LIFE the Great Space Race: How the U.S. Beat the Russians to the Moon

THEGREATSPACERACE

RALPHMORSE/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

THEMAGNIFICENTSEVEN:TheProjectMercuryastronauts—onthevergeofbothcelebrityandspacein1960—poseforLIFEphotographerRalphMorse.Backrow,fromleft:AlanShepard,Virgil“Gus”Grissom,andGordonCooper.Frontrow:WalterSchirra,Donald“Deke”Slayton,

JohnGlenn,andScottCarpenter.

CONTENTSFROMMISSILESTOTHEMOON:THEU.S.VSRUSSIATHEBATTLEBEGINSCOLDWARWORRIESWHOOWNSTHESKY?THERACETOTHEMOON!INTOLUNARORBITTHEEAGLELANDSJUSTONEMORE

LadyBirdJohnson(inpolka-dotdress,center)andherhusband,formerPresidentLyndonB.Johnson,watchthe1969liftofftothemoon.

PhotographbyOtisImboden/NationalGeographic/Getty.

FROMMISSILESTOTHEMOON:THEU.S.VSRUSSIA

HOUSTONCHRONICLE/AP

“WECHOOSEtogotothemoon,”PresidentJohnF.KennedyannouncedinhisfamousspeechatRiceUniversityinHouston,Texas,onSeptember

12,1962.“Anditwillbedonebeforetheendofthisdecade.”ForgedinthecauldronofbothNaziGermanyandtheSovietgulag,theGreatSpaceRacebetweentheU.S.andtheUSSRduringtheColdWarwasfueledbytwoverydifferentbutequallydrivenyoungmen:therocketscientistsWernhervonBraunandSergeiKorolev.AmemberofHitler’sSSandthecreatorofthedeadlyV-2missile,vonBraunnarrowlyescapedGermany—withabadlybrokenarm,noless—inthewakeofWorldWarII.Korolev,falselyaccusedofanti-SovietactivitiesandimprisonedinaSiberianforced-laborcamp,wassavedfromalmostcertaindeathwhenJosefStalintaskedhimwithreplicatingvonBraun’skillingmachine.AstheeventualarchitectoftheAmericanspaceprogram,vonBraunappearedonTVwith—ofallpeople—WaltDisney,evenasKorolevtoiledtirelesslyintheSoviet

allpeople—WaltDisney,evenasKorolevtoiledtirelesslyintheSovietshadows.Excludedfromthepraisehispeerlessworkhadwrought,Korolevwasknownonlyasthe“ChiefDesigner”untilhislifewascutshort—perhapsinpartbecauseofthetorturehe’denduredasapoliticalprisoner.Butthesedisparatemensharedthesameunlikelydream.Evenastheycreatedweaponsforantagonisticsuperpowers,theyprivately—anddangerously—imaginedusingthesametechnologytotraveltothemoon.Thisisnowallamatterofrecord,butatthetimethefactswereobscuredbythethrilling,terrifyingcompetitionoftheSpaceRaceitself:aseriesofmovingtriumphsandtragedies,bothtechnologicalanddeeplyhuman,thatrivetedthenationevenasitseemedthefateofthefreeworldhunginthebalance.Whichnation’srocketswouldreachthemoonfirst?Andwouldthesesamerocketsblowustosmithereensbeforeanyonegotthechance?Butthedivisivedramaparadoxicallyunitedthehumanrace,ifonlybecause—unthinkablenow—wewereallpayingattentiontothesamethingsatthesametime.ThemillionsofAmericanswhoin1962watchedinfearastheCubanMissileCrisisunfoldedonTVwatchedwithjoyasNeilArmstrongtookthefirststepsonthemoonin1969.Throughitall,LIFEhadexclusiveaccesstotheheroesbehindwhatthemagazinecalled“history’sgreatestexploration.”OurreporterswereVIPsattheCapeCanaverallaunchsitesanddrankwithAlanShepard,America’sfirstmaninspace.PhotographerRalphMorse(manyofwhoseimagesarefeaturedonthesepages)spenttimeintheastronauts’flightsimulatorsandintheirhomes.(Armstrongwasparticularlyinterestedincamerasandphotography.)Twoweeksafterthemoonlanding,LIFEpublishedwhatwasatthetimethedefinitiveaccountofAmerica’sextraterrestrialtriumph.Inourfragmented,oftendistractedworld,itmayseemalmostquainttoimagineanepic,heroictriumphthatwaspursuedinpartsimplybecauseitwasepicandheroic,butwehopethatinthefollowingpages,you’lltravelbacktoatimewhen—forawhile,atleast—anythingseemedpossible.

FRITZGORO/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

NO,IT’SNOTATELETUBBY.It’satechnicianin1961testingaspacesuitforthefuturemoonmission,withtheMojaveDesertstandinginforthe

lunarsurface.

“Well,spaceisthere,andwe’regoingtoclimbit.”—PRESIDENTJOHNF.KENNEDY,1962

ITAR-TASSPHOTOAGENCY/SOVFOTO

THEALWAYSSMILINGYuriGagarinatBaikonur,theSovietlaunchareainKazakhstan,afterhishistoric1961spaceflight.Thevictoryproved

anembarrassmenttothenewU.S.President,JohnF.Kennedy.

MPI/GETTY

THEORIGINALspacecowboy,AlanShepard,sprintsfromhiscapsuleshortlyafterhis1961splashdownintheAtlanticOcean.Hebecamethefirst

Americaninspace,buttheU.S.stilllaggedbehindtheUSSR.

BRUCEDALE/NATIONALGEOGRAPHIC/GETTY

AMERICANBOYSwatchthe1968ChristmasEvebroadcastfromtheApollo8astronauts,thefirsttoexplorethefabledfarsideofthemoon.NodoubtthekidswerethrilledtohearcrewleaderJimLovelldeclare,“There

isaSantaClaus.”


THESATURNVrocketachievesliftoff,carryingthethreeApollo11astronautstothemoononJuly16,1969.Thisfamoussequencewasthe

brainchildofLIFEphotographerRalphMorse,whoshotfourexposuresasecondfromthetopofthelaunchtower.

THEBATTLEBEGINS

InthewakeofWorldWarII,theU.S.andRussiagoballisticovermissiles—thankstoaformergulagprisonerandanex-Nazi.

THOMASD.MCAVOY/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

THEMASTERMINDbehindtheAmericanspaceprogram,WernhervonBraun—shownhereinspectingajetenginein1946—wasinfactaformerNazi.HisRussianrival,SergeiKorolev,ontheotherhand,hadbeen

torturedinStalin’sgulag.OntheeveningofMay2,1945,WernhervonBraun,the33-year-oldgeniusbehindNaziGermany’sV-2rocketprogram,arrivedattheAmericanCounterIntelligenceCorpsinReutte,Austria.Exhaustedandnursinganarmthatwasbadlybrokeninacaraccident,thescientistwasfleeingwithahandfulofcolleaguesfromAdolfHitler’sparamilitarySS.Despitethedictator’sdeathafewdaysbefore,loyalremnantsofhisdeadlyregimeweredeterminedtokillvonBraunbeforehefellintoenemyhands.Hewasindeedaprize.TheV-2wasmoresophisticatedthananyweaponthe

Hewasindeedaprize.TheV-2wasmoresophisticatedthananyweapontheworldhadknown—itwas,inessence,theworld’sfirstspacerocket—andtheAlliedPowersallcoveteditscreator’sexpertise.ButtheAmericanshadwooedandwonvonBraun,andnowhewas,atlast,safeintheWesternZone.Orsohethought.Asheandhiscompanionssleptthatnight,aPolishkitchenworkerheadedtotheirroomswithagun,determinedtokillthe“Germanswine.”ButhewasinterceptedatthelastminutebyanAmericanlieutenant,whohadbeenawakenedbystrangenoises.ItwasvonBraun’slastclosecall.NowhewasreadytobeginanewlifeworkingfortheU.S.ArmyinNewMexico.Butasignificantobstacleremained:VonBraunhadbeennotjustaNazibutamemberoftheSS.HismissileshadkilledthousandsinEngland,France,andBelgium.Perhapsworse,thesemagnificentdeviceshadbeenbuiltbyslavelabor—menandwomenwhowereroutinelybeaten,shot,tortured,hung,andstarvedtodeath—inanundergroundfactorycalledMittelwerk.ThishardlywentunnoticedbytheU.S.StateDepartment,andnotjustbecauseofthemoralissues.CouldtheU.S.trusttheGermans?Wouldthenation’ssecretsbesafe?Intheend,geopoliticalgoalstrumpedmorality—thanksinparttoOperationOvercast,whichallowedtheGermansintotheUnitedStates,whilelargelyobscuringtheirrecenthistory.Aquestionablegambit,yes,butvonBraunhadneverbeenmuchinterestedinwar.Morethananything,hesawhisweaponsasprototypesforrocketsthatwouldonedayconquerspace.Infact,hehadconfidentlypredicted“multi-stagedpilotedrockets,”anobservationalplatformoutsidetheearth,and—perhapsmostsignificant—atriptothemoon.InHitler’sGermany,theseweredangerousideas,andvonBrauncouldeasilyhavebeenkilledfordaringtodream.Buthewasn’tdreamingalone.HiddeninthearcticwastesofnortheasternSiberia,MaldyakwaspartofthenotoriousKolymanetworkofSovietforced-laborcamps,amongtheworstinJosefStalin’scommunistgulag.Anestimatedthreemillionpeoplediedinthisfrozenhell—usuallyafterafewweeks—andthemortalityrateinsomecampsreachedastaggering80percent.AtMaldyak,daysbeganatfoura.m.andendedateightp.m.Prisonersweren’tallowedtobathe,weresavagelybeaten,andsubsisted—barely—onthincabbagesoup.Amongthemwasa31-year-oldengineernamedSergeiPavlovichKorolev,whohadbeenarrestedin1938afterbeingfalselyaccusedofcounterrevolutionaryacts.Sentencedto10yearsofhardlabor,thefiercelypatrioticKorolevinsistedthat

Sentencedto10yearsofhardlabor,thefiercelypatrioticKorolevinsistedthattheallegationswere“adespicablelie.”SuchprotestationsweregenerallylessthanuselessincommunistRussia,butKorolevwaslucky:In1939,hewasneardeath—sufferingfromscurvy,hisgumsbleedingandhisteethfallingout—whenhelearnedthathiscasewasupforreviewandhissentencewasreduced.In1940,hewasreturnedtoMoscow.Thoughheremainedaprisoner,hewasdesigningrocketsinacomparativelycushyprisonfortechnicalworkers.ButonAugust6,1945,everythingchangedforKorolev—andtherestoftheworld—whenanAmericanB-29bomberdeployedthefirstatombombabovetheJapanesecityofHiroshima,instantlykillingsome80,000humanbeings.Threedayslater,Americadroppedanotheratombomb,onNagasaki.Withinaweek,Japan’sEmperorHirohitounconditionallysurrendered,citingthe“newandmostcruelbomb.”NowanervousStalinknewthatheneededamissileprogramtocompetewiththeAmericanarsenal—and,ofcourse,anengineertorunit.ThedictatorfoundtheidealcandidateinKorolev.OnSeptember8,1945—thedayaftervonBraunleftforAmerica—KorolevwassenttoBerlintobeginbuildingtheR-1,areplicaofvonBraun’sV-2.SincetheparanoidStalinbelievedhisnewengineerwouldbekidnappedorkilledifhisidentitybecameknown,Korolevwasmadetodisappearvirtuallyovernight.Fortherestofhislife,thearchitectoftheSovietspaceprogramwouldbeknownonlyasthe“ChiefDesigner”—thecountry’smostimportantinvisibleman.SettlinginattheU.S.Army’sWhiteSandsProvingGroundinNewMexico,notfarfromFortBliss,Texas—hisnewdeserthome—vonBraunquicklylearnedthattheurgencywithwhichtheU.S.hadpursuedhimhadfizzledintobureaucraticindifference.Farfrombeingentrustedwithgrandnewplansforspacetravel,thescientistwastaskedwithnothingmorethanrebuildingthe100V-2stheAmericanshadsalvagedfromMittelwerk.Tokilltime,heandhisteamwatchedmovies,learnedEnglish,andlookedforwardtoinfrequenttripstonearbyElPaso.Thefuturelookedbleakand,worse,thepastwasprovingimpossibletoescape.In1945,theNurembergmilitarytribunalsagainstsuspectedNazisbegan,anditwasn’tlongbeforesuspicionfellonGermanslivingStateside.InOctober1947,vonBraungaveadepositionstatingthatconditionsattheMittelwerkforced-laborfactory,farfrombeinginhumane,had“continuouslyimproved”duringhistimethere.SurelythiswouldhavecomeasasurprisetothemenandwomenwhohadsufferedanddiedinthenameofhisV-2.ButtheU.S.OfficeofMilitaryGovernmentdeclaredthattheirprizescientistwas“nota

U.S.OfficeofMilitaryGovernmentdeclaredthattheirprizescientistwas“notawarcriminal.”Despitethisexoneration,vonBraunremainedfrustrated.WhatexactlywashedoinginNewMexico?Withhisdreamofconqueringspacebecomingincreasinglyremote,hespenthisfreetimewritinganovelcalledTheMarsProject,aboutatriptotheRedPlanet—perhapshopingthatlifewouldindeedimitateart,oratleastsciencefiction.Itwasn’tlongbeforerealityintervened.OnAugust29,1949,amushroomcloudbloomedintheskiesoverKazakhstan,itslethallightprovingthat,thanksinlargeparttoscientistYuliKhariton,theSovietshadfinallytestedtheirfirstatomicbomb.Findinghimselfputincheckinanuclearchessgame,PresidentHarryTrumanpromptlyauthorizedthedevelopmentofthehydrogenbomb,designedtobeathousandtimesmorepowerfulthanitspredecessor.WorldWarIIwasover,butafarmoreinsidiousconflicthadjustbegun.

ULLSTEINBILD/GRANGER

AYOUNGVONBRAUN(atfarright)isshownwithfellowscientistsalongwithhismentor,HermannOberth,theso-calledFatherofRocketry,who

standsjusttotherightofandfacingoneofhisrevolutionaryliquid-propellantrockets.

“Ihavelearnedtousethewordimpossiblewiththegreatestcaution.”

—WERNHERVONBRAUN

ULLSTEINBILD/GRANGER

AU.S.SOLDIERstandsneartheengineofaV-2rocketinsideMittelwerk,theNazi’snotoriousundergroundfactory,followingGermany’ssurrender

in1945.

MONDADORIPORTFOLIO/GETTY

VonBraun(center)watchesthelaunchofhisV-2withfellowNazisattherockettestsiteinPeenemünde,Germany,in1943.

ITAR-TASSPHOTOAGENCY/GRANGER

SergeiKorolev,thefatheroftheSovietspaceprogram,inanuncharacteristicallyrelaxedpose.

ULLSTEINBILD/GETTY

WEARINGACASTonthearmhebrokeinanautoaccident,vonBraunposeswithhisengineeringteamandU.S.soldiersafterhehappily

surrenderedtotheAmericansin1945.(HisbrotherMagnusisthethirdtohisright.)

TONYLINCK/THELIFEIMAGESCOLLECTION/GETTY

AV-2launchinWhiteSands,NewMexico,1946.

“ControlofSpaceMeansControloftheWorld.”—SENATORLYNDONJOHNSON,1958

COLDWARWORRIES

Nuclearweaponsthreatentoendtheworld—andfuelthefirstsmallstepstowardspacetravel.

CARLIWASAKI/THELIFEIMAGESCOLLECTION/GETTY

SCIENTISTSattheNationalBureauofStandardsandTechnologylaboratoriesinBoulder,Colorado,nervouslyreceiveasignalfromRussia’sSputnikIin1957.ThesuccessfullaunchfrightenedandexcitedtheU.S.by

turns:Wasthistheendoftheworld,orthebeginningofanewera?Inthe1950s,Americawasavolatileamalgamofprivilege,progress,andparanoia.ThetensionsoftheColdWarsimmeredjustunderthesurfaceoptimism.ThebattlewithRussiathatwouldsoonbecomeknownasthearmsracefueledbothcompetitionandfearsofall-outnucleardestruction—evenwhilecompaniessuchasGeneralElectricextolledthelife-enhancingvirtuesofatomicpower.Buttheso-calledRedMenacewasaboonforWernhervonBraun.InthewakeoftheSovietatomicblast,heandhisteamwereaskedtodevelopaV-2–based

oftheSovietatomicblast,heandhisteamwereaskedtodevelopaV-2–basedmissilethatcouldcarryanuclearwarhead200miles.Tothatend,in1950theyweresentfromtheNewMexicodeserttotheWatercressCapitaloftheWorld—Huntsville,Alabama.Thescientists’newbasewastheRedstoneArsenal,wheretheybegandevelopinganarmyrocketdubbed,naturally,“Redstone.”At38,vonBraunwasnowbothinthevanguardofAmericanmilitarytechnologyandafixtureinHuntsvillesociety.ButevenashecharmedthelocalRotarians,heandhisteamwerebeinginvestigatedbytheFBI:HadtheSovietsstolenAmericanatomicsecrets?HadtheformerNazisbeeninvolved?Partlyinreactiontothispressure,vonBrauncontributedtoaseriesofeightarticlesforCollier’smagazine.Firstpublishedinthespringof1952,theywerecollectivelytitled“ManWillConquerSpaceSoon.”Explainingsatellitesandlunarmissions,thearticlesprovedbothwildlypopularandnodoubtanenduringinfluenceonSergeiKorolev,whostudiedthemasheworkedtoimprovetheR-1.HisnewfocuswasontheR-7,whichtheSovietshopedwouldbecometheworld’sfirstintercontinentalballisticmissile.ButonNovember1,1952,theChiefDesigner’sworkwasovershadowed,onceagain,when,inthemiddleofthePacificOcean,theU.S.’sfirstH-bombtestdevastatedEniwetokAtoll.Preparingforall-outnuclearwar,awaryStalinsufferedastrokeanddied.Thedictator’ssuccessor,NikitaKhrushchev,provedaboontoKorolev.Stalinhadhiddenmostoftherocketprogram’ssecretsfromhisinnercircle,leavingKhrushchevstunnedwhenhefinallysawKorolev’sworkontheR-seriesrockets.“Idon’twanttoexaggerate,”Khrushchevwroteinhisautobiography,“butI’dsaywegawkedatwhatheshowedusasifwewereabunchofsheepseeinganewgateforthefirsttime.”ButKorolevwasn’ttheonlySovietscientistwho’dbeenkeepingbusy.LargelythankstophysicistAndreiSakharov,theRussianssuccessfullytestedtheirownH-bombonAugust12,1953—lessthanayearaftertheUnitedStates’nucleartriumph.Itwasyetanothercheckinaglobalgameofapocalypticchess.In1953,Florida’sCapeCanaveralwasnothingbutamosquito-infestedexpanseofsandontheAtlanticOcean,butthePentagonhadchosenitastheperfectplacetotest-launchthecountry’snewmissiles—beginningwithvonBraun’sRedstone.Unfortunately,theAugustlaunchofthemissilewasacatastrophefortheHuntsvillecrewwhentherocketveeredwildlyoffcourse.ThefailureleftvonBraunonceagainmarginalizedandunderfunded—evenas

ThefailureleftvonBraunonceagainmarginalizedandunderfunded—evenashispublicprofilecontinuedtogrow.OnMarch9,1955,theformerNaziappearedonaTVseriesproducedbynoneotherthanWaltDisney.Buthisteamwasdemoralizedanddrifting,andhewasonthevergeofresigningwhenhisdreamswereunexpectedlyrevived—thanksto,ofallthings,thesun.In1957,the11-yearsunspotcyclewouldbemarkedbyincreasedactivityandradiation.TheworldplannedtocelebratetheoccasionastheInternationalGeophysicalYear,heraldedbythedevelopmentofnewtechnologytohelpstudythephenomena.Forhispart,PresidentDwightD.Eisenhower—whohadsucceededHarryTrumanin1953—decidedtosendasatelliteintospace,whatheoptimisticallycalled“asecondmoon.”ThiswouldinvolveacompetitionbetweentheNationalAdvisoryCommitteeonAeronautics,theU.S.Navy,theAirForce,andtheArmy.ThoughvonBraunmovedforwardwithcharacteristicconfidence,theNavyeventuallywonwithplansforarockettheycalledVanguard.Ofcourse,vonBraunwasdisappointed,buthiscrewwasgivenaconsolationprize:TheyweretaskedwithusingtheRedstoneasthebasisoftheJupiterrocketseries,whichwassupposedtosolvetheproblemofmissilenoseconesoverheatingwhenwarheadsreenteredearth’satmosphere.VonBraunknewhistaskwasstrictlymilitaristic—butspacecraft,too,wouldneedtoreentertheearth’satmosphere,whichmeantthathisArmyworkmightactuallyfuelhisdreamofsendingamantothemoon.“Thelivingconditions...wereawful,”saidoneofKorolev’scolleaguesofBaikonur,thenewSovietmissile-testingsiteinTyuratam,ableak,isolatedrailwaystopinKazakhstan.“Welivedinrailwaycars.Thetemperatureatnightwasmaybe86degreesFahrenheit.Veryhot.Ourfoodwasverybad.Notenoughrefrigeration.Sanitaryconditionswereawfultoo.”AndyetthiswastheenvironmentinwhichKorolevandcompanywerefuriouslyworkingtolaunchhisrocket.Manyofthementurnedtoalcoholtorelievetheboredom,ahabittheChiefDesignerreluctantlytolerated—aslongasitdidn’taffectthework.(Butofcourse,itsometimesdid.Once,adrunkdrivercarryingdelicateR-7componentsinhistruckslammedintoatree.)Asalways,however,Korolevwasdreamingnotofwarbutofspace.Hismostcherishedgoalwastoputasatelliteintoearth’sorbit,butfirsthehadtoprovethathecouldlaunchtheR-7.Failurefollowedfailure—untilAugust21,1957,whenthefirstsuccessfultestlaunchsenttheR-7soaring4,000milestotheKamchatkapeninsula.Anothersuccessfollowedalittlemorethanamonthlater.Asaresult,Korolevwasallowedtosendhissatelliteupinthenoseconeofthe

Asaresult,KorolevwasallowedtosendhissatelliteupinthenoseconeofthenextR-7launch.TheycalleditSputnik.OntheeveningofOctober4,thecrowdatBaikonurwatchedthecountdown.Suddenlytherewasaflash,acloudofsmoke,andaballoflight.“Korolev’sfingerstightenedaroundtheblackgripsoftheperiscope,thewholeofhisthick-set,heavybodystiffening,”wroteonecolleague.“Onlynowdidajubilantvoicepenetratehisconsciousness,gabblingoverandoverinitsexcitement:‘Allsystemsstable!’”Thecrowderuptedincheers:Theyhaddoneit!Thebeep-beep-beepofthesatellitewas,infact,“musicnoonehasheardbefore,”Korolevcrowed.TheChiefDesignerwassoproudthat,beforeheleftforMoscowthenextday,hegaveeveryoneatokenofhisappreciation:Ateapotofalcohol.

BETTMANN/GETTY

CODE-NAMED“MIKE,”theworld’sfirsthydrogenbombdestroysEniwetokAtollinthePacific’sMarshallIslandsin1952.ThiswasamajorcoupfortheUnitedStates...andamajorthreattoRussiandictatorJosef

Stalin.

RUEDESARCHIVES/GRANGER

IT’SASMALLWORLDafterall:WernhervonBraun(right)poseswithWaltDisneyin1954topublicizetheavuncularanimator’sspace-travelTV

series,whichprominentlyfeaturedtheexNazi.

“Ifwedon’tkeepmoving,maybetheRussiansaregoingtowinafewoftheseblueribbons.”

—ASTRONAUTGORDONCOOPER,1959

WALTERSANDERS/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

VonBraunchecksaRedstonemissilein1957.


SPUTNIKI(sputniktranslatesas“fellowtraveler”),thesatellitethatlaunchedtheSpaceRace.

SOVFOTO

SergeiKorolev’sR-7rocketabouttosendSputnikIintoorbit.

SOVFOTO/UIG/GETTY

ScientistsinKievpreparetotrackthesatellite.

CARLIWASAKI/THELIFEIMAGESCOLLECTION/GETTY

“NEVERBEFOREhadsosmallandsoharmlessanobjectcreatedsuchconsternation,”wrotehistorianDanielJ.BoorstinofSputnikI.Here,

scientistsattheNationalBureauofStandardsandTechnologylaboratoriesinBoulder,Colorado,trackitsprogress.

WHOOWNSTHESKY?Russia’sfirstsatelliteinorbitplungestheU.S.intoanuneasy

competitionfortheconquestofthemoon.


THEFIRSTAmericanastronauts:Fromlefttoright,AlanShepard,ScottCarpenterGordonCooper,Donald“Deke”Slayton,Virgil“Gus”Grissom,JohnGlenn,andWalterSchirrain1959.Theywouldgoontotriumph,

tragedy,celebrity,andobscuritybyturns.“SOVIETFIRESEARTHSATELLITEINTOSPACE,”readtheNewYorkTimesfront-pageheadlineonOctober5,1957,heraldingboththedawnofthespaceageandpervasiveatomicanxiety.NotonlyhadtheenemyReds“won,”buttheunexpectedbreakthroughmeantthatRussianowhadthecapacitytolaunchballisticmissilesatEuropeandtheU.S.Theshockhadscarcelysubsidedwhen,thefollowingmonth,theRussianslaunchedSputnikII.Thistime,alivingcreaturewasinside.Thedog’snamewasLaika,whichmeans“barker”—amisnomer,sinceshehadbeenchosenbecauseofherdocilenature.Shewasrelativelycalmleadinguptotheflight,andtheR-7rocketwaslaunchedwithoutincident,buttheairinthe

theflight,andtheR-7rocketwaslaunchedwithoutincident,buttheairinthecapsulegrewincreasinglyhot—until,afterafewhoursinspace,Laikasufferedanagonizingdeathfrompanic,stress,andheat.Butherfatewashiddenfromtheworld,andLaikabecameaSoviethero,appearingonpostagestampsandcigarettepacks.Onceagain,theAmericanswerelagging—andthesituationwasabouttogetworse.OnDecember6,WernhervonBraun’srivalsforthemissilelaunch,theNavy,failedspectacularlywhentheirVanguardrocket(carryingasatellitethesizeofagrapefruit)collapsedonlaunchatCapeCanaveral.Theincidentwasaninternationalembarrassment,withthepresscallingtherocket“Dudnik.”ButvonBraunhadbeenclearedtosendanothersatellite,thearmy’sExplorer1,intospaceonhisJupiterCrocket.Thereweredelaysbecauseofweathertrouble,butat10:48p.m.onJanuary31,1958,therocketwasfinallylaunched.Afteranhourandahalfwithnosignofthesatellite,vonBraunbegantodespair—untiltheyheardthesignalfromExplorer1:America’s“secondmoon”wasnoworbitingtheearthalongwithitsRussianrivals.TheU.S.wasfinallyinspace!AsvonBraunbecameabonafidecelebrity,featuredonthecoverofTimemagazine,Korolev—invisibleasalways—toldhiscolleagues,“Theroadtothestarshasbeenopened.”Butnohumanbeinghadyettraveledit.OnOctober1,1958,PresidentEisenhowerestablishedtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA),whichpromptlyabsorbedanexistingprogramdesignedtoputamaninspace.RenamedProjectMercury,thiswasthefirstofthreesuchprograms.“Theyfunctionedlikestepping-stones,”MichaelJ.Neufeld,authorofVonBraunandseniorcuratorandspacehistorianattheSmithsonianNationalAirandSpaceMuseum,tellsLIFE.“Mercury’sobjectivewassimplytoputamaninearth’sorbitandseethathecouldoperate.”Forthefirsttime,theconquestofspacewastakenseriouslyassomethingotherthanabyproductofmilitarycompetition.TheSpaceRacewasalsotakingonahumanelement—literally.BoththeU.S.andtheUSSRnowbeganlookingformentosendintoorbit.“Theywerecastingaboutforallkindsofideas,”saysNeufeld.“Doweusestuntperformers,deep-seadivers?”Eisenhowersettledontestpilots.Ofcourse,thecandidateshadtobeinprimephysicalcondition,butthatwasonlythebeginning.Noonecouldpossiblyknowwhatwouldhappentomeninspace.Wouldtheygoblindfromafluidimbalanceintheinnereye?Wouldtheybeunabletoeat?Wouldtheybepsychologicallyorphysicallyunabletofunction?Bothcountriesputtheirpotentialastronautsandcosmonautsthrougha

function?Bothcountriesputtheirpotentialastronautsandcosmonautsthroughabatteryofoftenhumiliatingtests—fromaseriesofenemasandpsychologicalintimidationtoextremesofheatandcold.OnApril9,1959,thesevenmembersoftheNASAMannedSpaceProgramwereannounced:ScottCarpenter,GordonCooper,JohnGlenn,Virgil“Gus”Grissom,WalterSchirra,AlanShepard,andDonald“Deke”Slayton.Overnight,theybecamecelebrities,featuredontheSeptember14coverofLIFE,followedbytheirwivesaweeklater.“Allseven,collectively,emergedinagoldenhazeasthesevenfinestpilotsandbravestmenintheUnitedStates,”TomWolfewroteinTheRightStuff.“Ablazingaurawasuponthem.”InMay1959,theso-calledMagnificentSeventraveledtoCapeCanaveraltowatchthelaunchofanAtlasrocket,whichhadbegunastheAirForce’sintercontinentalballisticmissileprojectandwasnowsupposedtosendmenintoearth’sorbit.Thelaunchwentbeautifully—untiltherocketexploded,promptingatypicallystoicShepardtoquip,“Isurehopetheyfixthat.”In1960,thepilotsbegantrainingatCapeCanaveral.Sincetheirwiveshadnoreasontovisitthealligator-infestedswamp,themenspenttheirfreetimeracingcarsonthesand,carousinginlocalbars,andavailingthemselvesofwillingwomen,whowereknowntomakesuchremarksas“Threedown,fourtogo.”ThesoleexceptionwasGlenn,achurchgoingfamilymanwhoconsideredthesehormonalhighjinksunworthyoftheastronautswhowere,afterall,supposedlyAmerica’sfinest.Glenn’scolleagues,fortheirpart,thoughthewasaprig.Andwhentheywereaskedtovotefortheoneamongtheirnumberwhowouldbethefirstinspace,theydidn’tchooseGlenn.TheychoseAlanShepard.

SOVFOTO

THEFIRSTlivingcreatureinspace,theRussiandogLaika,waitspatientlyintheSputnikIIcapsule,whereshediedafewhoursafterthesuccessful

1957launch.Hercosmiccoffinorbitedtheearthuntil1958,whenitburnedupasitreenteredtheatmosphere.Astatuehonoringthehomelessdogwho

becameaspacemartyrnowstandsinMoscow.

“Wedidnotlearnenoughfromthismissiontojustifythedeathofthedog.”

— RUSSIANSCIENTISTOLEGGAZENKO

GRANGER

THENAVY’SVanguardmissile—designedtosendthefirstAmericansatelliteintospace—explodesontheCapeCanaverallaunchpadin1957.

NASAJetPropulsionLabdirectorWilliamPickering(atleft),scientistJamesVanAllen,andWernhervonBraunarereadywiththeirrocket,andsuccessfully

launchtheExplorer1satelliteintoorbitsoonafterward.


HOWMANYofyouexpecttoreturnalive?reportersaskedthenewMercuryastronauts.Ofcourse,thegalacticgladiatorsallgleefullyraisedtheirhands.Butoneofthemwoulddiebeforeeverachievingliftoff.

“Itwasanextremelyhigh-risk,unknowneffortthattheyweregoinginto.”

—ASTRONAUTSTEVELINDSEY


Fromlefttoright:Slayton,Glenn,theirrepressibleShepard,Carpenter,andSchirraatapressconference.


THEASTRONAUTS’wivesgatherinplatinumandpastelinVirginia,in1959.Fromleft:AnnieGlenn(withdarkhair),ReneCarpenter,JoSchirra,MarjorieSlayton,BettyGrissom,and(standing)TrudyCooper.Injusta

fewyears,oneofthemwouldloseherhusbandinatragicaccident.

NASA

THECLOTHESmaketheastronaut.AtSteadAirForceBaseinNevada,whiletrainingforapossiblecrashlandinginthedesert,theMercury

astronautswearclothingpartlymadeofparachutematerial.


Theydonscubagearforadivetosimulateweightlessnessin1959.


Tryingontheirtailor-madespacesuits.

THERACETOTHEMOON!TheUSSRputsthefirstmaninearth’sorbit,butthebiggestprize

remainsunclaimed.

NASA

ASTRONAUTEDWHITEmakesthefirstAmericanspacewalkonJune3,1965—justaftertheRussians’pioneeringjaunt—120milesabovethe

PacificOcean.YuriGagarinwasaboyishlyhandsomeandseeminglyalwayssmilingpilotwhohadbeenbornin1934atacollectivefarmsome100milesfromMoscow.In1959,thehumblecarpenter’ssonwaspatrollingRussia’sNorwegianborderasamilitarypilotwhenhewaschosenasoneof3,461candidatestobethefirstcosmonautaboardtheVostok1—intendedtobefirstthemannedflightofKorolev’sR-7.By1961,thecandidatesweredowntoGagarinandfighterpilotGherman

Titov.SovietpremierNikitaKhrushchevlikedthefactthatGagarin’speasantbackgroundreflectedthecommunistideal.“Notsurprisingly,theRussianswerefarmoreconcernedaboutclassbackgroundthantheU.S.was,”MichaelNeufeldsays.In1960,twoSovietdogshadbecomethefirstlivingbeingstosurviveaspacetrip.ButotheranimalsandmenweresacrificedonthewaytoVostok1’slaunch.(Onelaunchpadexplosionkilleddozensin1960.)Still,Gagarinremainedsanguine.“Insuchagrandendeavor,”hesaid,“lossesareinevitable.”Heknew,ofcourse,thathemightbeamongthem.At9:07a.m.onApril12,1961,thesmiling27-year-oldsatinVostok1’scapsuleatBaikonur.Astheypreparedforliftoff,heshouted,“Poyekhali!”(“Let’sgo!”Tothisday,thisremainsakindofRussiantoast,like“Cheers!”)Aboutanhourintotheflight,Vostok1hadjustcompletedoneorbitoftheglobe,andGagarinwaspreparingforreentrywhenthingswentterriblywrong.Afterhefiredtheretrorocketdesignedtosendhimbacktoearth,hiscraftstartedspinning.Thecapsuleshouldhaveseparatedfromtheinstrumentmodule,butthecablesthatconnectedthemwerestillattached.“NowIseeAfrica,nextthehorizon,thenthesky,”Gagarinsaid.Hewasonthevergeofblackingoutwhenthecablesburnedoffinearth’satmosphere.Hewasshotfromthecapsuleinhisejectorseat.Fourmilesabovetheearth,hisparachutesopened,andhebegantofall.BackinRussia,acollective-farmworkerandhergranddaughterwereherdingacownearSaratovwhenamanfellfromthesky,landingnotfarfromthem.Theywere,ofcourse,frightened(FrancisGaryPowers,anAmericanpilotonaspymission,hadbeenshotdownandcapturedjustoneyearbefore),butGagarintriedtoreassurethem.“I’moneofyours!”heshoutedashedisentangledtheparachutefromhisunderwear.“ASoviet!Don’tbeafraid!”Twodayslater,GagarinbeamedwithKhrushchevontherostrumofLenin’sTombinMoscow’sRedSquare,facingcrowdsofcheeringSovietcitizens.Buttheday’struehero,Korolev,remainedinvisibleasalways.Infact,hewasn’teventhere:Unabletomakehiswaythroughthecrowds,hefinallygaveupandwenthome.TheU.S.hadbeentrumpedonceagain,buttheAmericanswouldsoonhavemorethanspacetoworryabout.OnApril17,1961,CubanexilestrainedandfinancedbytheU.S.governmentlandedontheBayofPigsonthesouth-centralcoastofCubainaCIA-plannedattempttooverthrowthenewdictator,FidelCastro.Buttheinvasionhadbeenbadlymisjudged,andtheU.S.forcesweresoonoverwhelmed.

badlymisjudged,andtheU.S.forcesweresoonoverwhelmed.ThedebaclewasdeeplyembarrassingtoJohnF.Kennedy,whohadsucceededEisenhowerasPresidentlessthanthreemonthsbefore.Desperatelyneedinga“win,”heturnedtothespaceprogram.OnthemorningofMay5,1961,AlanShepardwasstrappedinsidetheFreedom7MercurycapsulelaunchedatopWernhervonBraun’sRedstonerocketatCapeCanaveral.Butwhenaseriesoftechnicalchallengesledtoathree-hourwait,theastronautfacedafarmore,uh,personalcrisis:Heneededtourinate.WhenvonBrauntoldtheyoungmanthiswasimpossible—hissilverpressuresuitwouldshort-circuit—theunflappableShepardsimplytoldthemedicstoturnthepoweroff.Sotheydid.Later,nearninea.m.,Shepard—irritatedbytheendlessdelays—snapped,“I’mcoolerthanyouare!Whydon’tyoufixyourlittleproblemandlightthiscandle?”At9:34a.m.,theyachievedliftoff.“Whatabeautifulview!”Shepardannouncedashevanishedskyward.UnlikeGagarin,Sheparddidn’tgointofullorbit;thetriplastedlittlemorethan15minutes,butanAmericanhadgoneintospaceatlast.OnMay25,1961,PresidentKennedyannouncedplanstoputamanonthemoonbeforetheendofthedecade.ProjectGeminiwascreated,usingupdatedMercuryspacecraft.Itfocusedontestingrendezvousanddocking,spacewalking,andthemedicaleffectsofspendinguptotwoweeksinspace.“Rendezvousanddockingwereneededbecausewedecidedtousetheso-calledlunarorbitrendezvous,whichinvolvedaseparatelandertotaketwoastronautsfromthecapsuletothesurface,”saysNeufeld.“SoGeminidevelopedthetechniquesofrendezvousanddockinginearthorbitfortheApollo.”BackintheUSSR,KorolevwasplanningtolaunchVostok2—designedtosendamanintospaceforafullday,testingthelong-termeffectsofweightlessness—inmid-August,butKhrushchevinsistedthattheChiefDesignerlaunchaweekearlierthanplanned.Why?Korolevhadnoidea,buthedidashewastold—andonAugust6,1961,Gagarin’srival,GhermanTitov,orbitedtheworldarecord17timesover25hours,makingamockeryofShepard’s15minutes.Therewerefurtherfirstsinvolved.Titovwasthefirsttotakephotographsandthefirsttosleepinspace.Still,itwasadifficultflight.Thecosmonaut’sheatingsystembrokedown,andhesufferedfromspaceadaptationsyndrome,reportedlyvomitinginhissuit.Asheparachutedbacktoearth,healmosthitatrain.Still,

vomitinginhissuit.Asheparachutedbacktoearth,healmosthitatrain.Still,hesurvived—andRussiascoredanothermassivecoup.OneweekafterVostok2,itbecameclearwhyKhrushchevhadrushedthelaunch:TheSovietsbeganbuildingtheBerlinWalltosealtheEasternpartofthecityofffromWesterners.Thesuccessofthespacemissionhadgivencommunistleaders“alotofmoralandpoliticalsupport,”Korolev’ssecond-in-command,VasilyMishin,latersaid.Worse,inOctober1961,theUSSRdetonatedthemostpowerfulbombtheworldhadeverseen.TheUnitedStateswasrattled,butJohnGlennwaswaitinginthewings.OnFebruary20,1962—after10priorpostponementsandnumeroustechnicaldifficulties—GlennsatintheFriendship7capsuleatopMercury-Atlas6inCapeCanaveral.Hehadbeendeeplydisappointedwhenhewasn’tchosenfortheearlysuborbitalflights,butjustpast3p.m.—aftermorethanatwo-hourdelay—itwasfinallyhisturn.“Godspeed,JohnGlenn,”fellowastronautScottCarpentersaidfromMissionControl.“Ten,nine,eight...”Privately,GlennhadconcernsabouttheAtlasrocket—anearlierversionhad,afterall,explodedbeforehiseyes.NASAscientistswereworried,too—theyhad,ofcourse,neverdonethisbefore—butthelaunchwentoffwithoutahitch.“Man,thisisbeautiful!”Glennsaidaboutanhourintotheflight,addingthathe’deatenonetubeoffoodwith“noproblematall.”ButashecrossedthePacificneartheendofhisfirstearthorbit,Glenn’sautomaticsystemsfailed,forcinghimtousethemanualfly-by-wiresystem.Hehandleditwithcharacteristicaplomb,butfurtherproblemswereinstore.MissionControlsuspectedthatthecapsule’sheatshieldwasn’tattached,meaningthattheastronautcouldbeincineratedbeforehereachedtheocean.Afterexecutingthreeorbitsinnearlyfivehours,Glennwastoldtoheadforhome.“It’salittlehotinhere,”Glennsaidasheplummetedtoearth,hiscapsuleengulfedinafireball.Forfiveagonizingminutes,MissionControltriedwithoutsuccesstocontacthimthroughtheflames.“Howdoyouread?”MissionControlsaid,fearingtheworst.“Over.”Noresponse.Then,finally,Glenn’svoice:“Loudandclear.”Afteralmostfivehoursinspace,theastronautlandedintheAtlanticOcean,800milessoutheastofBermuda.TheflightmadeGlennanationalheroandputNASAonthemap.“Thisisanewocean,”Kennedysaid,“andIbelievethattheUnitedStatesmustsailonit.”

newocean,”Kennedysaid,“andIbelievethattheUnitedStatesmustsailonit.”Butthecountrywasstillalongwayfromthemoon—anditwouldsoonfinditselfonthebrinkofnuclearwar.“Withinthepastweek,unmistakableevidencehasestablishedthefactthataseriesofoffensivemissilesitesisnowinpreparationonthatimprisonedisland,”PresidentKennedytoldtheAmericanpubliconOctober22,1962.Hewas,ofcourse,referringtoKhrushchev’sdeploymentofnuclear-armedballisticmissilesinCastro’scommunistCuba—aresponsetoboththeBayofPigsfiascoand(unknowntotheAmericanpublic)theJupitermissilestheU.S.haddeployedinItalyandTurkey.Duringthe13-daystandoffthatcametobeknownastheCubanMissileCrisis,thesuperpowerleadersengagedinheatedsecretnegotiationsandavoidedall-outnuclearwar.Butthatdidn’tstopKhrushchevfromconstantlypushingKorolevfornewbreakthroughs—someofwhichamountedtomerestunts.“Insomeways,theearlySovietprogramwasabitofabluff,”saysNeufeld.“ButeverynewstuntaffectedtheAmericans.”Justbeforethecrisis,twoSovietcraftappearedtolinkupinspace.Itwouldhavebeenafirst—exceptitdidn’treallyhappen;theshipssimplygotcloseenoughtolooklikeithad.AndonJune16,1963,Russiaputthefirstwoman(andfirstcivilian),ValentinaTereshkova,intospaceaboardVostok6.Herflight“demonstratedtotheentireworldtheequalityofmenandwomeninourcountry,”Khrushchevcrowed.Butitwasn’tthatsimple.“Tereshkovaturnedouttobeattheedgeofpsychologicalstability,”Mishinlatersaid,addingthattheflightshouldactuallyhavediscreditedtheRussianleader.EvenKhrushchevstoppedboasting—andmournedwiththerestoftheworld—when,onNovember22,1963,PresidentKennedywasassassinatedinDallas.LyndonJohnson,JFK’sVicePresident,succeededhim.“Johnsonhadalwaysbeenaspacesupporter,”saysNeufeld,“butnowthereweretoomanyproblemsandcompetingdemandsonhistime.”ThegrowingquagmireoftheVietnamWarandtheperceivedcommunistthreatdrewattentionandfundsfromNASAevenasKhrushchevkeptpushingforvictories,sendinganunprecedentedthreemenintospaceonOctober12,1964.Whenthesecosmonautsreturnedtoearth,Khrushchevwasnottheretowelcomethem.Instead,hewasabouttobeplacedunderhousearrest,havingbeenoustedbyLeonidBrezhnev,untilrecentlythesecondsecretaryoftheCentralCommittee.Forhispart,Khrushchevwasphilosophical.“I’moldandtired,”hesaid.“Letthemcopebythemselves.”UnderBrezhnev,theSovietsde-emphasizedspacetravel.“Especiallyafterthe

humiliationofCuba,thepost-KhrushchevleadershipdecidedtheirfirstprioritywastocatchupwiththeU.S.innucleardeliverysystems,”saysNeufeld.“Aslongasthespacepeoplepulledoffnewsuccesses,thatwasokay.”Therewerecertainlysuccesses.OnMarch18,1965,theRussiansachievedthefirstspacewalk—afewmonthsbeforetheAmericanastronautEdWhitedid—thoughcosmonautAlexeiLeonovnearlyperishedwhenhehadtroublegettingbackthroughthespaceship’sairlock.(MillionsofSovietswatchingtheeventonTVandlisteningontheradiohadthebroadcastabruptlyreplacedbyaperformanceofMozart’sRequiem.)Andin1966Russia’sLuna9becamethefirstspacecrafttolandonthemoon.ButtherocketthatKorolevhopedwouldcompetewiththeSaturnV—theN-1—nevergotofftheground,sotospeak,andtheSovietspaceprogramwasabouttosufferitsgreatestsetbackever.OnJanuary14,1966,KoroleventeredtheKremlinhospitalforroutinesurgerytoremovepolypsfromhisintestine.Atsomepointduringtheoperation,hebeganhemorrhaging.Attemptingtosavehislife,thesurgeonopenedhisabdomenanddiscoveredapreviouslyunknowncanceroustumor.Korolevwasoverweight;hisheartwasweak;andajawabnormality—theresultoftorturehe’denduredintheKolymacamp—madeintubationdifficult.Aftereighthoursofsurgery,the59-year-oldsufferedaheartattackanddied.IntheKremlin,BrezhnevdecidedtorevealtheChiefDesigner’sidentityatlast.OnJanuary16,Korolev’sobituary—andphoto!—raninPravda,theCommunistparty’sofficialnewspaper.Overnight,themanwhohadlaboredintirelessanonymityfortwodecadeswasnolongerinvisible;thewholeworldknewhisname.OnJanuary17,thousandslinedupinthebittercoldtopaytheirrespectsasthefuneralprocessioncarriedKorolev’sashesintoRedSquare.“Dreams,dreams,”Korolevhadsaid,“withoutdreamsmanisabirdwithoutwings.”Themanwhohadescapedthegulagtosingle-handedlytransformtheSovietspaceprogramwasgone,buthehadmadehisdream—indeed,thedreamofallhumanity—arealityatlast.

SOVFOTO/UIG/GETTY

THEFIRSTMANinspace,Russia’sYuriGagarin,duringlast-minutechecksoftheVostok1’scontrolsystemsjustbeforehis1961flight.Hebeatoutmorethan3,000candidatesinpartbymaintaininghischaracteristicgoodcheerevenwhilebeingseverelytested.Inenforcedisolation,for

instance,heirritatedhisobserversbyrepeatedlysingingtheRussiansong“ILoveYou,Life.”

TASS/ZUMA

GAGARINANDSovietpremierNikitaKhrushchev,asthecosmonautreceivesahero’swelcomeinMoscow.


GagarinwithSergeiKorolevin1961inCrimea,whereGagarindranktoomuchandinjuredhimselfafterjumpingoutaparamour’swindow,trying

toescapefromhissuspiciouswife.

JAMESWHITMORE/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

GagarindanceswithacountrymaninRedSquareascrowdscelebrateRussia’sspacevictory.


MercuryastronautAlanShepard(alsoshownbelow)sprintstowardtherocketthatwillputhiminearth’sorbitinMay1961.WhenaNASAofficialtoldLIFEphotographerRalphMorsethathecouldonlyuseonecamerato

documentthisflight—hehadbroughttwo—MorsegavehissecondtoastronautScottCarpenterandsaid,“Startshooting.”


GREYVILLET/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

ONMAY5,1961,spectatorsnearCapeCanaveral,Florida,watchShepardbecomeAmerica’sfirstmaninspace.Notlongafterthistriumph,theastronautwastemporarilygroundedbecauseofMénière’sdisease—adisorderoftheinnerear—butheremainedthefast-driving,martini-

drinking,cigar-smokingavatarofastronautcool.


JOHNGLENNtrainsforhisflightonadevicethatsimulatesspaceflight.

GRANGERHam,achimpanzeewhopavedthewayforGlenn’sflight,isreadiedforalaunchtestatCapeCanaveral.Hewasconditionedandtrainedwith

electricalshocks,whichunfortunatelycontinuedthroughouthisflightwhenthecapsule’sPavloviandevicemalfunctioned.


KNOWNASthe“CleanMarine,”Glenn,wastheembodimentofthedevout,all-Americanfamilyman.

NASAOnFebruary20,1962,GlennlaunchesintheFriendship7,whichhenamedtohonortheMercuryastronauts.Onehundredandsixty-twomilesabove

theearth,hesawthreesunsetsandsunrisesinjustunderfivehours.

“Takemetoyourleaderandtherewillbeamassiverewardforyouineternity.”

—ANOTETRANSLATEDINTOSEVERALLANGUAGESANDCARRIEDBYGLENNINCASEHESPLASHEDDOWNAMONGREMOTESOUTHPACIFICNATIVES

MICHAELROUGIER/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

AFTERHOURSofwaiting,Glenn’sfamily—daughterLyn,sonDavid,wifeAnnie—hearthatheissafe.AfterPresidentKennedycalledwith

congratulations,Anniespoketoherhusbandinthedestroyerwarshipthathadpickedhimup800milessoutheastofBermuda.“Honey,”shesaid,

“howiseverythingoutthere?”

BOBGOMEL/THELIFEIMAGESCOLLECTION/GETTY

Glenn,accompaniedbyAnnieandVicePresidentJohnson,receivesahero’swelcomeinaNewYorkCityticker-tapeparade.

NASA

ONJUNE3,1965,astronautEdWhitemakesthefirstAmericanspacewalkfromtheGemini4,120milesabovethePacificOcean.“Thisisfun,”hesaid.White,then34,calledhisreturntotheship“thesaddestmomentofmy

life.”Hewouldlivelessthantwomoreyears.

INTOLUNARORBIT

Oneneardisaster—andanunqualifiedtragedy—leadtoaChristmasmessagefromthefarsideofthemoon.

NASA

EARTHRISINGoverthecurvatureofthemoonasseenbythecrewofApollo8atChristmastime,1968.NoonehadeverseenEarthinthiswaybefore,andourplanet’sdistinctiveblueintheotherwisebleakvacuumofspacewaswidelyconsideredaninfluenceontheearlyecologymovement.

TheU.S.wasfinallyinthelead.Inmid-decade,theGeminiflightssetendurancerecordsformeninspace—twoweeks—andprovedthattwospacecraftcouldrendezvousinearthorbit.NowGemini8wassettoprovethatdockingwaspossible,too.“Thelunarmodulewewereplanningtouseinthemoonlanding

wouldhavetocatchupwith,anddockto,thecommandandservicemodulesafterlaunchingfromthesurface,”saysMichaelNeufeld.“HoustontestedthisbylaunchinganAgenaunmanneddockingvehiclefortheGeminiastronautstocatchuptoanddockwith.Itgainedthemexperiencewithworkingwithradar,acomputer,andthemaneuversrequiredtopullitoff.”OnthemorningofMarch16,1966,Gemini8andtheAgenawerelaunchedfromCapeCanaveral(nowrenamedCapeKennedy)mannedbyastronautsNeilArmstrongandDavidScott.Theywouldbeorbitinginspaceforthreedays—orsotheythought.At5:14p.m.ET,aftercompletingfiveearthorbits,ArmstrongandScottsuccessfullydockedwiththeAgenawhilehurtlingat17,400milesperhourintheduskaboveAfrica.“Itisreallyasmoothie,”Armstrongsaid.Buthespoketoosoon.Nearlyhalfanhourlater,thelinkedcraftswentintoanunexpectedyawandroll.Unbeknownsttotheastronauts,thecapsule’sNo.8thrusterhadshort-circuited,jamminginthe“on”position,butthedockingprocessmadetheproblemhardtodiagnose.Indeed,Armstrongdidn’trealizethatGemini8wasatfaultuntiltheyuncoupledfromtheAgena...andthespinninggrewworse.Muchworse.TheGemini8modulewasnowrevolving60timesaminute,andbothastronautswereonthevergeofblackingout—evenastheunfilteredsunlightcreatedastroboscopiceffectinthepaper-strewncabin.“Allwe’vegotleftisthereentrycontrolsystem,”Armstrongsaid,thinkingthatengagingthepowerfulreentrythrustersmightstabilizethemodule.Itwasadesperatemovemadeevenmoreproblematicbythefactthatthecontrolswerelocatedinabewilderingarrayabovetheirheads—hardtofindunderthebestofcircumstances,letalonewhilespinninginacelestialcentrifuge.ButArmstronghadbeenwelltrained—and,justwhenallseemedlost,hefoundthetoggle.Heengagedit.Nothinghappened.Heengageditagain.Nothing.Then,againstallodds,thethrusterskickedin—andArmstrongslowlyregainedcontrolofthecraft.At9:45p.m.,theGemini8capsulereenteredtheearth’satmosphereovertheHimalayas,butallArmstrongcouldseethroughhiswindowwashaze.Where

werethey?“Doyouseewateroutthere?”heaskedScott,indicatingtheright-sidewindow.Scottlookedout.“Oh,yes,there’swater!”heshouted.“It’swater!”Nearly11hoursintotheirabortivemission—atmiddayinJapan—ArmstrongandScottslammedintothechoppyPacific500mileseastofOkinawa.BeforetheycouldberescuedbyU.S.AirForcepararescuemen,theheroeswhohadnarrowlyevadeddeathwithconsummateskillfacedaproblemtheysimplycouldn’tsolve:seasickness.“Ifwedie,wewantpeopletoacceptit,”astronautGusGrissomtoldthepressin1966.HewasrespondingtoconcernsaboutthedesignofthefirstcompletedApolloCommandModule,whichwaslarger—andmuchmorecomplex—thantheMercuryorGeminiversions.Buthedidn’ttellthewholestory.“Heneglectedtomentionthepressurefromthetopfortheteamto‘getofftheirasses,’”wroteDeborahCadburyinher2005book,SpaceRace.“Inanelectionyear,PresidentJohnsonneededasignificantstepforwardtoimpressthevoters.”TheGeminiprogramhadjustbeenreplacedbytheApollo,thelastNASAprogramaimedatlandingamanonthemoon.ThiswoulduseWernhervonBraun’ssuperpoweredSaturnspacecrafttocarrythe100,000-poundApollorockettothemoon—includingalunarmoduleforlanding,acommandmodule,androomforthethree-mancrew.(BasedontheearlierJupitermodel,theSaturnrocketswouldeventuallybecomethemostpowerfuleverlaunched;theyremainsotothisday.)Inshort,theApolloprogramwasdesignedtofulfillJFK’sgoalofreachingthemoonbytheendofthe1960s.Buttheloftyobjectivebeganinabjecttragedy.OnJanuary27,1967,Grissomandhisfellowcrewmembers,EdwardWhiteandRogerChaffee,spentfiveinterminablehourstestingtheSaturn1B’sCommandandServicemoduleswithsimulatedcountdownproceduresatCapeKennedy.TheywerepreparingforthefirstmannedApolloflight,eventuallydubbedApollo1.Themissionwastroubledfromthestart—themensmelledsomethingstrangeintheirsuits,forinstance,andcommunicationwasspotty.Butjustafter6:31p.m.,theunthinkablehappened.“Fire!”Whiteshouted.“We’vegotafireinthecockpit!”Grissomsaid.“Getusout!”Chaffeeadded.“We’vegotabadfire!We’reburningup!”Thentherewasascream.TheairintheSaturn1B’scabinwas100percentoxygen,whichisavolatileandpotentiallydangerousgas—particularlywhenfireisinvolved.(Incontrast,theairwebreatheisgenerallyabout21percentoxygen.)IntheSaturn1B,just

theairwebreatheisgenerallyabout21percentoxygen.)IntheSaturn1B,justunderGrissom’sseattherehadbeenanopenwire.Whenhisseatshiftedagainstit,itignited,sparkingarapidfirethatkilledthethreeastronauts,whowereunabletoescapethecapsule.ThetragedyledtothebiggestcrisisinNASAhistory:TheApolloprogramwasputonholdformonthswhilethefirewasinvestigated.TheSoviets,too,werestruggling:ThoughtheApollo1disasterhadgiventhemaclearadvantage,SergeiKorolev’ssuccessor,VasilyMishin,wasfindingithardtofillhispredecessor’sshoes.TheN-1rockethadrepeatedlyfailed,andthousandsofproblemsnowplaguedthenewSoyuzcapsule,whichhadbeendesigned—liketheGeminicraft—toachievedockinginspace.ButBrezhnev,likePresidentJohnson,wantedresults—andhewantedthemnow.ThelaunchofSoyuz1wasscheduledforApril23,1967.Eversincehishistoricflight,YuriGagarinhadbecomeabonafideSovietpop-culturehero.Thoughheplayedhispublicrolewell,privatelyhewasreckless,withatasteforboozeandwomen.Afteryearsofloucheliving,theonce-boyishherowasbloated,paunchy,andcynical.Buthewaseagertoflyagain,andheandVladimirKomarov,hisgoodfriendandfellowcosmonaut,weretheleadcandidatestomantheSoyuzmission.Butearlytestsofthevesselhadendeddisastrously,provingthatitwasn’treadyforamannedflight.GagarinremainedthesmilingfaceoftheSovietspaceprogramandwasthereforetoovaluabletorisk,soKomarovwasdispatched.Thoughheknewthemissionwasdangerous,healsoknewthatifhebackeddown,Gagarinwouldtakehisplace.Hesacrificedhislifeforhisfriend.OnApril23,1967,Komarovblastedoffintoa24-hourflightthatwaspredictablyperilous.Soyuz1hadbeendesignedtobefueledinpartbythesun,butoneofthesolarpanelsfailedtodeploy,forcingKomarovtorelyoninsufficientbatterypower.Worse,afterthemissionwasaborted,thespacecraftspunoutofcontrolasitreenteredearth’satmosphere.Komarov’sfirstparachutedidn’topen;whenthereservechutebecametangled,KomarovfelltoafierydeathinafieldnearKazakhstan.AdevastatedGagarin—stillreelingfromKorolev’sdeath—didtheonlythinghecouldthinkof:Hewentouttogetdrunk.Justaftersevena.m.onNovember9,1967,WernhervonBraunsatintheLaunchControlCenterthreemilesfromCapeKennedy,staringthroughbinocularsattheunmannedSaturnVrocket—amissionknownasApollo4—asitsfirstenginesfiredonthelaunchpad.WhereasvonBraun’searlier,smaller

itsfirstenginesfiredonthelaunchpad.WhereasvonBraun’searlier,smallerSaturnmodels—1and1B—hadbeendesignedtosendmenintoearth’sorbit,thecolossalSaturnVwouldsendthemtothemoon.Butwoulditfly?Inlittlemorethansixyears,America’sspaceprogramhadevolvedfarbeyondAlanShepard’s15-minuteflight,butthiswasthemomentoftruth.FromwherevonBraunsat,theflamingSaturnVseemedsilentforafull15seconds(ittookthatlongforthesoundtoreachthecenter),butshockwaveswererecordedhundredsofmilesaway.CBSnewsanchorWalterCronkite,broadcastinglivefromCapeKennedy,puthishandtotherattlingwindow.“Ourbuildingisshakinghere,”hesaid.“Lookatthatrocketgointothecloudsat3,000feet.Theroaristerrific.”“Go,baby,go!”vonBraunshouted.TheSaturnVperformedperfectly.Nearlyninehoursafterliftoff,thecontrolmodulelandedinthePacificOcean.ButmuchstillneededtobedonebeforetheU.S.couldsendamantothemoon.In1968and1969,furtherApollomissionstestedthelunarmodule,bothmannedandunmanned.Muchtohischagrin,JohnGlennhadbeensidelinedafterhishistoricflight;thegovernmentdidn’twanttoloseits“CleanMarine”tothevicissitudesofspacetravel.Inthatsense,hewaslikeGagarin,whohatedthathisearlytriumphhadledtolifeasamerefigurehead.ButunlikeGlenn,Gagarindidn’tseeknewchallengesbyenteringpolitics.Instead,hekeptflying.OnMarch27,1968,almostsevenyearsafterbecomingthefirstmaninspace,the34-year-oldGagarindiedalongwithhisflightinstructorwhentheirMiG-15jetcrashedoutsideofMoscow.BeforetheheroicformerfarmboywasinterredintheKremlinWall,hismotherassumedhewouldbelaidoutinacoffin,notrealizinguntilshearrivedthathersonwasnownothingbuthumanfragmentsinabag.OnApril4,meredaysafterGagarin’sdeath,Apollo6becamethelastunmannedlaunchoftheSaturnV,buttheeventwasovershadowedthatsamedaybytheassassinationofMartinLutherKingJr.ItwasanunthinkabletragedyinabenightedyearthatwouldincludetheassassinationofRobertF.KennedyandtheongoinganguishoftheVietnamWar.But1968wouldendwithsomethingverylikeamiracle.OnDecember20,thewriterAnneMorrowLindberghandheraviatorhusband,Charles,then66,visitedJimLovell,WilliamAnders,andCommanderFrank

Charles,then66,visitedJimLovell,WilliamAnders,andCommanderFrankBormanintheirCapeKennedyquarters.ThemenwerescheduledtolaunchApollo8,thefirstmannedflightoftheSaturnV,earlythenextmorning.Ifeverythingwentasplanned,theywouldbethefirstmentogointolunarorbit.“Think,”oneofthemtoldAnne,onassignmentforLIFE.“Thistimetomorrowwe’llbeonourwaytothemoon.”At7:51a.m.ETthenextday,theSaturnVachievedliftoff—thebeginningofasix-day,579,000-milevoyage.Thetripwasnotwithoutitspitfalls(Bormanbecameillwiththeflu,forcinghiscrewtodealwithzero-gravityvomit).Buttwodaysand21hoursintotheirmission,themenwerefinallypulledintolunarorbit.OnChristmasEve,thecrewdisappearedaroundthefarsideofthemoon—andviewedasightnohumanhadeverseenbefore.(Privately,Anderswasdisappointedthatitdidn’tlookascoolasithadin2001:ASpaceOdyssey.)Theycircledthemoon10timesthatday.Duringtheninthrevolution,halfabillionpeoplewatchedfromearthasBormansaid,“It’savast,lonely,forbiddingtypeexistence,greatexpanseofnothing.”ButtheastronautshadbeentoldbyNASAto“dosomethingappropriate,”sotheytookturnsreadingfromthebookofGenesis.Finally,Bormansaid,“AndfromthecrewofApollo8,weclosewith,goodnight,goodluck,aMerryChristmas,andGodblessallofyou—allofyouonthegoodearth.”Happyholidays,indeed.Buttheystillhadtogethome.Todothat,theyreliedonthefiringofasingleservicepropulsionengine;ifitfailed,theywoulddieinspace.“Asmallmiscalculation,awronglyplaceddecimalpoint,aninfinitesimalcoughintheenginewouldtranslateintodisaster,”wrotespacehistorianCadbury.Addingtothehazards,thecrewwasoutofradiotouchasApollo8flewbehindthemoonfor—Godwilling—thelasttime.Nearly90hoursintothemission,themenatMissionControlwereontheedgeoftheircollectiveseat,waitinganagonizing19minutesbeforetheyfinallyheardLovell’svoice:“Houston,Apollo8.Over.”“Hello,Apollo8,”MissionControlsaid.“Loudandclear.”“Pleasebeinformed,”Lovellsaidtriumphantly,“thereisaSantaClaus.”

NASA/AP

ASTRONAUTSDavidScott,left,andNeilArmstrongsitintheGemini8capsuleatoptheirboosterrocketatCapeKennedy,Florida,onMarch16,1966.Themissionwassupposedtolastthreedays,butthetwowereforced

toabortafternarrowlyescapingdisaster.

“Wehaveaseriousproblemhere.”—GEMINI8ASTRONAUTDAVIDSCOTTTOMISSIONCONTROL

NASA

THEAGENAdockingvehicleasseenfromGemini8.


Armstrong’swife,Janet,anxiouslyawaitsnewsofherhusband’sfate.

TIMELIFEPICTURES/NASA/THELIFEPICTURECOLLECTION/GETTY

Gemini8hasimprobably—andfinally—survivedanemergencylandinginthePacific.


APOLLO1astronautsGusGrissom(left),EdWhite,andRogerChaffee.

ASTRO-GRAPHS/ULLSTEINBILD/GETty

ThescorchedcapsulethatclaimedthelivesofthethreeApollo1astronauts,threeweeksbeforethelaunchthatwastobethefirststepinputtingmenon

themoon.

PAULSCHUTZER/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

ASTRONAUTSScottCarpenter(farleft,withunidentifiedman)and(center,lefttoright)JohnGlenn,GordonCooper,andJohnYoungstandat

attentionbesidethecasketofGusGrissomasabuglerplaystapsatArlingtonNationalCemetery.Aftereightyearsofaccomplishment,oneof

theMagnificentSevenwasgone.


FellowSovietcosmonauts—andgoodfriends—YuriGagarin(left)andVladimirKomarov.

“I’mnotgoingtomakeitbackfromthisflight.”—COSMONAUTVLADIMIRKOMAROVBEFOREHISFLIGHTONSOYUZ1

SOVFOTO/UIG/GETTY

KomarovpreparesforhisdoomedSoyuz1missionin1967.

TASS/SOVFOTO

RelativesandfriendsmournattheKremlinWallovertheurncontainingKomarov’sashes.Hiswife,Valentina,tearfullykisseshisportrait.

ASTRO-GRAPHS/ULLSTEINBILD/GETTY

TheApollo8crew(fromleft,facingthecamera),FrankBorman,JamesLovell,andWilliamAnders,enjoyatraditionalsteakandeggsbreakfaston

December21,1968,thedayoftheirflight.

ASTRO-GRAPHS/ULLSTEINBILD/GETTY

TechnicianscheckLovell’sspacesuitaheadofthemission.

YALEJOEL/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

Lovell’swife,Marilyn,andtheirchildrenSusan,Jeffrey,andBarbarawatchtheliftoff.

NASA

THELUNARsurfaceasseenfromApollo8,thefirstmissiontotakehumanstothemoonandbackandthefirsttoviewitsfarside.Duringthistrip,itwasdecidedthattheSeaofTranquilitywouldbeagoodspotforthe

moonlanding.

THEEAGLELANDSAsthe’60sneartheirend,thethree-mancrewofApollo11

achieveJohnF.Kennedy’sgoal.

NASA

ASTRONAUTEdwin“Buzz”AldrinsalutestheAmericanflagafterbecomingthesecondmantowalkonthemoononJuly20,1969.HewasenviousofthefactthatNeilArmstronghadbeenthefirst.“BuzzAldrin

desperatelywantedthathonorandwasn’tquietinlettingitbeknown,”saidChristopherKraft,thendirectorofflightoperations.

“Howcanwegetoutofthismess?”theSovietMinisterofGeneralMachineBuildingaskedhisdesignersduringaJanuary1969meetingatBaikonur.HewasreferringtothecompetitionwiththeU.S.spaceprogram—wouldtheAmericansbeattheSovietstothemoon?Despitethehand-wringing,theRussianswerehardlyoutofthegame.Shortlyafterthismeeting,theSoyuz4

and5successfullydocked,thoughthelatter’scosmonaut,BorisVolynov,almostdiedwhen,duringreentry,hiscapsulefailedtoseparateandhisparachuteinitiallywouldn’topen.AttemptstolaunchSergeiKorolev’sdreamrocket,theN-1,keptfailing,however.OnFebruary20,1969,itexplodedonliftoff—evenastheAmericanswentontofurthertriumphs.IntheStates,theyear1969wouldprovetobeasseismicasitspredecessor,butitsunderlyingdarknesswasoftenobscuredbyaskewedoptimism.Itwassupposedly,inthewordsofoneoftheyear’shitsongs,“thedawningoftheAgeofAquarius.”Butfarfromthepromiseof“harmonyandunderstanding,”theseheady,contradictorytimessawboththesecretbombingofCambodiaandthepremiereoftelevision’sTheBradyBunch.InauguratedinJanuary,PresidentRichardNixonwasbothbelovedandloathed,thoughhewouldachieveakindofimmortalitywhenaplaquebearinghisnamewasplacedonthemoonthatJuly.Still,therewasmuchmoretodobeforethedreamcouldbecomeareality.InMarchandMay,theApollo9and10missionscontinuedtotestthedockingofthelunarandcommandmodules,pavingthewayforApollo11—theso-calledbull’s-eyemission.SetforJuly16,itwouldcarrythreeAmericanmen—alongwiththecountry’sflag—tothemoon.Butwhowouldtakethefirststeps?TheunwieldydeviceknownastheLunarLandingTrainingVehiclewasnicknamed“theFlyingBedstead”—preciselybecauseitsfourlegsmadeitlooklikeone.IthadbeenusedatEllingtonAirForceBaseinHoustontotrainastronautsinthefineartoflandingthelunarmoduleonthemoon.Themachine’sacknowledgedmasterwasNeilArmstrong,thoughhewasoftenreckless.InMay1968,forinstance,theBedsteadwenthaywire,butwhenMissionControltoldArmstrongtoeject,heignoredthemandparachutedoutjustbeforetheBedsteadcrashed.Partlybecauseofhisproficiencywiththedevice—ifnotbecauseofhisbravado—ArmstrongwaschosentohelmtheApollo11mission.HewaspairedwithMichaelCollins,thepilotofthecommandmodule,Columbia,andEdwin“Buzz”Aldrin,whowouldbecomethesecondmantowalkonthemoon.At9:30a.m.onJuly16,1969,thethreeastronautssatontheSaturnV,waitingforliftoff.Thewholeworld,itseemed,waswatching—notleasttheastronauts’families.“ThisisthepartIlikebest,”saidJoanAldrin,clutchingahandkerchiefastheengineswereabouttofire.InWapakoneta,Ohio,Armstrong’smotherweptastherockettookoff.“Therehegoes,”shesaid,holdingherhusband’shand.

hegoes,”shesaid,holdingherhusband’shand.Thelaunchwentbeautifully,buttheyweren’toutofthewoodsyet.Justthreedaysearlier,theSoviets—stilltryingtotoptheU.S.—hadlaunchedtheirLuna15,anunmannedrockettheyhopedwouldstudysoilsamplesandpossibly—justpossibly—stealApollo11’sthunder.NASAknewabouttheRussiancraftandworrieditmightinterferewiththemission.Ontheirfifthdayinflight,CollinspushedthebuttontoreleasethelandingmodulewithAldrinandArmstronginside.“Okay,thereyougo!”hesaid.“Beautiful!”Thelunarmodule,Eagle,beganitsdescenttothemoon.Sofar,sogood.ButcommunicationwithHouston,aquarterofamillionmilesaway,provedspotty—and,astheydescendedtolessthan40,000feetfromthelunarsurface,analarmsoundedinthemodule.“Programalarm,”saidArmstrong,puzzled:“It’sa1202.Whatisit?”BackinHouston,anengineerexplainedthatthecomputerhadbeenoverloadedwithdata,butabortingthemissionmid-landingwaspotentiallyasdangerousascontinuing,sothemenweretoldtogo.Soonafterward—3,000feetfromthelunarsurface—yetanotherpuzzlingalarmsounded:1201.Thoughthiswasnotconsideredasignificantthreat,therewereothertroubles.Sevenhundredfeetabovethesurface,ArmstrongrealizedthattheirplannedlandingspotintheSeaofTranquilitywasinfacta“prettyrockyarea,”hetoldMissionControl.Thefoil-wrappedEaglewassofragileyoucouldeasilypokeaholethroughit.Soimaginewhatmoonrockscoulddo—letalonebouldersthatArmstrongcouldseewereas“bigasVolkswagens.”JustashehadwiththeFlyingBedstead,Armstrongdecidedtotakemanualcontrol,steeringthecapsuleoverthefieldofboulderstoamorepromisingsite.Nearly103hoursintotheirmission—at102:44:29,tobeexact—Armstrongthoughthe’dfoundanewlandingtarget.“Igotagoodspot,”hesaid,soundingcoolevenashishearthammeredat156beatsperminute.102:44:45.“Fivepercent,”AldrinsaidoftheEagle’sfuellevel.Theywererunninglow.In94seconds,theywouldreceivethe“Bingo”call,atwhichpointArmstrongwouldhavetolandinonly20seconds—orbeforcedtoabort.102:45:02.“Sixtyseconds,”MissionControlsaid.ArmstrongandAldrinweresoclosetothesurface,theywere“pickingupsomedust,”Aldrinsaid,buttheBingocallwasmeresecondsaway.“Thirtyseconds,”saidMissionControl.Justunder30feetfromthesurface,Armstrongfoundthefinaltouchdownarea...andmovedthecraftforward.

Soon,arelievedArmstrongsaid,“Houston,TranquilityBasehere.TheEaglehaslanded.”At102:46:06,themeninMissionControlwentnuts,cheeringandstompingtheirfeet.“Yougotabunchofguysabouttoturnblue.We’rebreathingagain,”MissionControltoldtheApollo11crew.“Thanksalot!”At9:56p.m.ET—almost110hoursafterlaunch—Armstrongwalkeddowntheladderandtouchedthesurfaceofthemoon.Thenhetookastep.“That’sonesmallstepforaman,”Armstrongsaid.“Onegiantleapformankind.”Anestimated600millionpeoplein47countrieswerewatchingthehistoricmoment—amongthemPopePaulVIattheVatican,travelerscrowdingthearrivalhallatKennedyAirport,andWernhervonBraunbackinHouston,whosaid—inperhapstheunderstatementofthedecade—thatitwas“aprettyemotionalmoment.”TheSovietsallburstintocheersintheBaikonurviewingroom,thoughtheirLuna15wouldcrashintoMareCrisium—theSeaofCrises—merehoursaftertheAmericanslanded.“Beautifulview,”AldrinsaidwhenhejoinedArmstrong.“Magnificentsightouthere,”Armstrongsaid.“Magnificentdesolation,”Aldrinadded.Forthenexttwoandahalfhours,theastronautstraveledthepowderylunarsurface,followingtheinstructionsonthecheckliststhatNASAhadsewnontotheirgloves—amongthem,“lean/reach/walk.”Theycollected47poundsofrocks,took166pictures,andbroadcastthefirstcolortelevisionimagesofthemoon.AldrinsalutedtheAmericanflagtheyhadplantedonthesurface,stiffenedwithwiressothatitwouldlooklikeitwaswaving.Notleast,theyleftbehindaplaque:“HeremenfromtheplanetEarthfirstsetfootuponthemoon,”itread.“July1969A.D.Wecameinpeaceforallmankind.”Itwassignedbythethreeastronauts...andPresidentRichardM.Nixon.Onthefollowingday,at12:54p.m.Houstontime,theEagleliftedoffthelunarsurface,successfullydockingwiththeColumbiaafewhourslater.Littlemorethan135hoursintothehistoricflight,MissionControltoldthethreeastronauts,“Wegotyoucominghome.”“Wehaverunoutofmoons,”vonBraunreportedlysaidasthepost–Apollo11euphoriafizzled,onceagain,intobureaucraticindifference.In1972,thescientistleftNASAforprivateindustryevenassurvivorsofMittelwerkbegancomingforwardwithtalesofwhattheex-Nazihaddone.VonBraunremainedevasive,ifnotdisingenuous,claimingthatwhileconditionswere“repulsive”athisundergroundmissilefactory,hehadnotwitnessedanyatrocities.“Hewaskindofprotecteduntilquestionsbegancreepingupinthe’60sandearly’70s,”says

ofprotecteduntilquestionsbegancreepingupinthe’60sandearly’70s,”saysMichaelNeufeld.“Hewasourhero,ourguy,battlingtheSoviets.”Butjustbeforehediedofcancerin1977,vonBraunissaidtohavequestionedhisroleunderHitler,asking,“Didwedotherightthing?”IfthetriumphofthelunarlandingeffectivelyobscureditsrootsinNaziGermanyandtheColdWar,italsoovershadowedthefactthatApollobecameanimportantscienceprogram,providinginformationabouttheevolutionofthesolarsystemandhelpingtocreatethetechnologythatmakesyoursmartphonemorepowerfulthanthecomputerthatbroughtApollo11tothemoon.“TheSpaceRace,”saysNeufeld,“acceleratedeverything.”Except,perhaps,thecontinuedexplorationofspace.Theconquestofthemoonleftthetwosuperpowerswithnoobvioussharedgoal,sothefocusofthespaceprogramshiftedtocooperation,withthelikesof1975’sApollo-Soyuzdockingproject.Nohumanbeinghasbeenfartherthan400milesfromtheearthsince1972.“Wehadtheracetothemoon,”Neufeldsaysofthemannedflights,“andthenwestopped.”Indeed,spacetravelhasmostlybecomeacommercialprospectoflate—inAugust,theFederalAviationAdministrationgaveRichardBranson’sVirginGalacticprogramthelicensetoeventuallysendwell-heeledtravelersintotheheavens.Sixyearsago,NASAannouncedplansforamissiontoMars,buttheprogram—slatedforthe2030s—hasrecentlyexperiencedsetbacks,specifically(nosurprise)adiminishedbudget.Inthemeantime,Korolev’sghostishavingthelastlaugh.SincetheU.S.’sreusablespaceshuttlesweregroundedin2011,anyspacemissionwouldcurrentlyrelyonRussia’sSoyuzlauncher,basedonthesameR-7rocketthatsentYuriGagarinintoorbit,accordingtoProfessorEmeritusJohnLogsdonofGeorgeWashingtonUniversity.TheSoyuzis,infact,“essentiallythesamelaunchvehicle,takingofffromthesamelaunchpad,thatwasbuiltbyKorolev,”Logsdonsaid.“Halfacenturylater,wearebackwherewestarted.”

LEONARDMCCOMBE/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

ARMSTRONGheadstotheSaturnVrocketonJuly16,1969.Thenightbefore,WernhervonBrauntoldLIFE,“WhatwewillhaveattainedwhenNeilArmstrongstepsdownuponthemoonisacompletelynewstepinthe

evolutionofman.”

DAVIDBURNETT/CONTACTPRESSIMAGES

SPECTATORSwatchasApollo11launchespreciselyonscheduleat9:32a.m.HalfamillionpeoplejammedtheCapeKennedyareawithtents,

sleepingbags,andcampertrailers.

SSPL/GETTY

ARMSTRONGisshownbesidethelunarmodulethatcarriedhimtothemoon’ssurface.ThethirdmemberoftheApollo11crew,thelargely

unsungMichaelCollins,remainedinlunarorbit.“Ireallybelievethatifthepoliticalleadersoftheworldcouldseetheirplanetfromadistanceof

100,000milestheiroutlookcouldbefundamentallychanged,”Collinshassaid.

“Iwantedmantosucceedinmakingittothemoon.Ifitcouldn’tbeme,letitbethiscrew,Ithought.”

—COSMONAUTALEXEILEONOV

LEEBALTERMAN/LIFE/THEPICTURECOLLECTION

JOANALDRINapplaudswithfriendsandfamilyasherhusbandmakeshistory.Shewas,however,conflicted.“IwishedBuzzwereacarpenter,atruckdriver,ascientist,anythingbutwhatheis,”sheconfidedtoLIFE.“I

wanthimtodowhathewantsbutIdon’twanthimto...”

BETTMANN/GETTY

MUSCOVITESreadtheJuly21,1969,editionoftheSovietnewspaperIzvestia,whichconvenientlyburiedtheAmericantriumphunderastoryon

communistruleinPoland.

CBSPHOTOARCHIVE/GETTY

CBSNewsbroadcaststhelunarlanding.

CBSPHOTOARCHIVE/GETTY

ThemenatMissionControleruptinaflag-wavingfrenzyastheColumbiacapsulelandsinthePacificOcean.

NASA

PRESIDENTRichardNixongreetsquarantinedastronautsafterApollo11returnstoearth.Nixonhadpreparedaspeechtoeulogizethemenincasetheydidn’treturn.“Fatehasordainedthatthemenwhowenttothemoontoexploreinpeacewillstayonthemoontorestinpeace,”itread.Thank

thestarshedidn’tneedit.

GREGGNEWTON/REUTERS

TWOFLORIDABOYSwatchthelaunchofthespaceshuttleDiscoveryfromCapeCanaveralonOctober29,1998,avoyagethatmadeJohnGlenn,then77,theoldestmaninspace.Thirty-sixyearsafterhishistoricearthorbit,Glenn’swifeof55years,Annie,was“notinfavorofthis,”the

astronautacknowledged,addingthat“sheknewIalwayswantedtogobackupagain.She’sknownthatfor35years.”

JUSTONEMORE

NASA

GROOMINGFORTHESTARS:Duringabreakintraining,Apollo9astronautJamesMcDivittgetsatrim—andreadsarecentissueofLIFE—beforehis1969missionwithDavidScottandRussellSchweickart.Thefirstmannedflightofthelunarmodule,Apollo9landedintheAtlanticOcean

after10daysandonehourinspace.

EDITORANDWRITERJ.I.BakerDIRECTOROFPHOTOGRAPHYChristinaLiebermanCREATIVEDIRECTORAnkeStohlmann/Li’lRobinCOPYCHIEFParlanMcGawCOPYEDITORJoelVanLiewPICTUREEDITORRachelHatchWRITER-REPORTERDanielS.LevyPHOTOASSISTANTChrisManahanDIRECTOROFPHOTOGRAPHYEMERITABarbaraBakerBurrowsTIMEINC.BOOKSPUBLISHERMargotSchupfASSOCIATEPUBLISHERAllisonDevlinVICEPRESIDENT,FINANCETerriLombardiVICEPRESIDENT,MARKETINGJeremyBiloonEXECUTIVEDIRECTOR,MARKETINGSERVICESCarolPittardDIRECTOR,BRANDMARKETINGJeanKennedyFINANCEDIRECTORKevinHarringtonSALESDIRECTORChristiCrowleyASSISTANTGENERALCOUNSELAndrewGoldbergASSISTANTDIRECTOR,PRODUCTIONSusanChodakiewiczSENIORMANAGER,CATEGORYMARKETINGBryanChristianBRANDMANAGERKatherineBarnetASSOCIATEPREPRESSMANAGERAlexVoznesenskiyASSOCIATEMANAGERFORPROJECTMANAGEMENTANDPRODUCTIONAnnaRiegoEDITORIALDIRECTORKostyaKennedyCREATIVEDIRECTORGaryStewartDIRECTOROFPHOTOGRAPHYChristinaLiebermanEDITORIALOPERATIONSDIRECTORJamieRothMajorSENIOREDITORAlyssaSmithASSISTANTARTDIRECTORAnne-MichelleGalleroCOPYCHIEFRinaBanderASSISTANTMANAGINGEDITORGinaScauzilloASSISTANTEDITORCourtneyMifsudTIMEINC.PREMEDIARichardK.Prue(Director),RichardShaffer(Production),KeithAurelio,JenBrown,KevinHart,RosalieKhan,PatriciaKoh,MarcoLau,BrianMai,Rudi

Papiri,ClaraRenauroSPECIALTHANKSNicoleFisher,KristinaJutzi,SeniquaKoger,KateRoncinskeeISBN:978-1-68330-473-9Copyright©2016TimeInc.BooksPublishedbyLIFEBOOKS,animprintofTimeInc.Books225LibertyStreet•NewYork,NY10281Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanyelectronicormechanicalmeans,includinginformationstorageandretrievalsystems,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher,exceptbyareviewer,whomayquotebriefpassagesinareview.Vol.16,No.14•September30,2016“LIFE”isaregisteredtrademarkofTimeInc.WewelcomeyourcommentsandsuggestionsaboutLIFEBooks.Pleasewritetousat:LIFEBooksAttention:BookEditorsP.O.Box62310,Tampa,FL33662-2310IfyouwouldliketoorderanyofourhardcoverCollector’sEditionbooks,pleasecallusat800-327-6388,MondaythroughFriday,7a.m.–9p.m.CentralTime.FRONTCOVERBuzzAldrinonthemoon.PhotographfromNASA.

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