Lifelong learning and community development

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Lifelong learning and communitydevelopmentRosemary Moreland a & Tom Lovett aa University of UlsterPublished online: 09 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Rosemary Moreland & Tom Lovett (1997) Lifelong learning andcommunity development, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 16:3, 201-216, DOI:10.1080/0260137970160304

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INTERNATIONALJOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION, VOL 16, NO. 3 (MAY-JUNE 1997), 201-216

Lifelong learning and community development

ROSEMARY MORELAND and TOM LOVETTUniversity of Ulster

The terms community development and lifelong learning have been in use for several decades andrefer to different areas within the field of adult education. This paper sets out to explore therelationship between these two concepts. It examines the ways in which community developmentwork contributes to the development of an overall system oflifelong education. Recent writing onthe idea of the learning society points towards a more holistic view of education, whichacknowledges learning in all its forms and venues and which values the many and varied ways inwhich people learn. The nature of this rapidly changing society demands that individuals andcommunities take up this challenge, so that they can play their part in shaping the future. Thispaper is based on research which was carried out in the early 1990s, under the auspices of theCommunity Research and Development Centre, by one of the authors (RM) as part of a DPhilstudy. It was constructed with a view to exploring the need for a more holistic, integratedapproach to meeting the educational needs of those involved in adult education, communitydevelopment and community regeneration in Belfast. The research set out to investigate therelationship between the various forms of learning, through an examination of organizationsengaged in providing formal, non-formal and informal adult learning opportunities in Belfast.The results confirm that traditional providers of adult education no longer hold a monopoly overlearning and that there is an emerging sector of community and voluntary organizations engagedin providing learning opportunities for adults in their communities. There is some indication thatwhilst the relationship between traditional and non-traditional providers is complex, theopportunities for learning which they offer are complementary. The voluntary and communitysector emphasizes issue-based and action-oriented learning within a democratic, participativeculture. Non-formal providers often seek to support such groups, by providing more structuredlearning situations. Their programmes frequently offer an alternative adult education to that ofthe formal providers, who are more concerned with traditional 'liberal adult education'. Whilstformal providers may try to be more community-based, they are severely confined by theirbureaucratic, hierarchic structure. Informal providers, however, also offer opportunities for moreformal adult learning opportunities, through links with formal providers. The existence of thisnetwork suggests the basis for a system of lifelong education, which incorporates the range of adultlearning opportunities.

Whilst learning throughout life is not a new concept (Ireland 1979), it is one which hasbeen gaining considerable currency since the 1960s. The UNESCO Institute forEducation named lifelong learning as ' the master concept for education policies in theyears to come for both developed and developing countries' (UNESCO 1972: 182).Around the same time the International Commission on the development of Education

Rosemary Moreland has for the past ten years taught on a wide range of courses in adult education andcommunity development at the University of Ulster. She has carried out research into formal, non-formal andinformal learning opportunities in the community and in 1994 was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy in thisfield.Tom Lovett is Professor of Community Education and Director of the Community Research and DevelopmentCentre at the University of Ulster. He is also the founder and Chairman of the Ulster People's College, anindependent residential centre for cross-community education and development. Tom Lovett has beenactively involved in community education and community development for over 25 years and has writtennumerous books and articles on both activities.

0260-1370/97 $12·00 © 1997 Taylor & Francis Ltd

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202 ROSEMARY MORELAND AND TOM LOVETT

reached a similar conclusion when they stated that, ' the idea of lifelong education is thekeystone of the learning society' (Lengrand 1989: 9).

There would appear, however, to be some confusion surrounding the terms'education' and 'learning', with both terms being used interchangeably and withoutdistinction. Brookfield (1985) defines learning as an internal change, observablethrough external behavioural change, whilst he describes education as a process ofmanaging external conditions so as to facilitate this internal change. Reed andLoughran (1984: 2) make a similar distinction between the terms, describing educationas:

... any intentional, overt and organized effort to influence a person or group withthe aim of improving quality of life.

They state that learning is a larger concept, which includes education, since not alllearning is a result of education. They argue that much learning which occurs isunintentional and therefore lies outside the realms of education. Within these definitionsthen, lifelong education i s ' the principle on which the overall organization of a systemis founded' (Faure et al. 1972: 18), whilst lifelong learning is the process by which'individuals continue to develop their knowledge, skills and attitudes over their learninglifetimes' (Lifelong Learning Project 1978: 1). Lifelong learning is therefore the widestconcept, which includes, as one of its aspects, lifelong education.

Interest in the concept of lifelong learning has arisen from two main responses: firstfrom a criticism of traditional education and, second, from a recognition of the effectsof rapid changes on society. Cropley (1989) criticizes the education system forattempting to teach individuals between the ages of approximately six and 20 everythingthey need to know for life. He stresses the role of rapid change in society, suggesting that'we are all in a sense becoming "newly arrived immigrants" in our own societies...'(Dave, 1982: 349). Cropley (1989) proposes a new educational goal which would helppeople to learn how to learn and to learn how to cope with continuous change.

Others have argued that the traditional education system has always benefited themiddle class and look to lifelong learning as a concept which could improve conditionsfor the disadvantaged. Dave (1973) perceives it as a means of promoting greaterequality in society through the democratization of education which he views, along withmany institutions in society, as being unjust. He believes that a recognition of learningin all its settings would contribute to a disintegration of class distinctions in theeducation system. He seeks to give validity to the variety of ways in which people learn,recognizing the educative role of community:

The institutions of education like schools, universities and training centres, are ofcourse important but only as one of the agencies for lifelong education. They nolonger enjoy monopoly for educating people and can no longer exist in isolationfrom other educative agencies in the society. (Dave, 1973: 16)

Whilst proponents of lifelong education, for example Cropley (1989) and De'Ath(1989), focus on lifelong learning as a means of coping with and adapting to change,others, for example Dave (1973, 1982) and Gelpi (1978, 1979, 1980), perceive it to bea means of promoting a more democratic, egalitarian society. Ireland (1979) claims thatGelpi is critical of theorists who behave as if education were neutral and points to theneed to recognize the political and economic realities underlying the concept. This is amajor tension which exists in the field of lifelong learning. A further tension arisesbetween a focus on the individual and those who emphasize the importance ofindividual and collective development.

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LIFELONG LEARNING AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 2 0 3

Finally, some writing on lifelong learning is Utopian, putting it forward as a solutionto society's problems, whilst others fear its potential to become more manipulative andrepressive than the present education system. Illich and Verde (1976) expressed concernabout the form which such a system could take. As major proponents of the deschoolingmovement they are anxious that lifelong education would not become simply anextension of schooling, thereby lengthening the manipulation of the individualthroughout life and resulting in greater disadvantage for the working class.

Thus the theory of lifelong learning encompasses conflicting views about the natureof society and change, the problems with the education system and the implementationof a system of lifelong education. Despite these differences, lifelong learning can becharacterized by a number of principles around which there is general agreement. It isan attempt to de-institutionalize and de-monopolize formal education, thus endorsingall forms of learning which occur throughout society. It is not restricted to casual orinformal learning situations, but also includes more formal learning processes. Dave(1982: 35-36) provides the most explicit definition of the concept:

Lifelong education seeks to view education in its totality. It covers formal, non-formal and informal patterns of education and attempts to integrate and articulateall structures and stages of education along the vertical (temporal) and horizontal(spatial) dimensions. It is also characterised by flexibility in time, place, content,and techniques of learning and hence calls for self-directed learning, sharing ofone's enlightenment with others, and adopting varied learning styles andstrategies.

Formal, non-formal and informal learning

Implicit in many of the writings on lifelong learning is the recognition of formal, non-formal and informal learning as equally valuable aspects of the overall lifelong learningprocess. The concept of lifelong learning therefore can be broken into these three maincategories, which cover all possible learning situations. Formal education is thehierarchically structured system of learning carried out by educational institutions,which includes general academic studies as well as specialized and professional training(Ironside, 1989). Non-formal education is mainly perceived as any organizededucational effort outside that system, with identifiable clientele and learning objectives,whilst informal education is described as:

... the lifelong process whereby all individuals acquire attitudes, values, skills andknowledge from daily experience and from the educative influences and resourcesin their environment. (Ironside, 1989: 15)

Reed and Loughran (1984) conceive of learning as a vast system operating throughoutsociety, of which the largest part comprises informal settings. The education systemincludes all situations which have explicit goals linked to the learning process. In theirstudy of out-of-school education Reed and Loughran (1984) examined a range ofactivities which are not normally considered educational. Thus they claim that:

...adults learn new skills in order to qualify for better jobs, to solve personalproblems, or to enrich their lives in other ways. Simultaneously, education is amajor vehicle for collective growth and development. (Reed & Loughran, 1984:2)

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2 0 4 ROSEMARY MORELAND AND TOM LOVETT

Reed and Loughran (1984) claim that much purposeful learning does occur in thecommunity at this level, although it is not often acknowledged as education. Their studywas restricted to adults, perceiving this to be an aspect of the education system which ismore open to change. It may also be argued that adults who have been failed by thetraditional education system are in greatest need of opportunities for educationthroughout life. However, in the present rapidly changing society it is likely that alladults will require education at various stages of their lives. This is further supported bythe Council of Europe (1985) report on adult education and community development,which suggested that in the present environment of rapid change, adulthood cannot beviewed as a state of permanence but rather requires continual change and adaptivity.

It has been argued that this demands a different kind of learning, which thetraditional education system has so far not provided. It has further been pointed out thatthose disadvantaged in society are least equipped to deal with the problems broughtabout by rapid changes in society (Evans 1985, Gloster 1980, Council of Europe 1992).Until recently adult education has remained peripheral to the formal education system.Whilst some branches of adult education have concentrated on the more formal aspectsof education, others such as community education and community development haveexperimented with more innovatory kinds of learning. They have sought to reach outto those disempowered by society, attempting to link learning to the problems and issuesfacing people in their communities. Community development has close links withcommunity education and for some communities may be the starting point on acontinuum of lifelong learning.

Community education and community development

Community education is often perceived to be the most radical branch of adulteducation, although the practice often belies this belief. As a strategy, it is widely usedin areas suffering from social and economic exclusion although it occurs in a variety offormal, non-formal and informal settings. In the formal sector, it is often used as a meansof providing a more flexible approach to adult education, as an attempt to reach thoseadults who would not normally take part in adult education. In its non-formal setting,non-government agencies often provide structured learning opportunities, related tothe issues and problems facing people at the community level. At the most informallevel, a whole plethora of organizations and groups are involved in nurturing learningthrough community development and activity.

MacNamee et al. (1995) claim that there are strong links between communityeducation and community development, with the former often enhancing the latter.The summary report of the Council of Europe (1987: 13) on adult education andcommunity development has also suggested the important role which communitydevelopment can play in linking education with community activity:

... community education and development can provide prolific working answersto a decaying social fabric and an uncertain future.

Given the deep-seated nature of social inequalities in Europe, this comment appearsrather optimistic. It is nevertheless an indication of the growing acceptance of theeducational potential of community work activity. This would certainly appear to bethe findings of the nine community development projects undertaken on behalf of theCouncil of Europe, which spell out quite clearly that community development implies a

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LIFELONG LEARNING AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 205

different kind of learning from that obtained in the traditional education system: onethat perceives learners' reflections as the basis for knowledge; the relationship betweenthe tutor and learner as two-way; and the need for an understanding of the localcommunity (Council of Europe 1985).

That this is not a particularly new finding is indicated by Biddle's (1968: 191-194)claim that ' community developers should come to look upon themselves, not as nation-builders or as economic problem-solvers, but as educators'. Perlman and Gurin (1972:116) also suggest that Biddle (1968) identified community development work aseducation, although not in the formal sense but rather 'as a process of involving peoplein experiences from which they will learn ways of enhancing their capacity for self-directed activity'.

In a similar vein, Jackson (1970: 157) pointed to the importance of the link betweencommunity development and community education. He identified the learningcomponents of community development in the following way:

...methods of instruction and subject material to be learned rarely fit the pre-defined categories of teachers and course administrators. Groups of' students'develop at their own pace, in unpredictable directions which cannot be pre-defined by the teacher or administrator of formal courses'.

In some of his earlier work, Jackson (1970) claimed that a huge amount of deliberatelearning takes place in the community without the help of adult educators. In his laterwriting, however, he moved away from this position to focus on more deliberatelyeducational situations, which involved students in rigorous and intellectually chal-lenging study (Jackson 1980). Whilst we do not disagree that such education is bothvalid and useful, the purpose of the present paper is to highlight the range of learningopportunities available to adults in their communities and to argue that an informaladult learning sector exists, which enables people to engage with the issues and problemsfacing them and attempt to find solutions. In doing so, they are engaged in a deliberatelearning process and for many adults this activity can act as a catalyst for involvementin wider educational opportunities.

Brookfield's (1981: 26) study of self-directed learners in a working-class area ofEngland provides further evidence of the amount of deliberate learning which occursoutside educational establishments. His study (Brookfield 1981: 16), which was drawnfrom ' that range of people to be found in any neighbourhood who have come to beexpert in some area of interest', concluded that:

These independent adult learners are a submerged dimension of educationalactivity: encounters and exchanges were taking place without accreditation from,or recognition by, professional adult educators. It was as if the town in which mostof the subjects lived contained a parallel educational universe alongside the officialprovision of schools and colleges.

Brookfield (1981) calls for adult educators to acknowledge the importance of thisinformal education as part of a much wider network of lifelong, lifewide learning. Lovett(1989: 56-57) too has stated that ' Learning can and does happen all the time, casuallyand without supervision'. It would appear, then, that the learning which takes placewithin the field of community development is an aspect of lifelong learning.

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A learning society

More recently Belanger (1993) has pointed to the high increase in the social demand forlearning as a result of economic, demographic, social and cultural changes in society.However, he also stresses the link between this growing demand and initial learningachievements. Those with little success in the latter are not, he would argue, wellrepresented in much of the provision in this new learning society. This is echoed in therecent NIACE Annual Report:

Too often through 1994/1995 it seemed that policy commitment to a learningsociety was limited to the 70 % young enough and already well-educated enoughto be visible. (NIACE, 1995: 9)

In fact the major emphasis in research into the learning society in Great Britain seemsto be on how it can contribute to the development of knowledge and skills foremployment (ESRC 1995). Yet, although learning related to work is important and willcontinue to grow, there is also the demand created by new life experiences, social issuesand conflicts within Western societies. Belanger (1993) argues that this is the fastestgrowing sector of lifelong learning in a learning society; one which is issue based andconcerned with problem solving. It is also the aspect of lifelong learning which is mostlikely to be outside the territory of institutionalized adult education and more likely toinvolve disadvantaged adults. Community development and community education aretwo sides of a process which stresses the links between problem solving, adult learningand participation in finding solutions to modern issues and problems.

Belfast — a learning society?

Northern Ireland is a society where the concentration of new life experiences, socialproblems and conflicts is most acute. Yet it is also a society with a growing and dynamicvoluntary and community sector involved in attempting to find solutions to theseproblems (Lovett et al. 1994).

In an effort to test the hypothesis that this is, as Belanger (1993) suggests, the fastestgrowing aspect of the learning society, linking problem solving to lifelong learning atcommunity level, it was decided to take Belfast as a microcosm of the learning societyand to explore the responses of formal adult education institutions, voluntaryorganizations and community groups in the city to this lifelong learning challenge. Thecity is the focus for a great deal of community development work at local level, as wellas the centre for many voluntary organizations concerned with community educationand social issues and problems. The links between these large professional voluntaryorganizations and the community sector are very strong. This was the 'learningenvironment' that the project sought to explore. These were the organizations that did,or could, provide learning opportunities for disadvantaged adults in the city.

A survey was carried out on the providers of adult learning opportunities in theGreater Belfast area in order to test whether there exists, outside the formal educationalprocess, a growing sector of lifelong learning provision, which is concerned with issuesand problems. The survey further attempted to gauge whether the learning oppor-tunities provided by the formal education sector attempted to deal with issues andproblems facing people at the local community level. Finally, the survey sought toexplore the nature of the relationship between the various sectors of formal, non-formaland informal adult learning opportunities and whether they represented a straight-

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forward continuum from problem-centred learning activities at one end to formaleducational programmes at the other.

In order to do this a list was drawn up of all the educational bodies, voluntaryorganizations and community groups based in Belfast.1 Statutory providers ofeducation, for example further education colleges and outreach centres, werecategorized as providers of formal adult learning opportunities. Voluntaryorganizations whose main aim was education, e.g. the WEA, were classified as providersof non-formal adult learning opportunities. All other voluntary, charitable andcommunity groups were classed as providers of informal adult learning opportunities.This section comprised the bulk of the population surveyed and its size was so great incomparison with the other sectors that it was decided to divide this into two sections,comprising voluntary organizations and community groups.

In general, voluntary organizations operate on a scale larger than that of the localcommunity group. Often this is at a province-wide or nationwide level. Whilst someprovide support for local community groups, many focus on one specific issue, e.g.Gingerbread (one-parent families) or Simon Community (homelessness). Communitygroups tend to operate within a small geographic area and usually address a wide rangeof needs and problems expressed by the local community.

The community sector comprises community groups and associations, women andfamily groups, tenant and residents' associations. No replies were received from theresidents' and tenants' associations and a number of possible reasons can be postulatedfor this lack of response. First, the formality of the survey method may have deterredgroups from responding, a common feature of research into these groups (Taillon 1992).Second, the short life-span of many such groups could account for the high rate ofquestionnaires returned undelivered in this category. Often groups spring up inresponse to a particular problem and once that problem is either solved, or the interestwanes, the group disbands. Finally, these groups may not have been convinced of theirpart in the learning process and did not see the relevance of the questionnaire to theirwork, another common feature of research in this area (Reed and Loughran 1984).When these groups are discounted from the community sector, the response rate for thissector was comparable with those of the other sectors (approximately one-third).

The questionnaire consisted of 39 questions relating to the pedagogy and structureof organizations. In order to assess the contribution of providers of adult learningopportunities to issue-based problem-solving learning, this paper focuses on thoserelating to pedagogy, which dealt with the ideology, objectives and educational practiceof organizations. The questionnaires were directed to the head of the organization andprovide an insight not only into what such organizations provide by way of adultlearning opportunities but also the different priorities of traditional and non-traditionalproviders.

The results of the survey indicate that there are a wide range of community andvoluntary organizations engaged in an educational process who would not considerthemselves educational bodies.2 As was expected, all the formal and non-formalproviders perceived education to be an important aspect of their organization. A littlemore surprising is the fact that 87 % of voluntary organizations and 84 % of communitygroups also perceived education to be an important aspect of their organization.

These groups, however, appear to distinguish between education as an importantaspect of their organization and education as a function of their groups: 44 % and 62 %of voluntary and community organizations respectively indicated education as one ofthe functions of their organization. This would appear to suggest that some voluntary

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and community organizations perceive education to be important for themselves, interms of staff and members. Nevertheless, a significant proportion of the informal sectorappear to be in the business of providing education, thereby breaking the monopolywhich traditional providers have held over education for some time.

It has already been suggested that education has a very specific and, in some senses,limited function within the learning process. The questionnaire sought to discoverwhether organizations distinguished between the two, or whether they perceivedthemselves to be operating within this wide framework. The results indicated that whilsta significant proportion of voluntary and community organizations were involved inproviding education, a much greater percentage saw themselves engaged in a learningprocess (70% of the former and 84% of the latter). Formal educational bodies weremore likely to be involved in education per se than in a larger learning process, whilstnon-formal providers tended not to distinguish between the two. Indeed theirrelatively low involvement in both functions (60 % in each) may be explained by theirmuch greater interest in providing support for other groups (80%). This hypothesis isfurther borne out by the fact that this sector is most likely to encourage others to runcourses (100%).

The survey also examined the type of learning opportunities provided, to identifywhether any groups were engaged in issue-based education. Whilst formal bodies wereinvolved mainly in outreach work and widening access to education, non-formal andinformal organizations were more concerned with raising awareness of problems andissues. The results show that non-formal and informal bodies engaged in a wide rangeof issues such as housing, welfare rights, unemployment, family and cross-communityissues.

The survey also attempted to explore any differences between traditional and non-traditional providers in the delivery of education. The results indicate that educationprovided by non formal and informal bodies was more participative and learner-centred. Whilst there appeared to be overall agreement with the sentiment that tutorand learners are learners together, formal providers were least likely to involve learnersin constructing and teaching on courses, or carrying out research and reporting back.Indeed they were most likely to adopt the traditional approach of using textbooks andtaking notes. This indicates that non-formal and informal providers are more willing totake account of learners' experiences and bring them to bear upon the topic of study.

The results of the survey suggest that community and voluntary organizations areengaged in a learning process which is issue based and geared towards problem solving.Their current involvement in specific educational programmes attempts to takelearners' experiences into account as the basis for knowledge. At the community level asignificant proportion of organizations are concerned with individual and collectivedevelopment. Non-formal bodies also engage in issue-based education and oftenprovide support for local community groups. Whilst they are more specificallyeducational than voluntary and community groups, they link education with actionand academic achievement with practical experience. Non-formal and informal bodiestend to focus on those who are excluded from society, whereas formal bodies tend tofocus on education for professional development and training for the unemployed.Formal education espouses traditional methods of educational delivery, in which thetutor is the expert in control, and the content is pre-determined and is delivered in a'chalk and talk', non-participative manner. This synopsis of the pedagogical charac-teristics of providers indicates that there are very marked differences between formalbodies and non-formal and informal bodies.

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Table 1. Typology of adult learning opportunities

Pedagogy Formal Non-formalInformal

(voluntary)Informal

(community)

Ideology

Objectives

Education forprofessionals andtraining forunemployed

Outreach work

Learning/education Involved in wider learning processProvide support for Focus ondisadvantage disadvantaged/marginalizedgroups groupsRaising awareness of issues and problems (e.g. housing,welfare rights, unemployment, family and cross-community issues)

Widening access to educational institutionsPersonaldevelopment

Educational Traditional approachpractice using textbooks and

note-taking

Individual and collective development

Provide support for local groups atcommunity level to engage in issue-based education

Some learner Participative, learner-centred,participation encouraging learners to constructusing learners' and teach topicsexperiences but Uses learners' experiences as a basisacknowledging for knowledgeexternal sources ofknowledge

This typology summarizes the pedagogical characteristics of the different types ofproviders (see table 1). It highlights that whilst each type has a different role to play ina system of lifelong learning, there are also areas of overlap. Real-life situations are notas clear cut as models would lead us to believe. The survey method is limited thereforein its ability to reveal the true nature of the practice and it was hoped that a more in-depth study of providers from the formal, non-formal and informal sectors could give aclearer picture of the learning process which organizations are engaged in, and therelationships between the various sectors. In particular it was hoped that the case-studymethod would provide valuable insight into the extent to which the various sectors areoperating along a continuum of adult learning opportunities, and the contradictionswhich arise in the practice. This less formal method of research was also perceived to bemore appropriate for obtaining information on the most informal level of adult learningopportunities, namely the grass-roots community groups.

Three case studies were carried out in West Belfast, an area known for its high levelof deprivation (Rolston and Tomlinson 1988), as well as its prolific examples ofcommunity and adult education activity. Since the non-formal and informal providersindicate a focus on disadvantage this was a further reason for choosing West Belfast. Inparticular, it was felt that this would test the hypothesis that providers of formal adultlearning opportunities are incapable of engaging in issue-based, problem-solvinglearning.

The case studies attempt to illustrate the broad spectrum of community activity andfocus on the views of providers, in order to study their underlying ethos and drawconclusions about the type of learning opportunities they perceive themselves to beproviding. The formal sector is represented by the Whiterock Further EducationCentre, the non-formal sector by the Conway Education Centre and the informal sectorby the Divis Community Centre. The latter has access to grass-roots community groupsand provide a means of obtaining information on the learning process at this level.

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Formal adult learning opportunities — Whiterock Further Education Centre

During the period of study, the Whiterock Further Education Centre was part of theRupert Stanley College of Further Education.3 The main objective of the centre is toimprove employment prospects in the area, through basic education and training. Thecentre provides a wide range of day and evening classes, both full and part time,certificated and non-certificated. These courses range from basic literacy and numeracyskills, through training, vocational and leisure pursuits, to general progression in furtherand higher education. Whilst many of the courses are similar to those in any FE collegethis centre differs in its attempts to grant local people not only access to the centre butownership of the centre.

In order to develop the centre as a ' community base' the director has formed linkswith individuals, community groups and local businesses. It also provides culturalactivities for the area, through events such as Irish dancing, local plays, a Christmas fairand a Christmas dinner/disco. These events also help to raise the morale of the area andattract into the college those who would not normally take part in adult education. Inthis sense the centre is about not just education but the much wider process of learning,and perceives learning in its widest dimension, impinging on work, social and culturallife.

The Whiterock FE Centre attempted to engage with the issues and problems facingstudents, through some very imaginative and, in terms of traditional education, radicalinitiatives. These included an exam fund, which helped students to save for examinationfees; a creche committee, which was responsible for organizing the first creche in the FEsector in Northern Ireland and which succeeded in lobbying for a purpose-built crecheadjacent to the college; and a users' committee which held once-monthly open forummeetings for staff and students to share grievances and seek solutions to problems withinthe college.

The Whiterock FE Centre is a fairly flexible and genuinely sympathetic approach toadult education in an area of high social exclusion. The centre has retained aremarkable degree of autonomy from the mainstream college, which has enabled it toadopt a much wider approach to learning than is usual in a further education centre.The director of this centre was very keen to promote a learning culture in thiscommunity which has suffered many social injustices. As a means of empowerment sheattempted to give learners control over the learning process. However, the top-downbureaucratic structure within which the centre operates severely restricted the level ofdecision making in which students are able to engage. The latter initiative did notsucceed in its aim of enabling students to be represented on the Board of Governors andthus participate in decision-making strategies for the college.

This example of formal adult learning is somewhat unusual; its establishment wassurrounded by controversy and there was much will on the part of local authorities forit to succeed. The director was a very dynamic and enthusiastic adult educator, who wasas committed to the local community as she was to establishing the centre as a successfulFE centre. Her genuinely sympathetic approach to the needs of people in the area ledto much innovatory adult education. However, the hierarchic nature of thisorganization severely limited the extent to which it was able to address the issues andproblems facing people in their everyday lives.

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Non-formal adult learning opportunities — The Conway Education Centre

This centre is situated in a disused linen mill, along with a social club and training units.It was a grass-roots response to demands for adult education in the area (Irwin 1984)and developed from an expansion of the Springhill Community House, a voluntarycommunity education venture within West Belfast. The aims and objectives of theConway Education Centre have been greatly influenced by the Springhill CommunityHouse. Thus it attempts to provide adult education which is rooted in the cultural andsocial life of its community and encourages the valid expression of the experiencesthrough a range of media. It perceives the cultural activities which it provides to be aradical Irish working-class alternative to the dominant British middle-class culturalvalues of society at large in Northern Ireland.

The centre provides a wide range of certificated and non-certificated courses,ranging from hobbies and cultural activities to GCSEs and A levels. It worked inconjunction with the local Workers Education Association branch to run courses in thecentre, until the tutors were forced to withdraw, due to political vetting of the ConwayMill. This was brought about by a withdrawal of funding by government bodies for anygroups which were believed to have links with paramilitary organizations. RupertStanley FE College was also pressured into removing financial support, although manytutors continued to teach on a voluntary basis.

Although critical of the traditional education system, the Conway Education Centredoes not totally reject it and this is a tension which is highlighted by one of its foundermembers:

...it could be argued that to deprive those who want examinations of the chanceto take them is just as improper as to force those who do not want them to takethem. (Wilson 1978: 75)

However, whilst engaging in the provision of classes and courses, it is also aware ofeducation in a wider context relating to culture, employment and leisure and attemptsto link experience with theory. For example, English Literature students wereencouraged to attend plays in the city and other literary events. This can be animportant step for many people, who may never have entered a theatre before. A similarapproach occurred in a Psychology class, whereby students examining theories onlanguage and child development were encouraged to test these theories against theirown experiences of child-rearing, in order to ascertain their validity and usefulness.

Cultural activities often take the form of films, plays, book launches, discussions anddebates on topical and sometimes controversial issues. Frequently grounded in theexperiences and reality of the local people, these activities encourage working-class anddisadvantaged people to gain control over forms of media for which they are generallythe recipients. Several public enquiries have been held in the centre, one onunemployment and another on the role played by the Royal Ulster Constabularyduring disturbances at the Internment Day Rally, 12 August 1984. These enquiriessought to ask questions and demand answers by those who were directly affected by theissues raised. To a large extent, therefore, they offer disempowered people theopportunity to express their fears and concerns, whilst they acknowledge that theexperiences of individuals are the basis for knowledge.

Much important work being carried out by the Conway Education Centre wasseverely impeded by the Government's withdrawal of funding, which has only recentlybeen restored as a result of the peace process. At that time, a local councillor in a radio

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and television broadcast accused Conway Mill of' laundering Irish Republican Armymoney.4 However, a committee member stated:

Conway Mill was accused of being controlled by Sinn Fein, but in fact ConwayMill was the only place in town where anybody and everybody could have a say.5

Indeed a conclusion reached by a study of political vetting of community groups wasthat 'projects should be accepted on their own merit, rather than whether they arepolitically acceptable to the government of the day' and that where funds are to bewithdrawn, the project should 'know the evidence against it and have a right to answerspecific allegations' (Political Vetting of Community Work Working Party 1990).

Despite financial difficulties, and competition from the establishment of theWhiterock Further Education Centre, the numbers of students enrolling in courses inthe Conway Education Centre has continued to rise. Indeed for some the informalityand grass-roots origin of this centre is preferred to the greater formality and bureaucraticnature of the Whiterock FE Centre. It provides a wide range of learning opportunitiesand, although much of the formal programme is similar to that found in the WhiterockCentre, its overall ethos encompasses a much broader view of learning linked to theissues and problems facing people. One of the main strengths of this centre is its overtacceptance of education as political and the space it provides for traditional notions ofeducation to be challenged and alternatives to be created.

Informal adult learning opportunities — Divis Community Centre

The Divis Community Centre is set in one of the most severely deprived areas of WestBelfast. Built in 1968, the Divis complex housed 3000 people in under 15 acres and, oneyear later, problems of dampness and lack of ventilation were already being reported.It was not until 1986, however, after endless campaigns by residents, that demolition ofpart of the flats was finally announced. Against such a backdrop the Divis CommunityCentre was established in 1978, one of 21 community centres financed by the BelfastCity Council throughout the city of Belfast.

The Divis Community Centre seeks to serve the whole community, in its specificgeographical locality, through educational, recreational and cultural activities. It doesthis by engaging in various projects and allowing residents to make use of the centre fortheir own defined purposes. Thus groups using the centre operate largely under theirown ethos, independent from that of the community centre. Whilst education is animportant aspect of their work, this is perceived in terms of helping individualscollectively to improve their quality of life:

...we don't set out to educate other than within the business of communitydevelopment... we would try from time to time to make people look at why thingshappen.6

Besides liaising with various statutory authorities in the area the centre undertakesprojects with youth and the unemployed. In particular, it attempts to engage with thepolitical problems facing people through its community relations work. This occursthrough organizing groups of residents in the area to meet with others from a differentreligious/cultural background, e.g. a bowls tournament between the Divis Pensioners'Club and another Pensioners' Club from a Protestant area in Belfast.7 The cross-community work in which they engage illustrates the type of informal learningopportunities which the Divis Community Centre is capable of stimulating:

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LIFELONG LEARNING AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 2 1 3

I suppose in terms of people getting to know each other's fears and aspirations andproblems and, in particular, identifying where we have common interests and inthat respect it is a learning process.8

Apart from the informal learning which takes place in such recreational exchanges thecentre has attempted more structured learning, by way of a cross-community residentialweekend. The centre also has links with the Rupert Stanley College of FurtherEducation, which provides evening and morning courses. An interview with thecommunity worker highlighted his understanding of the particular function ofeducational bodies and a recognition of the role which bodies like the Divis CommunityCentre could play in this process. He defined the centre a s ' a place where educationalthings happen but it is not an educational institution'.

Within the centre itself, then, there are a number of groups dealing with their ownspecific issues and addressing problems facing local people. They have sprung up asgrass-roots responses to felt needs in the area and are made up solely of those living inthe area. Their functions are many and varied and, whilst some exist primarily forrecreational purposes, the majority of them combine recreation with educational andsocial purposes. For example, a Family Group in the centre, consisting of women fromthe area, was perceived as an important means of making social contact for some womenwho had become isolated and confined to the house once they had become mothers.

Such a group is often an important starting point in regaining self-confidence. Thegroup also take part in craft classes run by Rupert Stanley College and, whilst these maybe perceived as hobby-oriented, traditional 'female' activities, for many women in thisgroup they were also an important source of budgeting on a low income, thus somewomen were able to knit school jumpers, not only for their own children but for othersin the area, enabling them to become entrepreneurs. One woman who attended theclass for a number of years became so skilled that she was finally taken on by the FEcollege as the part-time tutor for that course!

Another women's group in the centre was involved in very similar activities,although it played a greater part in the women's movement through its involvement inthe Women's Information Days. These are a series of monthly meetings of all thewomen's groups in the Greater Belfast area, providing support for local women's groupsand addressing relevant issues through invitations to key speakers and debates. Some ofthe women in this group have also been active in various initiatives in their community,for example, setting up a Youth Drop-In Centre, carrying out research and writing areport on health and diet. The women in this group tended to have informal discussionsabout social issues, for example unemployment, the troubles and local problems ofvandalism and health and safety in their area. Whilst these conversations stemmed fromtheir own personal experiences, the women were often able to relate these to wider socialproblems.

Finally the Divis Study Group illustrates the potential for deliberate and sustainedlearning within a poor and disadvantaged area, when that learning is linked to the issuesand problems facing participants. The Divis Study Group, for example, was establishedamongst other things:

... to advance education and provide facilities in the interests of social welfare forhealth, recreation and leisure-time occupation, with the object of improvingconditions of life for the inhabitants....9

It also sets out to 'Promote and carry out research, surveys and investigations and topublish the findings of such research'.10 The group is open to all residents, as well as

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representatives from statutory and voluntary agencies in the area, whilst associatedmembership can be given to any experts whose advice is called upon. The Divis StudyGroup has been highly active in the production of reports, which make use of expertisein various fields whilst retaining ownership of the material themselves. This group is anexample of the community development process, whereby local people have becomeaware of the issues and problems affecting their community and have begun to tacklethese themselves. It illustrates a deliberate and sustained form of learning related toaction and experience.

Conclusion

These case studies highlight the range of organizations providing adult learningopportunities and pin-point the differences between them. The research suggests thatproviders of informal adult learning opportunities are aware of being involved in awider learning process. Such learning, whilst not highly structured, is to some extentplanned and deliberate, employing problem-solving strategies to help people tackle theissues confronting them in their everyday lives. Some providers of informal learningopportunities also recognize aspects of their work as specifically educational, althoughthey do not view themselves as educational bodies. Their educational provision is oftenclosely linked to their work with social issues, whilst for more traditional educationalprovision they will liaise with formal and non-formal providers. It would appeartherefore that formal, non-formal and informal providers are attempting to do differentthings, although the learning opportunities which they provide are complementary.

The evidence from this research suggests that although the emphasis in thevoluntary and community sectors is on issue-based learning and learning throughaction, they are also involved in partnerships with the formal and non-formal sectors inthe provision of more formal education for their local communities. The findings alsosupport Belanger's (1993) hypothesis on the rapid growth of issue-based, problem-solving education. He lists a range of both traditional and non-traditional providers,which include adult and continuing education and further education in the former, andcommunity education and the learning opportunities offered by community movementsand associations in the latter. This research project examined both types of providers,with a special emphasis on the latter, in order to assess the extent to which adult learningopportunities are issue oriented and problem solving and whether this is a distinguishingfeature of non-traditional providers. The results support the hypotheses that voluntaryand community groups are involved in issue-based, problem-solving education and thattraditional formal education bodies tend not to make such provision.

Belanger (1993: 235) further makes the point that 'A new economy of the educationof adults is now being shaped' and that this will require:

... new organic approaches for the monitoring of the whole of education and forthe development of a synergy among all the educational and educative agents.

This paper has attempted to explore the extent to which this is occurring, throughan examination of the interrelationships between formal, non-formal and informalproviders of adult learning opportunities. The research indicates that each sector has adifferent contribution to make to this synergy and that the complementarity of theirwork establishes a useful foundation for the growth of an overall system of lifelonglearning. Although much of the learning which occurs in community and voluntary

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groups is accidental and in some senses tangential to the goals of community activity, itis nevertheless a real and important by-product of involvement. The fact that it isvirtually impossible to measure should not detract from its value.

However, this paper has focused on the deliberate learning which voluntary andcommunity organizations engage in, as a base-line for comparison with formal and non-formal education. It would appear that there is a need for formal providers to recognizethe role which non-formal and informal providers play in an overall system of lifelonglearning. They represent not a threat, rather a challenge to find ways of networkingwith non-educative agencies and community groups. Non-formal and informalproviders need to be much more aware of the enormous impact which such issue-based,problem-solving learning can have on the field of education as a whole, particularly inthe creation of a learning society.

It appears possible, therefore, to blend the learning-through-doing, issue-basedwork with more intellectually demanding work concerned with causes and criticalanalysis. This suggests that we can 'marry'Jackson's (1970) initial enthusiasm for theactive learning potential of community development with his later emphasis on the needfor intellectual rigour and challenge in community development education. The workat the Ulster People's College and in the Community Research and DevelopmentCentre is built on that foundation and we are presently attempting to establish apartnership with community development and community education bodies, so that wecan provide a route or pathway from informal, learning-through-doing to more critical,intellectually demanding work.

Notes

1 The Forum for Community Work provided a directory of all the community organizations in Belfastregistered with them, whilst the Northern Ireland Council for Voluntary Action provided three directories:the Directory of Charitable Organizations; the Directory of Voluntary Action; and the Directory of Tenantsand Community Organizations. Lists were also obtained for family centres, youth clubs and statutory adulteducation centres.

2 For a full analysis of these results, see Moreland, R. (1993) Towards a Learning Society. A Study of Formal,Non-formal and Informal Learning Opportunities. DPhil thesis, University of Ulster.

3 This has now been amalgamated with the College of Business Studies and the College of Technology,to form the Belfast Institute for Further and Higher Studies, and the Whiterock FE Centre is part of the newInstitute.

4 Interview with Committee member, 18 September 1992.5 Interview with Committee member, Robson, 1995.6 Interview with community worker, 28 January 1990.7 Interview with community worker, ibid.8 Interview with community worker, ibid.9 Divis Study Group Constitution.10 Divis Study Group Constitution.

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Documents

Lifelong learning and community development