School Redesign Network (SRN): Stanford University

Website: http://www.srnleads.org/data/pdfs/sls/sls_rr.pdf

Gajda, R. and Militello. (2008). Recruiting and Retaining School Principals: What we can

learn from practicing administrators. E-Journal of AASA Journal of Scholarship

and Practice, 5(2), 33-39. Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/jsp.aspx

Gutmore, D., Strobert, B., & Gutmore, G., F. (2009). Meeting the needs: A best practice

grow your own school leader program. E-Journal of AASA Journal of

Scholarship and Practice, 6(1), 33-39. Retrieved from

http://www.aasa.org/jsp.aspx

Good, C. P., McIntosh, K., & Gietz, C. (2011). Integrating bullying prevention into

schoolwide positive behavior support. Teaching Exceptional Children, 44(1), 48-

56.

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http://www.aasa.org/jsp.aspx


Ostrager, B. (2010). SMS. OMG! LOL! TTYL: Translating the law to accommodate

today's teens and the evolution from texting to sexting. Family Court Review,

48(4), 712-726. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1617.2010.01345.x

Rebore, R. W. (2001). Human resources administration in education: A management

approach (6th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

SEDL. (2011). Leadership characteristics that facilitate school change. Retrieved from

the SEDL Website: http://www.sedl.org/change/leadership/character.html

Sorenson, R., D. & Goldsmith, L., M. (2009). The principal’s guide to managing school

personnel. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press

Tindongan, C. (2011). Negotiating Muslim youth identity in a post-9/11 world. High

School Journal, 95(1), 72-87.

Young, I, P. (2008). The human resource function in educational administration. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

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http://www.sedl.org/change/leadership/character.html

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Literature Review-Recruiting and Selection-PJohnson