LET Reviewer in Philippine Government and Constitution with Taxation part 2

Philippine Government and ConstitutionElements of State

1.       People2.       Territory3.       Government4.       Sovereignty1.       internal2.       external

Origin of States1.       Devine Right Theory2.       Necessity or Force Theory3.       Paternalistic Theory4.       Social Contract Theory

Origin of State

There are several theories on the origin of state, but it is not known exactly which is of

them is the correct one.

1. Divine right theory - state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by God to govern

the people.

2. Necessity or force theory - state is created through force, by strong warriors who

imposed their will upon the weak.

3. Paternalistic theory - state comes from the expansion of family, under the authority of

the father. Family grew into a clan, then developed into tribe which broadened into a

nation, and a nation became a state.

4. Social contract theory - states have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact

among the people to form a society and organize government for their common good.

State distinguished from nationState is a political concept while nation is an ethnic concept.State is not subject to external control while nation may or may not be.A single state may consist of one or more nations or people and conversely, a single nation may be made up of several states.Purpose and Necessity of Government

1.       Advancement of the public welfare2.       Consequence of absence

Forms of GovernmentAs to number of persons exercising sovereign powers:

1.       Monarchy1.       absolute2.       limited1.       Aristocracy2.       Democracy

1. direct or pure democracy 2. Indirect, representative, or republicanAs to extent of powers exercise by the central or national government:

1.       Unitary government2.       Federal Government

As to relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government:3.       Parliamentary government4.       Presidential government

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES IN TRANSITION The pre-Spanish government

1.       Unit of government2.       Datu3.       Social classes in the government1.       nobility2.       freemen3.       serfs4.       slaves4.       Early Laws1.       Maragtas Code2.       Kalantiaw Code

Government during the Spanish period1.       Spain’s title to the Philippines2.       Spanish Colonial government3.       Government in the Philippines unitary4.       The Governor-General5.       The Judiciary

Government during the Revolutionary era1.       The Katipunan government2.       The Biak-na-bato republic3.       The Dictatorial Government4.       The Revolutionary Government5.       The First Philippine Republic

Governments during the American regime1.       The Military Government2.        The Civil Government

3.       The Commonwealth Government of the PhilippinesGovernment during the Japanese occupation

1.       The Japanese Military Administration2.       The Philippine Executive Commissions3.       The Japanese-sponsored Republic of the Philippines

The Provisional Government of 19861.       Revolutionary2.       De jure./ de facto – the first is one constituted or founded in accordance with the existing constituted not in

accordance with the procedure provided in an existing constitution of the sate, while the other is not so constituted or founded but has the general support of the people and effective control of the territory over which it exercises its powers.

3.       Constitutional and transitory4.       Democratic5.       Powers6.       The Provisional Constitution

CONCEPT OF CONSTITUTION Nature and purpose or function of constitution

1.       Serves as the supreme or fundamental law2.       Establishes basic framework and underlying principles of government

Kinds of Constitution1.       As to their origin and history1.       Conventional or enacted2.       Cumulative or evolved3.       Written4.       Unwritten5.       Rigid or inelastic6.       Flexible or elastic1.       as to their form1.       As to manner of amending them:

Requisites of a good written constitution1.       As to form, a good written constitution should be:1.       Brief2.       Broad3.       Definite2.       As to contents, it should contain at least three sets of provisions:1.       That dealing with the framework of government and its powers, and defining the electorate. This group of

provisions has been called the constitution of government.2.       That setting forth the fundamental rights of the people and imposing certain limitations on the powers of

the government as a means of securing the enjoyment of these rights. This group has been referred as to the constitution of liberty.

3.       That pointing out the mode or procedure for amending or revising the constitution. This group has been called the constitution of sovereignty

CONSTITUTIONS OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINESThe 1935 ConstitutionThe 1973 ConstitutionParts of the 1987 ConstitutionPreambleArticle 1 – National TerritoryArticle II – Declaration of Principles and State PoliciesArticle III – Bill of RightsArticle IV – CitizenshipArticle V – SuffrageArticle VI – Legislative DepartmentArticle VII – Executive DepartmentArticle VIII – Judicial DepartmentArticle IX – Constitutional CommissionArticle X – Local GovernmentArticle XI – Accountability of Public OfficersArticle XII – National Economy and PatrimonyArticle XIII – Social Justice and Human RightsArticle XIV – Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and SportsArticle XV – The FamilyArticle XVI – General ProvisionsArticle XVII – Amendments or RevisionsArticle XVIII – Transitory Provisions

AGRARIAN REFORM IN THE PHILIPPINES A. The agrarian problem 1. The Philippines agrarian problem 2. Right to own property, universal but limited 3. A historico-political survey of the agrarian problem and agrarian legislationB. Imperative of Agrarian Reform 1. Necessity of agrarian reform in the Philippines 2. Objections to agrarian reforms 3. Components of agrarian reform 4. Arguments for the “land to the tiller” program 5. Companion measures to land distribution 6. Role of the farmer in agrarian reform 7. Role of the landlord in agrarian reformC. Constitutional Provisions Relevant to Agrarian Reform 1. Promotion of just and dynamic order 2. Expropriation of private property 3. Promotion of social justiceD. Bill of Rights for Agricultural Labor

1. Exercise of right to self-organizationCARP

1.       Coverage2.       Improvement of Tenurial and Labor Relation1.       Agricultural Leasehold and lease rental determination2.       Production sharing plan3.       Land Acquisition and Redistribution1.       Compulsory acquisition of private lands2.       Qualified beneficiaries3.       Compensation4.       Corporate farms5.       Support Services

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TAXATIONConcepts, Nature, and Characteristics of Taxation and Taxes

1.       Purpose and importance of taxation2.       Essential characteristics of tax3.       Theory and basis of taxation4.       Nature of power of taxation

NATIONAL TAXES1.        1.       Income Tax2.       Estate Tax3.       Donor’s Tax4.       Value Added Tax5.       Percentage Taxes6.       Excise Tax7.       Documentary Stamp Tax8.       Custom Duties9.       Travel Tax10.   Energy Tax11.   Private Motor Vehicle Tax

PRACTICE TESTPhilippine Government with New Constitution 1. All of the following constitute the meaning of political science except:

1.       A basic knowledge and understanding of the state.2.       It is primarily concerned with the association of human beings into a political community.3.       Common knowledge every events taking place in the society.4.       It deals with the relationship among men and groups which are subject to the control by the state.

2. It refers to the community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.

1.       Sovereignty 2.       Nation3.       Citizenship 4.       State

3. It refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.

1.       Government2.       Sovereignty3.       Constitution4.       Laws

4. What are the four elements of state?A. people, territory, sovereignty, governmentB. people, constitution, territory, governmentC. government, law, peace, territoryD. constitution, people, land, independence5. What theory asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize government for their common good?

1.       Necessity Theory2.       Devine Right Theory3.       Social Contact Theory4.       Social Compact Theory

6. Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit of the people.1.       The statement is a general truth.2.       The statement is just an assumption.3.       The statement is a fallacy.4.       There is no basis for judgment.

7. What are the forms of government in which the political power is exercised by a few privilege class.1.       Oligarchy and Aristocracy2.       Aristocracy and Monarchy3.       Theocracy and Fascism4.       Democracy and Tyranny

8. The pre-colonial Philippines has no established government. Its villages and settlements were called barangays.

1.       Only the first statement is true and correct.2.       Only the second statement is true and correct.3.       Both statements are true and correct.4.       Both statements are untrue and incorrect.

9. There were four social classes of people in the pre-colonialbarangays. They were the nobles, freemen, serfs, and the slaves.

1.       Only the first statement is true and correct.2.       Only the second statement is true and correct.3.       Both statements are true and correct.4.       Both statements are untrue and incorrect.

10. What are the two known written codes during the pre-Spanish era in the Philippines?1.       Maragtas and Kalantiaw Codes2.       Sumakwil and Sulayman Codes3.       Panay and Subanon Codes4.       Hammurabi and Ur Nammu Codes

11. Under the Spanish colonial government, who directly governed the Philippines?1.       The Governor-General2.       The Viceroy of Mexico

3.       The Royal Audiencia4.       The King of Spain

12. What is the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines?1.       Manila2.       Davao3.       Cebu4.       Iloilo

13.The government which Spain established in the Philippines was defective. It was a government for the Spaniards and not for the Filipinos.

1.       Only the first statement is true and correct.2.       Only the second statement is true and correct.3.       Both statements are true and correct.4.       Both statements are untrue and incorrect

14. What was the secret society founded in 1896 that precipitated the glorious revolution against the Spaniards.

1.       The Katipunan2.       The Kalahi3.       The Biak na Bato Republic4.       The Ilustrado

15. Arranged the sequence of governments during the revolutionary era: 1. The Dictatorial Government 2. The Revolutionary Government 3. The Biak-na-Bato Republic 4. The First Philippine Republic

1.       2 3 1 42.       3 1 2 43.       4 1 3 24.       1 2 3 4

16. Arranged according to its establishment during the American Regime: 1. The Commonwealth Government 2. The Military Government 3. The Civil Government

1.       1 2 32.       2 3 13.       3 2 14.       2 1 3

17. What was the civil government established during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines?1.       The Japanese Imperial Government2.       The Philippine Republic3.       The Puppet Government of Japan4.       The Philippine Executive Commission

18. The Constitution used by the Philippine government from the commonwealth period until 1973.1.       The Malolos Constitution2.       The Biak-na-Bato Constitution

3.       The 1935 Constitution4.       The 1901 Constitution

19. What kind of government was installed under the 1973 Constitution under the Marcos regime?1.       Modified Presidential system2.       Modified Parliamentary system3.       Military system4.       Bicameral system

20. A de facto government acquires a de jure status when it gains wide acceptance from the people and recognition from the community of nations.

1.       The statement is true and valid.2.       The statement is an assumption.3.       The statement is a fallacy.4.       The statement is doubtful.

21. It is defined as written instrument by which the fundamental powers of the government are established, limited and defined and by which these powers are distributed among the several departments or branches for their and useful exercise for the benefit of the people.

1.       Laws2.       Statutes3.       Constitution4.       Ordinances

22. There is no Constitution that is entirely written or unwritten.1.       The statement is true and correct.2.       The statement is incorrect.3.       The statement is partially correct.4.       There is no basis to conclude.

23. Requisites of a good written constitution.1.       Brief2.       Broad3.       Definite4.       All of the given options

24. Who has the authority to interpret the constitution?1.       Private individual2.       Courts3.       Legislative and Executive departments of the government4.       All of the given options

25. “We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God , in order to build a just and humane society and establish a government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote our common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and the regime of truth, justice, freedom, equality and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.”What part of Constitution is this?

1.       General Provision2.       Amendments3.       Preamble4.       National Patrimony

Economics, Taxation, Land Reform, and Cooperative1. The problem of scarcity _____.A. arises only in poor countries.B. exists because the price of goods is too high.C. exists because of limited resources.D. will eventually be solve by better planning.2. “If an individual is to maximize the utility received from the consumption, he or she should spend all available income…” This statement assumes ________.

1.       that saving is impossible.2.       that the individual is not satiated in all goods.3.       that no goods are “inferior.”4.       both A and B.

3. An individual’s demand curveA. represents the various quantities that the consumer is willing to purchase of a good at various price levels.B. is derived from an individual’s indifference curve map.C. will shift if preferences, price of other goods, or income change.D. all of the above.4. What is a firm?

1.       A president, some vice presidents, and some employees2.       Any organization that wants to make a profit.3.       Any accumulation of productive assets.4.       Any organization that turns inputs into outputs

5. If more and more labor is employed while keeping all other inputs constant, the marginal physical productivity of labor _____.

1.       will eventually increase.2.       will eventually decrease.3.       will eventually remain constant.4.       cannot tell from the information provided.

6. In general, microeconomic theory assumes that the firms attempt to maximize the difference between ______.

1.       total revenue and accounting costs.2.       price and marginal cost.3.       total revenues and economic costs.4.       economic costs and average cost.

7. In a competitive market, efficient allocation of resources is characterized by ________.1.       a price greater than the marginal cost of production.2.       the possibility of further mutually beneficial transactions.3.       the largest possible sum of consumer and producer surplus.4.       a value of consumer surplus equal to that of producer surplus.

8. Price controls _______.1.       are always popular with consumers because they lower prices.2.       create shortages.3.       increase producer surplus because firms can now sell a greater quantity of a good at a lower price.4.       are necessary to preserve equity.

9. The excess burden of tax is ____.

1.       The amount of which the price of a good increases2.       The loss of consumer and producer surplus that is not transferred elsewhere.3.       The amount y which a person’s after-tax income decrease as a result of the new tax.4.       The welfare costs to firms forced to leave the market due to an inward shift of the demand curve.

10. In the opening of the free trade, if world prices of a good are less than domestic prices of that same good, _________.

1.       domestic consumers will experience a loss of surplus.2.       domestic prices will drop to the world price level.3.       all domestic producers of that good will try to find another market because they can’t compete with foreign

producers.4.       domestic producers will increase the quantity supplied in order to crowd out the foreign produced goods.

11. It states that as the price of the commodities increase the amount of goods the consumer is willing to purchase decrease and as the price of the commodities decrease the willingness of the consumer to buy increases and other factor remain constant.

1.       Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility 2.       Law of Gravity3.       Law of Supply 4.       Law of Demand

12. A deliberate attempt to recognize and transform existing agrarian system with the intention of improving the distribution of agricultural incomes and thus fostering rural development.

1.       Millennium Development Plan C. Water Reform 2.       Land Reform D. Development Goals

13. What is the process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to bring about rising levels of national output and income?

1.       Economic growth C. Economic development 2.       Industry D. Employment

14. A system whereby the determination of exchange rate is left solely to the market forces.1.       Foreign exchange liberalization 2.       Import liberalization 3.       Terms of trade 4.       Foreign investment

15. All are possible results when a high population growth rate continues in the Third World except1.       growth of slums2.       spread of diseases due to poverty and poor sanitation3.       not enough schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, etc.4.       increased Gross National Product

16. Which of the following is the nature of power of taxation?1.       It is inherent in sovereignty.2.       It is legislative in nature.3.       It is subject to constitutional and inherent limitations.4.       All of the above

17. A kind of tax based on the rate of which decreases as the tax base or bracket increases.1.       Progressive C. Regressive2.       Graduated D. Proportional

18. Agrarian reform program, Philippine experience is a success.1.       The statement is generally true.

2.       The statement is doubtful.3.       The statement is untrue.4.       There is no basis to conclude.

19. It is also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL)1.       Presidential Decree # 22.       Presidential Decree # 273.       Republic Act 66574.       Republic Act 5766

20. The Cooperatives Development Program of the government is designed primarily to support the agrarian reform program. It aims to achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious institutional restraints and practices.

1.       Only the first statement is true and correct.2.       Only the second statement is true and correct.3.       Both statements are true and correct.4.       Both statements are untrue and incorrect.

Answer Key to Practice TestsPhilippine Government with Constitution Economics, Taxation, CARP

1.       C 2.       D 1. C3.       A 2. D4.       A 3. D5.       C 4. D6.       A 5. B7.       A 6. C8.       C 7. C9.       C 8. B10.   A 9. B11.   D 10. B12.   C 11. D13.   C 12. B14.   A 13. A15.   B 14. A16.   B 15. D17.   D 16. D18.   C 17. C19.   B 18. C20.   A 19. C21.   C 20. C22.   A23.   D

24.   D25.   C

Early History: The Philippine archipelago was settled at least 30,000 years ago, when migrations from the Indonesian archipelago and elsewhere are believed to have occurred. Additional migrations took place over the next millennia. Over time, social and political organization developed and evolved in the widely scattered islands. The basic unit of settlement was the barangay (a Malay word for boat that came to be used to denote a communal settlement). Kinship groups were led by a datu (chief), and within the barangay there were broad social divisions consisting of nobles, freemen, and dependent and landless agricultural workers and slaves. Over the centuries, Indo-Malay migrants were joined by Chinese traders. A major development in the early period was the introduction of Islam to the Philippines by traders and proselytizers from the Indonesian islands. By A.D. 1500, Islam had been established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there to Mindanao; it reached the Manila area by 1565. In the midst of the introduction of Islam came the introduction of Christianity, with the arrival of the Spanish.

Spanish Control: Ferdinand Magellan was the first European recorded to have landed in the Philippines*. He arrived in March 1521 during his circumnavigation of the globe. He claimed land for the king of Spain but was killed by a local chief. Following several more Spanish expeditions, the first permanent settlement was established in Cebu in 1565. After defeating a local Muslim ruler, the Spanish set up their capital at Manila in 1571, and they named their new colony after King Philip II of Spain. In doing so, the Spanish sought to acquire a share in the lucrative spice trade, develop better contacts with China and Japan, and gain converts to Christianity. Only the third objective was eventually realized. As with other Spanish colonies, church and state became inseparably linked in carrying out Spanish objectives. Several Roman Catholic religious orders were assigned the responsibility of Christianizing the local population. The civil administration built upon the traditional village organization and used traditional local leaders to rule indirectly for Spain. Through these efforts, a new cultural community was developed, but Muslims (known as Moros by the Spanish) and upland tribal peoples remained detached and alienated. 

Trade in the Philippines centered around the “Manila galleons,” which sailed from Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico (New Spain) with shipments of silver bullion and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Chinese goods, mainly silk textiles and porcelain. There was no direct trade with Spain and little exploitation of indigenous natural resources. Most investment was in the galleon trade. But, as this trade thrived, another unwelcome element was introduced—sojourning Chinese entrepreneurs and service providers.

During the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), British East India Company forces captured Manila. Although the Philippines was returned to Spain at the end of the war, theBritish occupation marked the beginning of the end of the old order. Rebellions broke out in the north, and while the Spanish were busy fighting the British, Moros raided from the south. The Chinese community, resentful of Spanish discrimination, supported the British with laborers and armed men. The restoration of Spanish rule brought reforms aimed at promoting the economic development of the islands and making them independent of subsidies from New Spain. The galleon trade ceased in 1815, and from that date onward the Royal Company of the Philippines, which had been chartered in 1785, promoted direct and tariff-free trade between the islands and Spain. Cash crops were cultivated for trade with Europe and Latin America, but profits diminished after Spain’s Latin American colonies became independent in the 1810s and 1820s. In 1834 the Royal Company of the Philippines was abolished, and free trade was formally recognized. With its excellent harbor, Manila became an open port for Asian, European, and North American traders. In 1873 additional ports were opened to foreign commerce, and by the late nineteenth century three crops—tobacco, abaca, and sugar—dominated Philippine exports.

Rise of Nationalism: Also in the late nineteenth century, Chinese immigration, now with official approval, increased, and Chinese mestizos became a feature in Filipino social and economic life. So, too, did the

growing Filipino native elite class of ilustrados (literally, enlightened ones), who became increasingly receptive to liberal and democratic ideas. Conservative Catholic friars continued to dominate the Spanish establishment, however. They resisted the inclusion of native clergy and were economically secure, with their large land holdings and control of churches, schools, and other establishments. Despite the bias against native priests, brothers, and nuns, some members of Filipino religious orders became prominent to the point of leading local religious movements and even insurrections against the establishment. Additionally, ilustrados returning from education and exile abroad brought new ideas that merged with folk religion to spur a national resistance. 

One of the early nationalist leaders was José Rizal, a physician, scientist, scholar, and writer. His writings as a member of the Propaganda Movement (intellectually active, upper-class Filipino reformers) had a considerable impact on the awakening of the Filipino national consciousness. His books were banned, and he lived in self-imposed exile. Rizal returned from overseas in 1892 to found the Liga Filipina (Philippine League), a national, nonviolent political organization, but he was arrested and exiled and the league dissolved. One result was the split of the nationalist movement between the reform-minded ilustrados and a more revolutionary and independence-minded plebeian constituency. Many of the latter joined the Katipunan, a secret society founded by Andres Bonifacio in 1892 and committed to winning national independence. By 1896, the year the Katipunan rose in revolt against Spain, it had 30,000 members. Although Rizal, who had again returned to the Philippines, was not a member of the Katipunan, he was arrested and executed on December 30, 1896, for his alleged role in the rebellion. With Rizal’s martyrdom, the rebels, led by Emilio Aguinaldo as president, were filled with new determination. Spanish troops defeated the insurgents, however, and Aguinaldo and his government went into exile in Hong Kong in December 1897. 

When the Spanish-American War broke out in April 1898, Spain’s fleet was easily defeated at Manila. Aguinaldo returned, and his 12,000 troops kept the Spanish forces bottled up in Manila until U.S. troops landed. The Spanish cause was doomed, but the Americans did nothing to accommodate the inclusion of Aguinaldo in the succession. Fighting between American and Filipino troops broke out almost as soon as the Spanish had been defeated. Aguinaldo issued a declaration of independence on June 12, 1898. However, the Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, by the United States and Spain, ceded the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States, recognized Cuban independence, and gave US$20 million to Spain. A revolutionary congress convened at Malolos, north of Manila, promulgated a constitution on January 21, 1899, and inaugurated Aguinaldo as president of the new republic two days later. Hostilities broke out in February 1899, and by March 1901 Aguinaldo had been captured and his forces defeated. Despite Aguinaldo’s call to his compatriots to lay down their arms, insurgent resistance continued until 1903. The Moros, suspicious of both the Christian Filipino insurgents and the Americans, remained largely neutral, but eventually their own armed resistance had to be subjugated, and Moro territory was placed under U.S. military rule until 1914.

United States Rule: U.S. rule over the Philippines had two phases. The first phase was from 1898 to 1935, during which time Washington defined its colonial mission as one of tutelage and preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. Political organizations developed quickly, and the popularly elected Philippine Assembly (lower house) and the U.S.-appointed Philippine Commission (upper house) served as a bicameral legislature. The ilustrados formed the Federalista Party, but their statehood platform had limited appeal. In 1905 the party was renamed the National Progressive Party and took up a platform of independence. The Nacionalista Party was formed in 1907 and dominated Filipino politics until after World War II. Its leaders were not ilustrados. Despite their “immediate independence” platform, the party leaders participated in a collaborative leadership with the United States. A major development emerging in the post-World War I period was resistance to elite control of the land by tenant farmers, who were supported by the Socialist Party and the Communist Party of the Philippines. Tenant strikes and occasional violence occurred as the Great Depression wore on and cash-crop prices collapsed. 

The second period of United States rule—from 1936 to 1946—was characterized by the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and occupation by Japan during World War II. Legislation passed

by the U.S. Congress in 1934 provided for a 10-year period of transition to independence. The country’s first constitution was framed in 1934 and overwhelmingly approved by plebiscite in 1935, and Manuel Quezon was elected president of the commonwealth. Quezon later died in exile in 1944 and was succeeded by Vice President Sergio Osmea. Japan attacked the Philippines on December 8, 1941, and occupied Manila on January 2, 1942. Tokyo set up an ostensibly independent republic, which was opposed by underground and guerrilla activity that eventually reached large-scale proportions. A major element of the resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Huks (short for Hukbalahap, or People’s Anti-Japanese Army). Allied forces invaded the Philippines in October 1944, and the Japanese surrendered on September 2, 1945.

Early Independence Period: World War II had been demoralizing for the Philippines, and the islands suffered from rampant inflation and shortages of food and other goods. Various trade and security issues with the United States also remained to be settled before Independence Day. The Allied leaders wanted to purge officials who collaborated with the Japanese during the war and to deny them the right to vote in the first postwar elections. Commonwealth President Osmea, however, countered that each case should be tried on its own merits. The successful Liberal Party presidential candidate, Manual Roxas, was among those collaborationists. Independence from the United States came on July 4, 1946, and Roxas was sworn in as the first president. The economy remained highly dependent on U.S. markets, and the United States also continued to maintain control of 23 military installations. A bilateral treaty was signed in March 1947 by which the United States continued to provide military aid, training, and matériel. Such aid was timely, as the Huk guerrillas rose again, this time against the new government. They changed their name to the People’s Liberation Army (Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan) and demanded political participation, disbandment of the military police, and a general amnesty. Negotiations failed, and a rebellion began in 1950 with communist support. The aim was to overthrow the government. The Huk movement dissipated into criminal activities by 1951, as the better-trained and -equipped Philippine armed forces and conciliatory government moves toward the peasants offset the effectiveness of the Huks.

Populist Ramón Magsaysay of the Nacionalista Party was elected president in 1953 and embarked on widespread reforms that benefited tenant farmers in the Christian north while exacerbating hostilities with the Muslim south. The remaining Huk leaders were captured or killed, and by 1954 the movement had waned. After Magsaysay’s death in an airplane crash in 1957, he was succeeded by Vice President Carlos P. Garcia. Garcia was elected in his own right the same year, and he advanced the nationalist theme of “Filipinos First,” reaching agreement with the United States to relinquish large areas of land no longer needed for military operations. In 1961 the Liberal Party candidate, Diosdado Macapagal, was elected president. Subsequent negotiations with the United States over base rights led to considerable anti-American feelings and demonstrations. Macapagal sought closer relations with his Southeast Asian neighbors and convened a summit with the leaders of Indonesia and Malaysia in the hope of developing a spirit of consensus, which did not emerge.

The Marcos Era: Nacionalista Party leader Ferdinand Marcos came to dominate the political scene for the next two decades, beginning with his election to the presidency in 1965. During his first term, Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects that improved the general quality of life while providing generous pork-barrel benefits for his friends. Marcos perceived that his promised land reform program would alienate the politically all-powerful landowner elite, and thus it was never forcefully implemented. He lobbied strenuously for economic and military aid from the United States while resisting significant involvement in the Second Indochina War (1954–75). In 1967 the Philippines became a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Marcos became the first president to be reelected (in 1969), but early in his second term economic growth slowed, optimism faded, and the crime rate increased. In addition, a new communist insurgency, this time—starting in 1968—led by the new Communist Party of the Philippines-Marxist-Leninist and its military arm, the New People’s Army, was on the rise. In 1969 the Moro National Liberation Front was founded and conducted an insurgency in Muslim areas. Political violence blamed on leftists, but probably initiated by government agents provocateurs, led Marcos to suspend habeas corpus as a prelude to martial law. 

Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972, and did not lift it until January 17, 1981. During this time, he called for self-sacrifice and an end to the old society. However, in the “New Society” Marcos’s cronies and his wife, former movie actress Imelda Romualdez-Marcos, wilfully engaged in rampant corruption. With her husband’s support, Imelda Marcos built her own power base. She became governor of Metropolitan Manila and minister of human settlements. The previously nonpolitical armed forces became highly politicized, with high-ranking positions being given to Marcos loyalists. In 1979 the United States reaffirmed Philippine sovereignty over U.S. military bases and continued to provide military and economic aid to the Marcos regime. When martial law was lifted in 1981 and a “New Republic” proclaimed, little had actually changed, and Marcos easily won reelection. 

The beginning of the end of the Marcos era occurred when his chief political rival, Liberal Party leader Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, who had been jailed by Marcos for eight years, was assassinated as he disembarked from an airplane at the Manila International Airport on August 21, 1983, following medical treatment in the United States. Marcos cronies were charged with this crime but were acquitted. Aquino, however, became a martyr and his murder the focus of popular indignation against a corrupt regime. The Catholic Church, a coalition of old political opposition groups, the business elite, the left wing, and even factions of the armed forces all began to exert pressure on the regime. There also was foreign pressure and, feeling confident with the support given by the Reagan White House, Marcos called a “snap” presidential election for February 7, 1986. When the Marcos-dominated National Assembly proclaimed Marcos the winner, Cardinal Jaime Sin and key military leaders (including Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile and acting Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces Lieutenant General Fidel V. Ramos) rallied around the apparent majority vote winner, Aquino’s widow, Corazon Cojuango Aquino. The People Power Movement—a popular uprising of priests, nuns, ordinary citizens, and children, supported by defecting military units—ousted Marcos on the day of his inauguration (February 25, 1986) and brought Aquino to power in an almost bloodless revolution.

The Aquino Years and Beyond: Corazon Aquino had wide popular support but no political organization. Her vice president, Salvador H. “Doy” Laurel, had an organization but little popular support. Enrile and Ramos also had large stakes in what they saw as a coalition government. The coalition unraveled quickly, and there were several attempts, including unsuccessful military coups, to oust Aquino. She survived her fractious term, however, and was succeeded in the 1992 election by Ramos, who had served loyally as chief of staff of the armed forces and secretary of national defense under Aquino. 

President Ramos worked at coalition building and overcoming the divisiveness of the Aquino years. Mutinous right-wing soldiers, communist insurgents, and Muslim separatists were convinced to cease their armed activities against the government and were granted amnesty. In an act of reconciliation, Ramos allowed the remains of Ferdinand Marcos—he had died in exile in the United States in 1989—to be returned to the Philippines for burial in 1993. Efforts by supporters of Ramos to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests supported by Cardinal Sin and Corazon Aquino, leading Ramos to declare he would not run again. 

Joseph Estrada, who had served as Ramos’s vice president and enjoyed widespread popularity, was elected president in 1998. Within a year, however, Estrada’s popularity declined sharply amid allegations of cronyism and corruption and failure to remedy the problems of poverty. Once again, street rallies supported by Cardinal Sin and Corazon Aquino took place. Then, in 2000 Senate investigators accused Estrada of having accepted bribes from illegal gambling businesses. Following an abortive Senate impeachment trial, growing street protests, and the withdrawal of support by the armed forces, Estrada was forced out of office on January 20, 2001. 

Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (the daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada’s successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimated by the mid-term congressional and local elections, when her coalition later won an overwhelming victory, but the elections were fraught with allegations of coercion, fraud, and vote buying.

Macapagal-Arroyo’s initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion, as a result of which charges were filed against more than 1,000 individuals. Macapagal-Arroyo had declared in December 2002 that she would not contest the May 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to run. She was reelected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. With this new mandate, she was able to move with greater assurance on the political and economic reform agenda that had stalled during her first term in office.

The Tiaong Historical Notable

Claro M. Recto• Claro M. Recto was born in Tiaong, February 8, 1890.• Graduated from Ateneo de Manila maxima cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree.• Bachelor of Laws, University of Sto Tomas, Class Valedictorian, 1913• A politician and lawyer, jurist, poet, playwright, essayist, and one of the foremost statesmen of his generation.• The award-winning one-act comedy, La ruta de Damasco (1913), followed by Solo entre las sombras (1917) established his reputation as a dramatist. • Admitted to the United States Supreme Court Bar, 1924• Founded the Partido Democrata, and in 1928, temporarily retired from politics to practice and teach law, a move he eventually found tedious and restrictive.• Senator of the Philippines: 1931-1935, 1941-1946, 1953-1960.• Supreme Court Associate Justice 1935-1936.• In 1957, failed in his bid for the Philippine presidency running against then Vice President Carlos Garcia.• Zobel Prize Winner for literature.• A nationalist, he was one of the most vocal proponents for Philippine autonomy. •¨The father of the Philippine Constitution and the last Filipino justice appointed by an American president.• Known as the Great Dissenter because of his positions on foreign policies of different Philippine presidents.• Considered the "finest mind of his generation," molding his contemporaries and succeeding generations through his speeches and writing, and in his wake, a political climate and legacy of nationalism that inspired icons of nationalism like Tañada, Diokno, Constantino, Salonga.• Died October 2, 1960, Rome, Italy