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2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The contribution as well as the role of women both for the well-being of

the family and the development of a nation is pivotal. But illiteracy,

inequality, gender bias and sexual exploitation in a male dominated society

build serious blocks in their road to empowerment. Further, women without

independent resources are highly vulnerable to poverty. Therefore, all the

poverty alleviation programmes should essentially focus on women as they are

economically more disadvantaged than men. Accordingly women

empowerment is seen as an expansion of choice and action which ensures an

increase in their authority and control over the resources and decisions that

affect their life. Empowerment is a process of increasing awareness, capacity

building, acquiring greater decision making power and greater participation in

socio-political process. In view of the above facts, the government has taken a

conscious view to make adequate provisions in its policies and programmes

through which it is to be ensured that all the women in the country are

empowered and they become the active participants in the development

process. There are numerous schemes, programmes and models for the

enrichment of the conditions of women. The concept of Self-Help Group

(SHG) is one such model which produced significant success in empowering

the poor and the disempowered women. The very idea of SHG was developed

by Prof.MuhammedYunus of Chittagong University in Bangladesh in 1975.

In India, NABARD initiated SHGs in 1986-87 and the process got accelerated

only after 1991-92, following the linkage of SHGs with banks. The basic

Chapter -2

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principles of SHGs are : group approach, mutual trust, organization of small

and manageable groups, group cohesiveness, spirit of thrift, demand based

lending, collateral free and women friendly loans, peer group pressure in

repayment, skill training, capacity building and empowerment Through micro

finance movement, the SHGs facilitated the empowerment of women at the

grass root level.

Review of earlier studies

Lawrence and Franklin (1990) in an article on socio- political participation and

’black’ empowerment opine that when ‘blacks’ hold positions of political power

they are more active and participate at higher rates than ‘whites’ of comparable

socio-economic status. This conclusion is based on the finding that

empowerment leads to higher levels of political knowledge and that it leads to a

more engaged (i.e. trusting and valuable) orientation to politics

Rajamma (1993) in her study relating to empowerment through Income

Generating Projects, in Madhugiri Taluk of Tumkur District in Karnataka

State points out that the Income Generating Project has increased Women’s

access to and control over the factors of production. Women started with the

traditional activities and slowly they showed interest and confidence in taking

up non-traditional employment like brick making (which was usually done by

men), running of food co-operative, construction of smokeless stoves and

construction of low cost latrines. Over the years, the positive changes within

the community are very obvious. Although it is a very slow process, the

women of Madhugiri taluk are steadily changing the system and in the process

of improving community life.

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Kalpagum (1994) in his study related to labour and gender states that women

employed in the informal sector are viewed as vulnerable and this

vulnerability is reinforced by their continued presence in that sector.

Karl (1995) in his book entitled “Women and Employment, Participation and

decision making” opines that empowerment of women involves different

interrelated and mutually reinforcing components: collective awareness and

capacity building, skill development, participation and greater control over

decision making and action to bring about gender equality.

Jeffrey and Frederick (1996) in their article explore the benefits and harm

associated with role, reward, process and governance empowerment and

makes recommendations for minimizing the harm while maximizing the

benefit. According to them, the move towards empowerment is revolutionary

as it may be in the practice of raising a number of significant ethical and moral

issues because some people gain while others lose in this empowerment

process. Empowerment may assume several distinctive forms such as role

empowerment, reward empowerment, process empowerment and governance

empowerment. Role empowerment refers to arrangements that give workers

more discretion over their own work. Reward empowerment implies workers

greater discretion in assessing the quality of their own performances and

allocating corresponding privileges and benefits. By process empowerment,

employees usually work through groups and gain opportunities to affect the

design of organizational processes themselves. Governance empowerment

refers to arrangements that allow workers greater participation in and

influence upon the overall direction of organizations.

Sarala Gopalan (1997) in her article titled “Empowerment of women, a case of

Andhra Pradesh” identifies the factors responsible for women empowerment,

Chapter -2

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argues that over and above the literacy level, knowledge and awareness put

great pressure on empowerment. According to her, group formation is vital

for collective strength and access to information.

Anuradha Sharma (1998) in her study argues that women’s most durable

contribution to nation building begins at home, though it doesn’t end then. It

is imperative that customs, traditions, rituals, values and attitudes which view

and treat women as inferior and less desirable than men should be discarded

and changed.

Mohini Giri(1998) in her article titled “Emancipation and empowerment of

women” talk about the different strategies adopted to empower women and

classify it into 3 broad categories viz-integrated development approach,

economic approach and consciousness rising cum organizing approach. In the

first approach the assumption is that women’s disempowerment is due to their

lack of education, low economic status, lack of access to resources and low

decision-making power. The second approach is based on the assumption that

economic intervention is considered necessary because of their low economic

status and consequent dependence. The third approach presumes that

empowerment can be achieved through awareness.

Sen Gupta (1998) in his paper titled “Empowerment : A Socio-psychological

approach to Self Help Groups Formation” claims that empowerment of the

deprived begins with their ability to voice their opinion through the process of

consensuses politics and dialogue backed up by access to education,

information, organization, employment and credit.

Sushama (1998) in an article on women empowerment argues that empowerment

process helps women to change other women’s consciousness in the following

ways.

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 29

1) By altering their self-image and their beliefs about their rights and

capabilities.

2) By creating awareness of gender discrimination

3) By challenging the sense of inferiority that has been imprinted on

them since birth and recognizing the true value of their labour and

contribution to the family, society and economy.

She identifies 3 stages in the realization of women empowerment. In the

first stage, women learn to analyze the given situation and in the process the

fear gradually turns into an understanding. In the second stage, women can

experience the change,acquire the courage to protest against injustice and in

the third stage, with much self-confidence women attain a more mature state

of realization which creates a learning spirit among them.

Andre Beteille (1999) in an article relating to empowerment points out that the

most deep-rooted forms of inequality, built into the structure of traditional

Indian society are those based on caste and on gender. The disabilities due to

caste and due to gender were discussed and justified more elaborately in the

traditional literature of the Hindus. But similar disabilities were present

among other religious groups as well and these traditional disabilities were

social and not just economic. These deep-routed ideas of purity and pollution

governed the social standings of different castes and sexes and men and

women were deemed to be of unequal moral worth. The law has now

changes; social attitudes have also changed though to a much smaller extent.

Despite the changes, women and persons of inferior caste continue to suffer

from many disadvantages. India’s antiquated and ponderous social hierarchy

is markedly at odds with its present political system.

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Suseela Gopalan (1999) in her study relating to empowerment of women

through education and employment points out that discrimination adversely

affect the status of women and for increasing the status, prime importance

should be given to alleviation of discrimination. Empowerment of women

with too many opportunities is highly essential for discarding discrimination.

She further notes that the status of women is a not always influenced by high

literacy rates.

Pattanaik (2000) in an article on women welfare and social development

argues that women are the vital human infrastructure and their empowerment -

economic educational, social and political – would hasten the pace of social

development. Investing in women’s capabilities and empowering them to

achieve their ‘choices’ and ‘opportunities’ is the surest way to contribute to

economic growth and overall development.

Nayan and Borkakoty (2000) in a study conducted among the women

entrepreneurs in Assam to find out the impact of EDP strongly argue that

women can be the vital agents of change. Trained women can able to manage

and reap the benefits of different schemes.

John Sommer (2001) in a study relating to the empowerment of the oppressed

suggests that the corner stones of improving the livelihood of women are

organizing them, building the assets of the poor and building capacity that

enables them to control their own affairs and ensuring ‘social security’ defined

in the Indian context

Rao (2001) in his book entitled “Empowering rural women” try to analyze the

role of SHGs in empowering rural women by conducting a study in A.P and

Karnataka by taking 240 members from 48 Women Dairy Co –operative

Societies. He gives stress to the view that SHG’s led credit delivery system

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 31

has down seeds for a self-reliant economy inculcating a business culture

among rural women. It also develops concern for community development and

brings social and economic mobility among poor women.

Shalu Nigam (2001) in his study discloses the factors which break the

traditional family structure. They are consumerism, migration, urbanization,

liberalization and the like socio-economic changes, which led to apparent evils

of insecurity, domestic violence and increased rates of divorce. Empowerment

of society and enrichment of the family can be accomplished only through

empowering women.

Baruah (2002) in his article titled “Women: Vital Resource” opines that women

must realized their hidden potentials and should participate actively in policy

formulation and implementation, which help them to contribute their maximum

in the development process. He identifies 4four factors viz– individual,

organizational, societal and cultural – which hinders the advancement of

women.

Narin and Anju (2002) in their paper titled ‘Finding to groups- Is it

worthwhile?” recognizes the importance of group finance which provides self–

reliance and security among borrowers. They find that the group finance

improves borrower participation, financial responsibility and encourage them

to undertake group activities in areas other than credit. The group members

develop increased confidence and particularly for women, the process leads to

social empowerment.

Sujit and Ghosh(2002) in their study in Namoor block of the Birhum district in

the state of West Bengal state that even after introduction of massive poverty

eradication programmes like IRDP, the conditions of the female headed

households did not improve much. Further, only economic measures alone

Chapter -2

 32

can’t eliminate all the evils; they should be supplemented by social actions

also for alleviating deprivation of female headed households.

Reddy (2002) in his paper titled “Empowering women through self-help

groups and Micro-credit. The case of NIRD Action Research Projects”

affirms his view that the NIRD action research groups, by utilizing micro-

credit as a main intervention have initiated a range of economic and social

development activities which created positive impact on the status of women

in their households and communities. However, in the context of bridging

gaps in gender inequality, increasing attention is being paid to enable women

to become active partners in decision making, implementation and evaluation

of all interventions.

Christabell (2003) in a study among women entrepreneurs opines that work

related training programmes should be arranged by micro financial

institutions. Technical advice for the marketing of products as well as for

quality improvement should be ensured. Proper attention should be given

while designing EDPs so that they should suit the requirements of women

entrepreneurs.

Jameela (2003) in her study to examine the effectiveness of various policies

and programmes implemented by the government in empowering women

points out that micro-credit approach was successful not only for alleviating

poverty but also for empowering women. It further enhances their self-esteem

and confidence which in turn helpful in building the capacity of the poor

women in managing self-employment opportunities.

Archana Sinha (2004) in her study titled “Micro-Finance for women’s

empowerment’ finds micro-finance as an effective instrument for women

empowerment. It can contribute to solve the problem of inadequate housing

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 33

and urban services. She suggests a system of ‘multipurpose composite credit’

for making the SHG concept more effective.

Meenakshi Malhotra (2004) in her book entitled “Empowerment of women”

examine the potential of micro-finance programmes for empowering and

employing women and discusses the opportunities and challenges of using micro-

finance to tackle the feminization of poverty. She express the view that the

micro-finance programmes are aimed to increase the income levels of women

which ultimately lead to economic independence and enabled the women to have

more social network, access to information and possibilities for development of

social and political roles. They also enhance perceptions of women’s

contributions to household income and family welfare and increase women’s

participation in house hold decisions about expenditure and other issues.

Rimjhim Mousumi (2004) in a study in Sambalpur district of Orissa to identify

the role of micro – finance in empowering the rural poor, finds that credit for

consumption is unavoidable for the rural mass. He opines that expecting income

generating activities from the rural poor without providing for food and cloth is

unrealistic and so fulfilment of basic needs of the people is indispensable and

hence the SHGs should give prime importance to this matter.

Vasudeva Rao (2004) in an article on emancipation of women through self-

Management tried to measure the qualitative changes that the ‘group

approach’ has brought in the lives of women and points out that the changes in

the lives of women, that have occurred in “before” and “after” stage in the

group are encouraging but not adequate. He suggests starting of additional

micro enterprises for the survival of the groups, spreading awareness of

empowerment through regular group meetings and more exposure to the

women.

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Kochurani (2005) identifies women empowerment as a process of awareness

and capacity building which enables them to fully utilize their creative

potential leading to a greater participation and decision making power so as to

lead a meaningful life with all its dignity. In the final stage of women

empowerment, they feel that they would be treated as equals in all spheres of

life. Instead of remaining in a stage of beneficiaries they should grow into a

stage of becoming critical agents of development. She argues that empowered

women are like social capital for the economy. Creation of such social capital

is the resultant change that should be followed by the conscious effort from the

part of government, voluntary and charitable agencies to move towards the

goal of women empowerment.

Parameswaran (2005) in his book entitled “Empowering people – insights

from a local experiment in participating planning” analyzed the role of SHGs

in participatory and sustainable development planning in Kannur district in

Kerala State claims that women in SHGs have become more confident in

decision making process and conflict resolution. Further, in matters like

management of micro-finance, banking-operations and book-keeping, the

women in SHG perform well.

Sahu and Tripathy (2005) in their study on self-help groups and women

empowerment concludes that SHGs have emerged as the most vital instrument

in the process of participatory development and women empowerment. The

rural women are the marginalized groups in the society because of socio-

economic constraints and so they remain backward always. Through micro-

finance and formation of self-help groups, they were emerged as empowered

group by lifting themselves from the morass of poverty and stagnation.

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 35

Dube (2006) in his paper on “Need to Empower women to End

Discrimination” high lights the subordinate status of women in the male

dominated Indian Society. He points out that women’s work is not being

counted in the national income- though house work is production; not

consumption and it should be included in the income accounts. He

emphasized on the need of identifying and eliminating the obstacles for

developing micro-enterprises to enhance the income of female entrepreneurs.

He also argues for the need of shifting the existing strategies and to make

women economically empowered.

Harider Rizvi (2006) in his paper on empowering women through reservation

in urban local bodies refers to the 74th Amendment Act which provided one

third reservation of seats for women in urban local bodies. He gives an

example of Ghazipur Municipality of U.P and finds that only a few women are

active in politics in urban local bodies though there is significant change over

the period. He presents a package of recommendations for women

empowerment in urban local bodies. The suggestions include capacity

building, engagement of women in municipal services and functioning,

encouragement and promotion of caste and religion based professions and

economic activities, regularization of bazaars and meals, access to market,

information and self-help groups.

Ramesh (2006) in a study in a backward district of Mahabubnagar in

Telangana Region to assess the qualitative changes in the lives of rural women

by developing micro-enterprises points out that women’s emancipation

obviously depends on their qualitative participation in self Help groups, and

GramaSabhas. Further, it will be truly meaningful if their economic

empowerment is also ensured to enable the poor women to lead a decent,

prosperous and respectable life.

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Renu Shankar and Suman Lal (2006) in their paper titled “women

Empowerment in urban Administration: Role of NGOs” argue that education

and economic independence are the only methods of women empowerment.

When these two are achieved, then only the dream of having women

politicians and parliamentarians in a country can be achieved.

Singh (2006) in his paper titled “Participation and empowerment of women

(The gaps and the Biases)” focuses on three types of biases. They are 1) bias

against gender, 2) bias against equality and 3) bias against education. He

reiterates the importance of the involvement of women in decision making

which starts from the family and goes up to the Parliament. Therefore 1/3

participation of women is the need of the hour. He states that by empowering

women, we are not favouring the women, but we are favouring the society.

The second and third biases relate to regional and social imbalance which can

be rectified through education, training, group discussion and seminars.

Sreedharan (2006) in his research paper on empowerment of women micro

entrepreneurs under SHGs states that the economic empowerment of women

in terms of income is at low level as the incremental income is less than `1500,

which is targeted by the Kudumbashree mission as the minimum income to be

earned per month.

Abdual Samad (2007) in an article on women empowerment and Panchayati

Raj Institutions in Kerala identify both favourable and unfavourable factors

affecting the political empowerment of women in Kerala state. He opines that

experience in political service, women reservation bill, interest in politics,

encouragement from party and family etc. act as favourable factors for

empowerment while role conflict, health problems, time, religion etc. act as

constraints. However, the study concluded that women in Kerala have not

Literature Review

 37

much unfavourable elements which prevent them from entering into politics.

Kerala has become a model to others in gender justice and hundreds of women

in Kerala have attained political empowerment.

Jairam Ramesh (2007) in his study stated that SHGs, the major form of

delivery of micro finance in India, have brought about dramatic changes in the

lives of lakhs of women. In A.P, where the government has been a strong

supporter, they have done beyond the provision of credit and assumed many

non-traditional responsibilities leading to economic independence.

Kavitha and Nata (2007) in their article on gender discrimination with

malnutrition opine that women’s empowerment programme do not always

address nutrition or food security, but they promote sustainable livelihoods –

by empowering women through knowledge and awareness and access to key

resources that can facilitate their livelihood activities; thus giving women an

opportunity to meet their basic needs.

Vinayagamoorthy (2007) in his study related to economic empowerment of

women in the northern Tamil Nadu, states that the SHGS in the studied

villages were functioning very successfully. The study revealed that income

of the women has increased after joining the SHGs, so that the monthly house

hold expenditure has also increased considerably. However, the rate of growth

of savings is slow because the incremental expenditure is high and the major

share of the income is spent on consumption need. Since the repayment of

loan was regular and timely, he concludes that the economic activities of

SHGs were successful leading to empowerment.

Beena George (2008) in her study among the rural women for measuring

empowerment through Microfinance finds that the economic independence

and freedom acquired by women through micro-finance activities contributed

Chapter -2

 38

significantly in changing the life styles. Majority of the respondents perceive

changes in their roles in the families and in the society. There is significant

difference in the gross annual family income before and after joining women

in self-help groups. The respondents generally feel that income generation is

essential for their empowerment.

Gladis Mary (2008) in a study among SHGs conducting jasmine cultivation in

Ernakulam district in Kerala concludes that after forming SHGs, the women

attained economic independence. They have freedom in spending their

earnings. In addition to that, significant increase was noticed in matters like

self-confidence and health matters. The attitude of their husbands was also

changed.

Lathika (2008) in her study in the rural areas of Kerala state for assessing

the empowerment of women through kudumbashree project concludes that

empowerment can arrest the deterioration of the mental state of women.

Kudumbashree has made its mark in threading a new route to women

empowerment. She claims that vulnerability of women can become an

unsung saga if kudumbashree put on its mettle in the right perspective.

Palani and Selvaraj (2008) conducted a study in Tirunelveli district in Tamil

Nadu for assessing the impact of SHGs on women empowerment. For this, 72

respondents from 12 villages were selected randomly and it was found that

SHGs play a major role in transforming the weaker section (women) into

worthy people with modest earning capacity. Though there are many schemes

by the government for the upliftment of women, SHG concept is worthy and

productive to change the status and self-respect of the women. After

membership, the women become independent to meet their personal

expenditure and they contribute more to their household income. Major share

Literature Review

 39

of loans taken from SHGs were utilized for pursuing income generating

activities.

Ruby (2008) in her study about micro finance and women empowerment notes

that women empowerment is critical to the process of development of the

economy. It plays a crucial role in the alleviation of poverty and in the all

round progress of the nation. Kudumbashree project in Kerala has been

instrumental in empowering the members through micro-financing.

Kudumbashree at the NHG level have enhanced their saving habit and access

to credit.

Sneha Gopee Krishna (2008) conducted a study in Kumarakom GramaPanchayat

in Kerala State for evaluating the role of micro finance in fostering women

empowerment and the major findings are:

There is an upward trend in the growth rate of SHGS and micro-

financing bank linkage programme.

There is a move on the part of all political/religious groups to

possess the members of the SHGs and used them for their

advantage.

Women, at the advice of the men at home and friends, seem to

prefer lending out the loan amount for higher interest than getting

themselves involved in any other IGAS.

They fall easy prey to the bad effects of consumerism and catch

hold of every opportunity to make a show off their proud

possessions.

Chapter -2

 40

Subbalakshmi (2008) in her study in Poondi village in Tamil Nadu for

assessing the impact of microfinance in empowering rural women reveales

that –

1) Micro-credit programmes increase the ability of women to buy

things independently and make them economically secure.

2) Through their role in the SHG, the community even looked at them

as leaders and decision makers.

3) The path to women’s empowerment is full of stumbling blocks.

Having to shoulder complete responsibility for house hold work and

child care in addition to paid employment, many women

entrepreneurs are unable to participate in training programmes/

entrepreneurial activities.

Susy Paul (2008) in her study titled ‘Impact of SHG – Bank linkage

programme on empowerment of rural poor in Kerala’ concludes that

Kudumbashree units in Kerala played a major role in employment generation

and imparting useful training to its members. The structural set up and

association with different external agencies enabled Kudumbashree units in

attaining their objectives.

Tulika Chandra (2008) in a paper titled “Institutional support for women

empowerment in India – Special Reference to Mahila co-operative Bank”

gives a detailed account of the concept of empowerment. The paper briefs on

the institutional interventions by the government, the NGOs, SHGs and the

financial institutions for the women empowerment in India. The major

objective of the study was to analyse whether the organizations that are led by

women for women respond to women’s needs and help in their empowerment

and the author concludes the study with the following suggestions.

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a - More active and genuine support of government.

b - More women co-operative banks, especially in rural areas.

c - Effective awareness programme for women regarding their rights

and training facilities for upgrading managerial capabilities of

women.

d - Effective linkage between various institutions like the

Government, NGOs, Bank and the SHGs.

Khari (2009) conducted a case study in Tamil Nadu reveals that given the

proper assistance and guidance, the women led SHGS bound to make not only

a sea change in empowering women but also tap the hither to unutilized power

of women for sustainable development of the society as a whole. Impressed by

the activities of the SHG, the Vellore district Rural Development agency and

SBI provided credit to the SHG with which it acquired 1.5 acres of land on

lease and cultivated flower plants and start marketing flowers directly at

Chennai without middle men, thus earning substantial profit.

Munian (2009) in his paper titled “Micro-Finance and Poverty Reduction:

Analytical Issues”, opines that the SHG – Bank linkage approach is found to

be an effective instrument by which very poor people can access hassle free

formal credit without any collateral security and simultaneously improve their

thrift habits. The approach also contributes to a social empowerment of the

women.

Reddy and Narasimabalan (2009) conducted a study among 990 SHGs in

Tirupati in Chittoor district in A.P, to identify the role of SHGs on urban

poverty eradication find that the linkage between different approach towards

development, poverty reduction and empowerment must be correlated and

Chapter -2

 42

SHG activities are crucial in making changes in the lives of women. However,

the study revealed that women’s participation in decision making outside the

SHG is still

Roona (2009) in her study conducted in Chakia block in Varanasi, to examine

the role of ‘MahilaSamakhya’ (MS) in the political empowerment of the

elected representatives points out that –

1) The MS has provided a forum to women for discussing their

problems and gave them an opportunity to develop common

strategy to encounter challenges affecting their life.

2) Women enjoy a respectable status within their families after getting

elected to the Panchayats.

3) Women leaders in the Panchayati Raji are transforming local

governance by sensitizing the state to the issues of poverty,

inequality and gender injustice.

4) Women are encouraged and even prepared by MS to express their

point of view openly and fearlessly in ward sabha meeting.

(MS is a programme which was formulated in pursuance of the

National Policy of Education (1986) initiated in 10 districts of U.P.

The basic objective of the programme is to create a mechanism

whereby women are given an opportunity to plan and monitor their

own education and thereby to reach out to a new body of

knowledge).

Shidaganal (2009) in a study observed the impact of Strishakti SHG scheme

on the participation of women in Panchayat institutions and states that the

scheme would help the women not only in improving their socio economic

Literature Review

 43

status but also to create the awareness about their rights. It will bring

additional changes in the outlook of women members and help in realizing

their own intrinsic strength. Due to the awareness of the public grievances and

improvement of the communication skill by the involvement in SHGs, women

are able to raise public issues like construction of sanitary latrines, smokeless

chullas, providing of public lights and drinking water facilities in

GrammaSabha meetings.

Pitta Usha (2010) conducted a study in the coastal region in Andrapradesh to

examine the working of SHGs and efficiency of SHG approach to micro-credit

in empowering poor women. The study reveales that participation of women

in SHG activities changed their self-image, enhanced access to information,

skills, organizational and collective action. It helps to have negotiations with

government and other institutions, thus widening their social network. Thus

from situation of powerlessness or disempowerment, the women progressed

economically, socially and eventually emerged as political leaders.

Neeta Tapan (2010) in a study among 300 women from 150 SHGs scattered in

different blocks in Ujjain district (A.P), to evaluate and assess the level of

economic independence attained by SHG women and the contribution of SHG to

social change and rural development, reveals that inspite of the severe socio-

economic constrains in rural areas, SHGs in the study area have contributed

significantly to the empowerment of women which are reflected in their improved

status in the family, improved communication skills, awareness about financial

transactions and participation in income generating activities. The SHGs are bold

enough to address the structural inequalities in which women are located.

Sasikala and Uma (2011) in their study titled “Women empowerment through

SHG – A study” examine the role of micro finance and SHG in the

Chapter -2

 44

empowerment of women of Hunsur Taluk in Mysore district, Karnataka,

conclude that after joining SHGs, women acquired collective strength for fight

against social evils. Their self confidence and self-esteem reflected in their

decision making process which ultimately resulted in the socio-economic

development of the village.

Some of the important changes noticed are –

Increased access to resources and local group activities.

Enhanced decision making capacity.

Readiness to fight against social evils.

Responsibility for soci-economic development of the village.

Increased self-esteem and confidence.

Research Gap

The studies relating to women empowerment reveal that women

empowerment is a process aimed at making positive changes in the lives of

women through certain mechanisms like SHGs, NGOs, women led agencies

and the like. Studies relating to women empowerment through kudumbashree

also reveal the same results. Kudumbashree is an innovative model of women

empowerment designed by the government of Kerala and has its operations in

each and every district. But an exclusive study considering both the rural and

urban areas of Ernakulam district has not been done so far. Further, the

quality as well as the functioning of NHGs and the assessment of the

economic, social and political empowerment of its members has not been

adequately analyzed. The constraints faced by the women both as

kudumbashree members and other wise and their insights regarding women

empowerment were not adequately considered in the previous studies. The

present work is an attempt in that direction.

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References

[1] Lawrence Bobo and Franlin D Gilliam Jr, “Race, socio political

participation and Black empowerment. “The American Political

Science Review, American Political Science Association. Vol.84, No.2,

June 1990, pp. 377-393

[2] Rajamma G, “Empowerment through income generating projects”,

Focus on Gender, Vol.1, No.3, October, 1993, pp.53-55.

[3] Kalpagum U, Labour and Gender: Survival in urban India, New

Delhi:Sage publications,1994, pp. 240-242.

[4] Karl M, Women and Employment. Participation and Decision making,

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