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List of acronyms
Organizations
CCGG: CMDL Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases CGEIC: Canadian Global Interpretation Center CLRTAP: Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution CMDL: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory CNES: French National Center for Space Studies CNRS: French National Center for Scientific Research CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ECMWF: European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting EEA: European Environment Agency EMEP: Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Longrange Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe EPA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ESA: European Space Agency FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations) FRSGC: Frontier Research System for Global Change FSU: Former Soviet Union GEIA: Global Emissions Inventory Activity GMCC: NOAA Geophysical Monitoring for Climate Change laboratory HATS: CMDL Halocarbon and Other Atmospheric Trace Species lEA: International Energy Agency IGAC: International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project IGBP: International Geosphere-Biosphere Program IIASA: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis INPE: Brazilian National Institute for Space Research INST AAR: Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change NASA: US National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASDA: Japanese Space Agency NCEP: US National Center for Environmental Prediction NOAA: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development RIVM: National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, The Netherlands SEP A: State Environmental Protection Administration, China SU: Soviet Union TNO: Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research
518
UEA: University of East Anglia UN: United Nations
Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
UNDP: United Nations Development Program UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USDA: United States Department of Agriculture USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency USGS: United States Geological Survey WWF: World Wildlife Fund
Satellites or satellite experiments
ADEOS: Advanced Earth Orbiting Satellite AIRS: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ATSR: Along Track Scanning Radiometer sensor A VHRR: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer BIRD: Bi-spectral infrared detection CALIPSO-CENA: Cloud Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation ENVISA T: ENVIronmental SATellite EOS : Earth Observing System ERS: European Remote-sensing Satellite GOES: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite GOME: Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment IMG: Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ISCCP: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project MIP AS: Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding MISR: Multi-Angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer MLS: Mesospheric Limb Sounder MODIS: Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MOPITT: Measurement of Pollution in the Troposphere OMI: Ozone Monitoring Instrument PARASOL: Polarization and Anisotropy of Reflectances for Atmospheric Sciences Coupled with Observations from a Lidar POES: Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite POLDER: Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectance SAGE: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment SAM: Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement SCIAMACHY: SCanning Imaging Absorption spectroMeter for
List of Acronyms
Atmospheric CHartograph Y SEA WIFS: SEA viewing Wide FIeld-of-view Sensor SPOT: Systeme pour l'Observation de la Terre TES: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer TOMS: Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer TOVS: TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder UARS: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
Other
2-D: two-dimensional 3-D: three-dimensional AFEAS: Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study AGA: ALEIGAGEI AGAGE AGAGE: Advanced GAGE network AI: Aerosol Index ALE: Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment AMVER: Automated Mutual Assistance Vessel Rescue System AOD: Aerosol Optical Depth ATHAM: Active Tracer High resolution Atmospheric Model BIBEX: Biomass burning Experiment CAA: Clean Air Act, USA CAT: Coastal Aerosol Transport model CCN: Cloud Condensation Nuclei CEC: Cation Exchange Capacity CEM: Continuous Emissions Monitoring ChI: Chlorophyll COADS: Comprehensive Atmosphere Ocean Database CORINAIR: CORINE AIR emissions inventory CORINE: Coordination d'Information Environnementale COSPEC: Correlation Spectrometer CPU: Central Processing Unit CRF: Canopy Reduction Factor CTM: Chemistry-Transport Model DNDC: Denitrification-decomposition model DOC: Dissolved Organic Carbon
519
DOE-CDIAC: Department of Energy-Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
520
DOT: Dust Optical Thickness DVI: Dust Veil Index ECD: Electron Capture Detection
Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
EDGAR: Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research EF: Emission Factor EUROTRAC: European Experiment on Transport and Transformation of Environmentally Relevant Constituents EXPRESSO: EXPeriment for Regional Sources and Sinks of Oxidants FID: Flame Ionization PIS: Fast Isoprene Sensor FPAR: Fractional Photosynthetically Active Radiation FTIR: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy FWI: Fire Weather Index GAGE: Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment GC: Gas chromatography GCM: General Circulation Model GENEMIS: GENeration and Evaluation of EMISsion data GIS: Geographical Information System HAP: Hazardous Air Pollutant HYDE: History Database of the Global Environment IAE: Indirect Aerosol Effect IDDI: Infrared Difference Dust Index ISCCP: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project IVI: Ice core V oIcanic Index KIE: Kinetic Isotope effect LAI: Leaf Area Index LBA: Large-scale Biosphere Atmosphere Experiment LFSM: Landscape-fire-succession model NAPAP: U.S. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program NDIR: Non-Dispersive Infrared Analysis NEI: US National Emission Inventory NT!: National Toxics Inventory nM: nmol rl NPP: Net Primary Production PAR: Photosynthetically Active Radiation PBL: Planetary Boundary Layer PFT: Plant Functional Types PID: PhotoIonization Detector PM: Particulate Matter
List of Acronyms
POP: Persistent Organic Pollutants PTR: Proton Transfer Reaction QBO: Quasi Biennial Oscillation RAINS: Regional Air Pollution Information and Simulation Project RGD: Reduction Gas Detectors SNAP: Selected Nomenclature for Air Pollution (UNECE/CORINAIR) SOM: Soil Organic Matter TCD: Thermal Conductivity Detection TDLS: Tunable Diode Laser Spectroscopy Tgdm: Teragrams of dry matter THC: Total hydrocarbon TPM: Total Particulate Matter TSP: Total Suspended Particulates UV: ultra violet V AI: Volcanic Aerosol Index VEl: Volcanic Explosivity Index VSI: Volcanic S02 index WFPS: Water Filled Pore Space
521
List of chemical species
BC: Black carbon BVOC: Biogenic Volatile Organic Compound CBrCIF2: Halon-1211 CBrF3: Halon-13Ol CCI4 : carbon tetrochloride CH3Br: methyl bromide CH3CI: methyl chloride CH3CFCI2: HCFC-141 b CH3CF2CI: HCFC-142b CH4 : methane C2H4 : ethylene (ethene) C2H6: ethane C3H6: propylene C3HS: propane CsHs: isoprene C IOH 16: terpenes (e.g., a-pinene) CFCI3: CFC-ll CFCs: chlorofluorocarbons CF2CI2: CFC-12 CF2CICFCI2: CFC-113 CF3CH2F: HFC-134a CHCb: chloroform CH3CCh: methylchloroform CHCI3: chloroform CHF2CI: HCFC-22 CO: carbon monoxide CO2: carbon dioxide DMS: dimethyl sulfide (CH3SCH3)
DMSO: dimethylsulfoxide (CH3SOCH3) DMSP: dimethylsulfoniopropionate H2: hydrogen HCHO: formaldehyde HCFC: hydrochlorofluorocarbons HFC: Hydrofluorocarbons H02: hydroperoxy radical MBO: 2-methyl-3-buten-2-o1 N20: nitrous oxide NH3: ammonia
524 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
NO: nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide) N02: nitrogen dioxide NOx: Nitrogen oxides (NO + N02)
NOy: odd nitrogen 0 3 : ozone OC: Organic carbon OCS: carbonyl sulphide OH: hydroxyl radical PAN: PeroxyAcetyl Nitrate (peroxyacetic nitric anhydride) Pb: lead PFC: Perfluorocarbons PM2.s: Particulate Matter with diameter < 2.5 f.lm PM IO: Particulate Matter with diameter < 10 f.lm PPN: peroxypropionic nitric anhydride SF6: sulphur hexafluoride VOC: Volatile Organic Compound
Index
activity data 22, 30, 39,42, 52 activity rate 18,24,59 aerosol index 249, 251, 256, 445 aerosol optical depth 91, 262, 333 agricultural fires 72, 76, 87,94,99, 104 ammonia 37,171,180,182,189 advective transport 6,324,451,479,481,485 air-sea exchange 305, 321 ash 270, 273, 283 atmospheric chemistry 14,75,123,146,158,172,213,279,334,361, 386, 428 atmospheric models 6, 8, 14, 27, 39, 115, 131, 305, 448, 478, 483 biofueI35,51, 73, 79,87,94,99 biogenic aerosols 116, 153, 156 biomass burning 9, 11, 31, 48, 71, 76, 94, 175, 250, 253, 283, 365, 374, 381, 387, 393,500 biomass density 77,86, 100, 104 bottom-up approach 18,28,52, 76, 80, 102,458,469,503 burnt biomass 76, 80, 86, 95 canopy models 207 carbon monoxide isotope 404 carbonyls 149 charcoal 72, 81, 88, 99 chemodenitrification 171 189 195 204 chlorophyJI 116, 137,239,306,309,312,317,327 cloud condensation nuclei 2, 153, 333 CMDL network 102,430,435,437,440,452,454,458,463 CO isotopes 384 convective transport 4, 6, 101, 324,479 cosmic rays 385 data assimilation 477,484,487,508 deforestation 35, 74, 175 denitrification 8,171,177,187,192,195,204,214,398,404 dry deposition 4, 7, 171, 175, 191, 199, 207, 218, 251, 278 ecoregions 121, 124, 145 EDGAR inventory 22,29,34,41,56,75,87,324,340,347,469 EMEP inventory 19,37,41,376,379 emission factor 9,18,22,30,42,53,56,72,80,86,99,101,116,133, 142, 148, 151,243,249 emission model 14, 100, 116, 120, 129, 146,211,219 emission ratio 81, 467 EPA inventory 43,468 eruption column 276, 285
526
fire pixels 94, 103 flaming phase 81, 101,367 foliar density 127 FPAR 131 friction velocity 241,243,248 greenhouse effect 2, 284 halocarbons 13,436,440,459,466 ice cores 13,274, 279, 288, 458 indirect aerosol effect 333 injection height 73,88,90, 101
Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
inverse methods 102,427,458,477,484,498,500,598 isoprene 117, 122, 129, 132, 136, 141, 147 kinetic isotope effect 368, 387,401 land use 26,122,158,171,193,212,219 leaf area index 127, 158,217 methane isotope 362 mineralization 182, 184, 194, 205 monoterpenes 8,117,122,129,138,147,154 N-fixation 182, 183,204 nitrification 8,171,177,182,185,192,195,204,214,397,404,410 nitrous oxide isotopes 396 NSS-sulfate 325, 326, 327 PAR 129,133,137,143 phenology 128, 133 plant functional types 118, 121 radiative forcing 71, 78, 283, 287, 333,498 RAINS inventory 22, 48 roughness height 240, 241, 262 satellite observations 27, 75, 87, 94, 97,104,121, 131,239,244,260,273,290,307, 320,328,477,507 secondary organic aerosols 116, 153, 155 shipping 22, 27, 31 shrubs 86,127,144 smoldering phase 81, 85,101,367 soil erosion 246, 255 source sector 20, 24 sulphate aerosols 9, 272, 279, 282, 287, 305, 445, 457 top-down approach 18,52,102,173,411,427,451,459,469,504 tree inventories 124, 143 volatilization 174, 182, 189,193,199,215 volcanic indices 290 volcanism 283, 289 whitecap cover 334, 340, 344
Color Plates
3
- 2
The global mean radiative forcing of the climate system for the year 2000, relative to 1750
HaIOCatDOnS N.O Aerosols CH. r~----B-~--~A--------~,
CO2 QI~rom Tropospheric luel Mlnera. Ayialion~itMiuced
0%0IIfI bumlng
Stratospheric ozone
Oust ~ Solar
Biomass bumlng
Conttal)s Carrus
Lan<Iuse
(albedo) only
v ry Very Very Very Very Very Very Low Low Low Low LOW LOW Low
Lov 01 SClonlillc Unoorstond'"9
Plate I: Global, annual mean radiative forcing (Wm-2) for the period from pre-industrial (1750) to present (IPCC, 2001).
528 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
IOH CHrllllSTIrY
SIV.IQIIIJUt 1IOI0000ItI U ltOf~ a I..!JLj· nll
_otr
Ill11l1Sl1lUf
HDlllOCfHfCH.IS
¢:::::::> CH[M~~ AtlOSall<ltUII()!r
CAS.PHASI CH(/IIIlSflrY
Plate 2: schematic view of the main processes driving the chemical composition of the lower atmosphere. (Personal communication of M. Schultz, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany.)
Vessel Trame Volume
Very Low Low Mcdera\e
CtoIf* "._,.. co.oo&1IJ .... d "' .. '"_"'" kn -. "' .... dar; .... ""'9" "' ..... , \4OY
Hea.vy Very Heavy
Plate 3. International ship traffic for 1990 (adapted from Corbett et aI., 1999 and Skj0lsvik et al. 2000)
Color Plates
. 0 0.000 . 0.002 0.002 · 0.01 0 .01 · 0.02
. 0
0.02 · 0.1 0.1 ·0.2 0.2 ·1.0
. 1.0 .10.0
0 .300 · 3 0.0 · 0.003 3 · 10 0.003 . 0.030 . 10 · 30 0.030 · 0.300 30 · 900
..... .....
~.
, -
529
Plate 4: Global distribution of NO, (top) and CO (bottom) anthropogenic emissions in 1995. Source: EDGAR 3.2
530 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
.- ..... IMIOO - 00000 10000 - aeooo 1000 - 10000
"""' - """" JOOO - ISOO toO - 1000 zoo - .... 1. 00 - ~ M - 100 -- ...
Plate 5. European emissions of NO x in 1995 at 50 km grid resolution (Mg as N02)
Density Map of 1998 SULFUR DIOXIDE Emissions by County
Plate 6. Emissions ofS02 in the United Stated in 1998 (short tons/mile2). From EPA web site http://www . epa. gov/ttni chiefltrends.
Color Plates 531
Plate 7. The global distribution of ecoregions as assigned by the World Wildlife Fund ecoregion scheme. Each color represents a different ecoregion (over 850 ecoregions are assigned to the global land area) (Based on Olson et aI., 200 I) . For more information, visit http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions.
Eastern anada
lcerl1lhrlllll
QllerclIl alba
Liqllitlulllbar IO'radfllltl
PI('IIc1()/\II~{/ men:ie\'ii POplI/1I treml//oides
Pill II I ptllldemltl Picea spp
Jl/lllfll'i'II' o\{l'OIpcr/l/a II hies .If1f1
.jcer \'(/('c//(/rlllll
QllerClI1 rllbra
Pill/I' dlwlIlI
Urioc/cmlrtlll
Pil/us cOl/torla
T\II~(/ I/e/empl/rllll
Ahies cOl/color
Picea ellgelmall"ii
llllipi/ertl .1 hies W'lII1l1i1
PoplI/lI treml/loides Pilll/l ee/1l1i.1
QllerClI1 I'irgi"ia"a Ahie.\ lus;ocurpa
Pilll/l' hallksialla
11111/1l on Ie/eli/til"
Pilll/\ tlural/g.'/lIi,
PI/WI lIri:IIII;ClI
Qllerc//I 'pp
We t rn Canada
Picea IPP
PoplIllI, trelllllioide
Pinlls hunksiunu
Ahies 'PI'
T"ul{u 'PI'
Qucrcu\ rc\inoa
l'ill1l' IIIICII/IllI
kada ' pr
Plate 8. Dominant tree species by region in North America. Bold indicates high (> 10 J.lg C g-' hOi) VOC emission rates at standard (leaf temperature of30°C and PAR of 1000 J.lmol m-2
sol) conditions. Red indicates species adapted to warm sunny climates, green indicates temperate adapted species, and blue denotes species found in cool, or montane, climates.
532
Forest Isoprene (ug m·2 h·1)
tlso.tiso
0°·1000
1001 - 3000
3001-5000
5001 - 7000
7001 - 9000
9001 -11000
11001 -16000
16001 - 21000
Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
Plate 9. County-level isoprene emission rates (f..!g m-2 h-I) for midday summertime conditions (above-canopy 30°C and 1500 f..!mol m-2 S-I). The values have been averaged over the total forest land area (not over total land area) for each county in the United States (based on Guenther ct aI., 2000).
Color Plates 533
8.~ 8.15 7.15 7.5 7.75 8 8.25 8.5 8.75 •
Threshold lIe/aeit Y 11M}
Plate 10. Global map of threshold velocities over arid and semi-arid areas. Soil types were used to infer threshold velocities representative of the FAO soil types. The global FAO map was then used to affect the threshold velocities to soil types for other areas over the world.
180 o 90E 150 •
'. . r
180 o 9Clt 160
Ie-II ('·11 5e-11 Ie-IO 2e-IO 5e-10 1e-09 2e-09 5e-09
sourc(' StTl.'llgth f etor I. 9 ! rr-31
Plate 11. Global distribution of source strength factors (kg m-s S2) (C' in equation 3) derived by calibrating the model derived optical depth to the optical depth corrected from the TOMS aerosol index. The comparison was made for 1990 and these coefficients are weighted by the fraction of erodible land of each model grid box.
534
.2.
t.
1.
I ll. b:: w 0 .2. ...J « ~ 1. Q.
Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
GOBI DESERT
t •
KYZL KUW
.2.
o ~ ~~ ..... ~~~ __ ~~~~a
.2.
1.
1.
00 100 ~
JULIAN DAY
00 tOO
Plate 12. Time series of optical depth over the areas listed in Table 3 for 10 of the 12 deserts. The black line represents TOMS-derived optical dcpth corrected to account for wavelength and the altitude dependence of TOMS retrieved signal. The red line is the modelled optical depth. No cloud screening was applied on the model results.
Color Plates 535
Illl 22 t---- :n ----
17
• 7 12 , I 22 to I ' f I
" t-----~ ~~--.....,
~? t----------------------~
' 7
__________ __________
Plate 13. TOMS Aerosol distribution for 1990 (bold lines) and the orography of the Bodele Depression which lies south of the Tibesti and west of the Ennedi mountains. The blue area are lakes and the white spots are dry lakes or salt pans.
536 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
Plate 14: Active volcanoes from 1975-1985 (solid triangles) and sites with volcanic activity during the last 10,000 years (open triangles). Taken from Graf et al. (1997), based on McClelland et al. (1989), adapted by pennission of Prentice Hall.
Stratospheric aerosols (Lit.Um • • 1-3 y •• rs)
-
Plate 15: Schematic diagram of volcanic inputs to the atmosphere and their effects.
Color Plates 537
Reproduced with permission from Alan Robock (2000).
Kettle ond Andreoe (2000)
Plate 16. Comparison of predicted oceanic OMS concentrations from the work of Kettle and Andreae, 2000 (upper panel) and Kettle et aI., 1999 (lower panel) for the month ofOecember. Shaded areas denote regions where OMS is higher than 4 nM. Isolines are every 1 from 1 to 10nM.
538 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
-'
i . j J..~ ) ' L·_~L:_L.L 1 ~,.2,.L L~" .. LL"LLL,-L_'l ' Plate 17. Geographical coordinates of seawater samples used to establish the parameterizations of equations 1-3 (thick dots and lines: Mediterranean Sea (PROSOPE and DYFAMED projects), Atlantic Ocean (EUMELI and MARATHON projects) and Indian Sector of the Austral Ocean (ANTARES project)). Observations used to evaluate predicted sea surface DMSP and DMS levels (crosses and thin dots) are taken from the North Pacific Ocean (Aranami et aI., 2001), the Central and South Pacific Ocean (cruise ACE-I, Bates et aI., 1998), and the Indian Sector of the Austral Ocean (Sciare et aI., 1999).
DMS (K.nIr &. Andr~u. 2000)
jl
Plate 18. Fields of sea surface DMS concentration (nM) for January (upper panels) and July (lower panels). This work (left column) and Kettle and Andreae (2000) (right column).
Color Plates 539
Plate 19. The distribution of' global monitoring' sites in 2003. Large circles indicate sites that comprise the NOAAlCMDL Carbon Cycle Group Cooperative Air Sampling Network (the small connected symbols show the shipboard sampling tracts). Squares show the CSIRO sampling sites, and stars indicate sites in the WMO GA W. Several locations are used by two or more networks.
Plate 20: Species observed by current and planned satellite experiments
MlI50r TOMS GOME L\1G MOpm SAGE SCIA· MIPAS MRS TIS MLS HRDLS OMI 1JI MACHY
Lal(J)(:h 04195 I 10% 12'99 12.01 02102 02102 I OS 02 I 0104 0104 01 '04 0104 0, 6lm P 81.:m > 71..m _
OCIO I I j CO p I P > 8km CO, P I T I CH, 7lm NO
~>'~ NO, Slm -N,o > 71..m I H,Q P P Slm 7km
HNo, P HCOH HCN >8km BtO SO, _ 7km~ CFC-II I
cr~12 I 7km I
Near-real time P : vertical profile information Research mode T : tropospheric column by combining nadir and limb soundings Under special conditions only. Profile information from limb sounders (e.g. > 8 km)
540
30
20
10
o
.......
... ----
.... ... '" .. ...... ~ ................... , - ..... , -
Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
,."'.
- FROM AGA MEASUREMENTS
- - FROM INDUSTRY RELEASE ESTIMATE
. .... FROM AGARELEASE ESTIMATES
\, ... ..
..... ... .....
.... . ., ..
. .. .. .. ... . . - ..... .. .. .. .. ....... .
IRELANDNS WEST COAST S >.F SM.L
1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Plate 21. ALE/GAGE/AGAGE measured differences between annual mean CFC-12 mole fractions in Ireland, Barbados and Samoa (full lines, top to bottom) and those in Tasmania between 1978 and 2000. Thcse are compared against the differences calculated with the 12-box 2-D model (Cunnold et ai. , 1994) using the emissions estimated by McCulloch et ai. (2003) (dashed lines), emissions estimated from the AGA measurements (dotted line), and a lifetime of 100 years.
Color Plates 541
,900
fi ,800 -
1 i5~ ,700
1600
~<::>.
Plate 22. Smoothed, zonally-averaged representation of the global distribution of CH4 in the boundary layer for 1992-2001. Grid spacing is 10° latitude by I week. It is constructed from curves fitted to 43 sites in the CMDL cooperative air sampling network.
YEAR
Plate 23. Contour plot showing spatial and temporal variations in the growth rate of atmospheric CH4 for 1984-2001. Cool colors (blue, violet, and black) represent regions and periods of low growth rate; warm colors (yellow, orange, and red) identity high growth rate.
542 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
t 400 g
V)
~ .....
~ ! 200 0 ~ V)
YEAR
Plate 24. Industry estimates of the annual releases ofCFC-12 (full black lines) (McCulloch et aI., 2003). The green lines indicate release estimates based on atmospheric measurements by ALE/GAGEI AGAGE using lifetimes of 100 years with the effect of lifetime uncertainties, associated with an ensemble of model calculations reported in WMO (1999), indicated by the green error bars. The red diamonds show emission estimates derived using the same AGAGE model applied to CMDL flask sample measurements and the asterisks are based on CMDL RITS measurements. All the emission estimates have been smoothed over three year intervals in order to reduce the effects of measurement imprecisions.
Color Plates 543
o
30
o 110
o
o
Plate 25. Spatial error correlation structure at three HALOE data points (Reproduced from Menard and Chang, 2000).
544 Emissions of Atmospheric Trace Compounds
Assimilated Ozone, ppm Analysis Error, % MLS Measurements, ppm
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 4 8 12 16 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Assimilated Ozone, ppm Analysis Error, % MLS Measurements, ppm
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 (a)
4 8 12 16 (b)
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 (c)
Plate 26. Result of assimilation with the sequential method. Panel (a) analysed ozone, Panel (b) analysis error in percent, and Panel (c) ozone observations (Reproduced from Khattatov et aI., 2000)
. ' . ."': ... ~ . .. ~ .. .
'. .' ,. ~
Plate 27. MOPITT CO observations in molecules cm-2 x 10+18
I.'
1.2
0.6
0.0
Color Plates 545
5.06
•• !O
•• 00
1.!o
1.00
2.!o
2.00
1.!1O
1.00
O.!O
0.00
Plate 28. Assimilation of CO. Time average of total column amount depicted.
-1.000 -0.100 0.000 0.100 1.000 5.000 T gCH 41(gid yea r)
Plate 29. A comparison of inversion derived estimates of climatological CH4 sources and sinks (a posteriori minus a priori on a 8x 10 degree grid)
Copyright Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the following copyright holders, who have kindly provided permission to reproduce the figures indicated. Sources of figures are given in the References section of each chapter.
Chapter 1: Fig.l, from IPCC (2001), by permission of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Chapter 2: Fig.5, reproduced with permission of Norwegian Meteorological Institute/EMEPIMSC-W Chapter 10, Fig. 6 and Chapter 11, Fig. 11: reproduced with permission from Elsevier; Fig.7: reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons Limited. Copyright American Geophysical Union: Chapter 3, Fig. 6; Chapter 4: Figs. 3 and 4; Chapter 5: Figs. 1, 4 and 5; Chapter 6, Fig.2; Chapter 7, Fig. 2; Chapter 8: Figs. 1 and 4; Chapter 10: Fig. 3; Chapter 11, Figs. 8 and 12; Chapter 12: Figs. 2, 3 and 4.
