Lessons

Lesson 1 - Introduction to the Study of Western Religious Traditions Mary-Catherine Ciuba

Lesson Objectives

Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before

going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can describe the academic approach to

the study of religion

distinguish in general terms between an orthopraxy and an orthodoxy

differentiate Western and Eastern religious groupings

describe characteristics of the religions of the Ancient Near East and the Greek and

Roman world

distinguish between and among monotheism, dualism, and polytheism

Reading Assignment

Oxtoby, pp. 1–9, 11–31

Discussion

Among other topics, the reading for this lesson deals with religions of the Ancient

Near East as well as the Greek and Roman world that are predecessors to the Western

traditions that we will take up in subsequent lessons.

Before turning to the study of any particular religions, it is important to consider what

is involved in the academic study of religion in general. So please examine the

section entitled "Insider and Outsider" in Oxtoby (pp. 2–4) attentively. The following

observations made by Gary E. Kessler in his book, Western Ways of Being Religious

(p. 3), should also be studied closely:

o The insider's view is that of someone who participates in a particular religious

tradition. This sort of study presupposes religious commitment and promotes

an understanding that will lead to greater commitment. It promotes the

interests and furthers the causes of a specific religious organization. The

academic study of religion is different from the insider's study. In the

academic study, the student stands outside all religious traditions and studies

religions from the viewpoint of the methods and standards associated with the

secular academy. The outsider's viewpoint does not presuppose any kind of

religious commitment, although it does presuppose a commitment to the

standards of the academy. Its goal is neither to increase nor to decrease an

individual's religious faith.

Regarding the three Western religions, while the upcoming lessons and your reading

in the Oxtoby text will focus your attention on details and data, it is important and

useful to have some way to make broad comparisons and contrasts, both between and

among the three traditions. One very helpful method to distinguish religions is to ask

whether a given religious system has a focus on belief or on action. While virtually all

religions feature elements of both belief and action, generally one of these receives

more emphasis. Often, scholars use the terms "orthopraxy" and "orthodoxy" to

distinguish the two types of emphasis. Each term has Greek roots: orthopraxy means

"correct practice," and orthodoxy means "correct doctrine." Orthopraxy is

characterized by a stress on a particular ritualized way of living. Orthodoxy, on the

other hand, is marked by doctrinal concerns expressed through creeds, dogmas, and

statements of belief. As we proceed through the lessons, we will learn more about

orthopraxy and orthodoxy, and we will use these terms to analyze the Western

religious traditions.

Key Terms and Concepts

There is no glossary of key terms for Chapter One in Oxtoby.

Reading Questions

East and West (pp. 4–6)

o What is meant by "Western" and "Eastern" religions?

It’s hard to differentiate West and East since both sides’ religions have

grown to the four corners of the Earth and do not have a common

thread among them. Only the West considers the divide between West

and East, but this divide makes sense only to Europeans with the

divide from the Orient travels.

The Greeks and Romans (pp. 12–13)

o What characterizes Greek and Roman religion? What are the general roles

played by the deities (i.e., gods and goddesses) in Greek and Roman religion?

The gods and goddesses’ stories were told to children in the homes and

the rituals at their shrines were carried out as a “duty” to those superior

beings. Many academic thinkers would either dismiss these stories as

just that, stories, or come up with reasoning to prove them rational.

The Ancient Near East (pp. 13–17)

o What are the major features of Mesopotamian religion? What are the major

features of Egyptian religion?

Mesopotamia religion was the first to construct a pantheon for all the

gods since it had so many in different levels of importance. It also

held a lot of weight in the practice of divination and the ritualistic side

of honoring the different gods. Egyptian religion was also polytheistic

and was greatly focused on death and what you had to do to move on

to the next life (mummifying).

Who Is God? (pp. 20–29)

o What is meant by the terms monotheism, dualism, and polytheism?

Monotheism is the belief in only one god, dualism is the belief in 2

beings (god and a devil figure) and polytheism is the belief in multiple

gods which can be good or bad gods or goddesses.

Written Assignment

In your own words, why is the insider's viewpoint inappropriate for the academic

study of religion?

o Studying religion as an insider is neither objective nor practical in the world

of academia. Objectivity is something ever academic subject strives to show,

including all the sides to every story. If one were to study religion as an

insider, he would assume that he knows everything about the subject and not

realize the “why” or the “how” behind these beliefs. Both of these facets of

religion are important to understand why a group of people believe what they

do and how it is appreciated among them. Objectivity is only achieved by an

outsider, who takes his own beliefs out of the equation to greater appreciate

what different people believe, the reason behind it and how their beliefs affect

everyday life.

In broad terms, what characterizes an orthopraxy and an orthodoxy?

o An orthopraxy is a religion based on practices and living out a life according

to principles lined out in a certain religion. Orthodoxy is a religion based off

of correct documents and holding a belief throughout life that is in accordance

with those principles.

On what basis can Judaism, Christianity, and Islam be grouped together as "Western

religions"?

o Judaism, Christianity and Islamic beliefs are drastically different than those

beliefs from the other surrounding religions. Their beliefs were completely

different and the practicing of these beliefs came gradually throughout history.

Contrast the concept of a pantheon with the concept of monotheism.

o A pantheon is a construct used to groups gods and goddesses of a religion to

make it easier for the believers. A pantheon is not necessary for a religion that

is monotheistic because this religion believes in only one superior being, not

multiple beings.

Lesson 2 - The Jewish Tradition: The Early Period Mary-Catherine Ciuba

Lesson Objectives


going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can

o describe in outline form the history and development of Jewish religion from

its biblical beginnings through the Hellenistic Period to Rabbinic Judaism

o describe the centrality of the covenant concept in Jewish religion

o identify the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible and distinguish among them

o distinguish the literature of Rabbinic Judaism, including the Mishnah,

Gemarah, Talmud, and midrash

Reading Assignment

Oxtoby, pp. 32–91

Discussion

Most people would recognize that Jewish religion has had a long history, but its

periods of development are not widely known. Some people presume that the beliefs

and practices of Jews in the modern world have always characterized Jewish religion.

Others assume that the description of Jewish religion in the Bible applies directly to

Judaism today. There are problems associated with each of these views. Jewish

religion has had some major turning points when it altered significantly. You will find

that Judaism has a rich history of religious developments and a varied but interlinked

religious literature. As to the latter, in the Oxtoby text the term "Hebrew Bible" is

sometimes used to refer to what Jews call the Tanakh. The Tanakh or Hebrew Bible is

very similar to the Christian Old Testament. There are, however, a few differences in

regard to overall length and arrangement. In addition, the Catholic Old Testament

includes some books not found in either the Tanakh or the Protestant Old Testament.

But for our purposes, you can consider the Hebrew Bible roughly equivalent to the

Old Testament.

You will recall that we will be using the terms orthopraxy and orthodoxy to

investigate Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as religious systems. (If you need to

review these terms, please go back and look at the discussion in Lesson 1 now before

continuing.) You will be able to spot fairly early on in your reading that, while

matters of doctrine and belief are certainly not foreign to Judaism, Jewish religious

tradition has had an emphasis on orthopraxy. Alan F. Segal in the Oxtoby text (p. 36)

writes:

o For understanding Judaism it is significant that its major divisions are based

more on ritual and practice than on belief or doctrine. This contrasts with

Christianity, where theology and creed are the crucial defining issues between

denominations.

In a biblical story you may already know and that is mentioned in the Oxtoby text

(see p. 44), Moses ascends Mt. Sinai to receive instructions from God (Exodus 19:1–

8). God commands Moses that the people he is leading should be "a holy people."

When Moses informs the elders of the people, they respond: "All that the Lord has

spoken we will do!" (Note the wording carefully: it is "we will do" and not "we will

believe.") Over the course of the next several biblical chapters, indeed over the course

of the next several biblical books, Moses lays out the lifestyle, marked by specific

commandments, that God demands of "a holy people." Throughout this account,

orthopraxy, i.e., the notion of a correct lifestyle, is emphasized.

This orthopraxic emphasis continued past the biblical period and is also the major

stress of rabbinic and modern Judaism. For instance, one extensive rabbinic

discussion is largely concerned with determining exactly how and when one satisfies

the biblical commandment to "be fruitful and multiply," which is interpreted as a

commandment to have children. In Jewish tradition, the instruction to have children is

considered to be the very first commandment given in the Bible. And since it is given

to Adam and Eve, it is in effect given to all people because, according to the Bible,

we all descend from these two figures. The rabbis debated various questions, such as

how many children it takes to satisfy this commandment, and what role gender plays

in the fulfillment of the commandment. Try to find examples as you read the Oxtoby

text that demonstrate that Jewish religion is primarily orthopraxic.


Berith – Hebrew for covenant. This words means along the same lines as contract

today…a contract between man and God.

Diaspora – from the greek “sowing of the seed” or “dispersal”. It explained Judaism

*Exile – when the Judean kingdom fell to the Babylonians. This point in time

marked when Judaism went from a cult to a religious heritage among a dispersed

group of people.

*Exodus – book of the Bible centered around Moses leading His people out of Egypt

(mass exodus)

*Gemarah – a body of commentary to make a translation “complete”

*halakha – the topically arranged legal material of the Talamud , as well as a

particular legal or folklore technique and or the specific book of oral law where these

techniques are used

kosher – a set of laws where Jews are not to eat or even touch pork. The biblical

rules that the slaughter of all kosher that is ritually acceptable must be done in a

humane way had an original application to sacrifice.

*menorah – the official symbol for Israel

o six pointed star of David

o symbol of Jewish culture and sovereignty

o Shield of David appeared in the Middle ages and was only a decoration in

synagogues

Midrash – the interpretation and commentary rabbis created of the ancient text

o Know the text is unalterable, but the significance of the text itself could be

analyzed

Mishnah - divided the bible into six parts (seeds [agriculture], festivals, women,

damages, holy things [ritual] and purifications. The misnah summarizes traditional

law while the pharisees/rabiis interpreted and applied it.

*mitzvah (mitzvah is a singular form; in the Oxtoby text the plural form, mitzvoth, is

also used) – mitzvah means commandments, so bar mitzvah is the son of

commandments and bat mitzvah is daughter of commandments, specifically. At a

bar/bat mitzvah, the teenager comes of age by reading from the Torah (the holy book)

in Hebrew and proving themselves coherent in Judaism.

*Septuagint – “seventy” in Latin, LXX

o 70 scholars from Egypt miraculously produced 70 exact translations of the

bible for a King of Philadelphos

o gave the innate word of the Lord validity since they all wrote the same thing

gained authority and respect

synagogue – traditional Jewish place of worship

Tanakh – the parts of the old testament

o T – torah (first five books)

o N – nevi’im - prophets

o K – ketuvim – writings

o Denotes the different types of Hebrew scripture

Reading Questions

Overview: Diversity in Judaism (pp. 35–36)

o Approximately how many Jews live in the world today? How does this figure

compare with the Christian and Muslim populations in the world? Where are

the major centers of Jewish life?

There are about 14 million Jews worldwide today. About half live in

the U.S, then Europe at about 4 million with Asia bringing up the rear

with 3 million. Judaism is considered an ethnic religion with the fact

that people claim their religion as part of their ethnicity. Both

Christianity and Muslims attribute many of their rituals and starts to

Judaism. But Islam and Christianity and larger powerhouses for

population and worldwide knowledge than Judaism, as well as being

more politically powerful as well. Jews consider themselves to be a

race, that their beliefs and “jewish-ness” is transmitted biologically to

make a ethnic and racial pedigree. Jews also believe to follow the

Torah, the first five books of the bible, as orthodoxy and to model their

lives around it as orthopraxy.

The Biblical Period (pp. 36–57)

o How does the material in Genesis 1–11 anticipate the call of Abraham in

Genesis 12? What does the choice of Abraham by God signify?

God chose Abraham as an example for people to live and gives hope

that humanity can be redeemed from sin.

o What does it mean to state that the covenant concept is the central organizing

principle of the Jewish concept of God and view of history?

A covenant gives a divine mandate to follow instead of social laws.

Abraham, Isaac and Jacob entered this covenant with God knowing

what He wants and doesn’t want humans to do.

o How do the narratives about Moses, the Exodus, and the wilderness

wanderings lay the foundations of later Jewish society and ritual life?

They form this relationship with God as an all-high leader by paying

homage through rituals and honoring covenants with them. After

getting the Ten Commandments, these people made a Tabernacle to

carry them in and realized the error of their ways and began to repent

and sacrifice to get back into God’s graces. This repentance was the

beginning of rituals still carried out today by the Jewish population.

o Why did kingship emerge among the Israelites? What happened to the

kingship following the Exile?

Up to this point, the Israelites were held together by tribal chieftains

who were not formally appointed or elected, but rather took over. The

Israelites created a kingdom to have a central figure with a soul

purpose to fight the Canaanites and Philistines in order to get more

land and establish themselves as a force to be reckoned with. At 586

BC, the Judean kingdom went from a united kingdom to a group of

people only held together by religious views. The Babylonians took

over and the Jews became more focused on their beliefs and

agricultural changes than becoming a power. During this time, the

Jews pieced together the 1st 5 books of the bible and wove together the

Torah, their book of beliefs, so that they may be united as one, sharing

the similar beliefs which were thoughts and facts deemed from God.

o Why is the prophetic movement so important? What is notable about the

writings of the literary prophets?

See above

The Hellenistic Period (pp. 57–71)

o What does Hanukkah celebrate? Who were the Hasmoneans?

When the Macabees rejoined the Hellenized Jews after intermarriage

with gentiles and “shafting parts of their manhood” to fit in, the

celebrated Hanukkah for military successes and took the minor holiday

and made it explode to unite the two bodies as one. They then set up

the client kings called Hasmoneans to run the rebel dynasty and rule

over this body of Jews for more than a century before they fell to

Roman rule.

o Who were the Sadducees and the Pharisees? What sociological groupings

within Judean society did they represent?

The Sadducees were the upper class who interpreted the law literally,

while the Pharisees were a part of the middle class who were popular

and the nit picky portion of the Sanhedrin of the New Testament.

Pharisees attempted to make rules and interpret the scriptures so that

the rules would make it easy to live by the bible.

o In broad terms, what are the characteristics of Jewish concepts of the

Messiah?

The messiah was to exemplify God’s sovereign control of events and

reward his faithful followers who trusted Him. He would also

overturn the existing way of life, as well as his death be part of a

sequence of events. The Messiah serves as a political leader as well as

a spiritual leader.

Rabbinic Judaism (pp. 71-91)

o How did Pharisaic traditions give rise to the institutions of Rabbinic Judaism?

The Pharisees lost their base of power when their independence was

ripped out from under them. The temples were gone and these leaders

were the only ones able to spread Judaism since the Saducees,

Essenes, Zealots and Qumran were gone. Pharisees put a new national

purpose to spread their beliefs and brought about the position of a

rabbi. Rabbis were legal specialists and teachers like the Pharisees,

not spiritual leaders like pastors we see today.

o What does the term "Tanakh" denote? How did the Hebrew canon become

fixed? (Note that the term "canon" denotes a set of Biblical books considered

to be scripture by a particular religious group. See Oxtoby, p. 332.)

The Hebrew canon for the Old Testament was fixed by an

acculmulated body of the church and different clergy subjects.

o What is midrash? What is the Mishnah? What is the Talmud?

Midrash is the rabii’s commentary to what was God-breathed in their

text. They knew it is inertly the Lord’s, but the midrash was used to

show what God was saying and how He said it. The Mishnah divided

the bible into six parts (seeds [agriculture], festivals, women, damages,

holy things [ritual] and purifications. The misnah summarizes

traditional law while the pharisees/rabiis interpreted and applied it.

o Contrast halakha and agada.

Halakha is the legal material while agada is the narrative expansion of

stories told in the Bible. The halakha shows a genre distinction while

the agada teaches a moral lesson in its story.

Written Assignment

Discuss the importance of the covenant concept in Judaism.

o The covenant God made with Abraham signified the two becoming one in

thought and in accordance to the laws Abraham now must obey. They sealed

this deal by passing a flaming torch between two halves of a carcus, signifying

that the two indeed have become one. If anyone breaks that promise, a

curse will fall upon them. This covenant was the starting point of man

creating treaties and oathes between their gods for protection and lawful

purposes. Many treaties were written up to bind gods to protect their people

and sometimes even having the gods divinely write the laws for the nation.

God also made a covenant with Abraham promising a new offspring,

beginning his nation’s population through his family lineage. God provided

and the Jewish lineage starts here.

How did the Sadducees and Pharisees differ?

o The Sadducees were the upper class who interpreted the law literally, while

the Pharisees were a part of the middle class who were popular and the nit

picky portion of the Sanhedrin of the New Testament. Pharisees attempted to

make rules and interpret the scriptures so that the rules would make it easy to

live by the bible, while the Sadducees just took the literal representation of the

Scripture and chose to live by those.

What is the structure of the Hebrew canon, or Tanakh?

o The Tanakh separates the Bible into three parts, represented by the characters

T, N and K. T stands for Torah, the first five books of the bible. The N

stands for Nevi’im, which from Hebrew means Prophets. The K represent the

Ketuvim, translated to Writings. The T, N and K represent the backbone of

the Hebrew Bible.

What is the structure of the Talmud? (Both scholars and Jews typically use the

Babylonian Talmud and refer to it simply as the Talmud.)

o The Talmud used the Misnah of ancient days as a skeleton for its organization.

Even though there is only one Misnah, there are two Talmuds. Each of these

Talmuds used the Misnah from Rabbi Judah and provided two different

commentaries to analyze the ancient writings called gemarah. There is the

Palestine or Jerusalem Talmud which originated near Galilee, while the other

gemarah was compiled in Babylonia named the Babylonian Talmud.

Normally, the Misnah is written first and the gemarah is behind it explaining

the text, often times much longer than the passage itself. Over time this

Talmud and gemarah found itself in a central column together with other more

recent compilations of ideas and commentaries surrounding it on either side.

The Talmud (the Babylonian one) became the more frequented version and

was used most often in legal discussions. Since the Talmud is considered the

law since the Misnah is law, the gemarah also carries weight of lawfulness by

association.

Lesson 3: The Jewish Tradition – Medieval and Modern Periods Mary-Catherine Ciuba

Lesson Objectives



o outline the history and development of Judaism throughout the medieval and

modern periods

o discuss the literature and practices of medieval and modern Judaism

o distinguish between and among the major branches of modern Judaism

Reading Assignment

Oxtoby, pp. 91–157

Discussion

In this lesson, the emphasis is on medieval and modern Judaism, focusing on

developments in literature, philosophy, and practice. Among other things, you will

learn about the major branches of modern Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, and

Reform). You will also read about the significance of the Holocaust and the rise of

the modern nation of Israel.

You learned in the previous lesson that Judaism has an emphasis on orthopraxy. That

is because the essence of traditional Judaism is to be obedient to the commandments

given by God to Moses in the written law, as interpreted by the rabbis through the

oral law. There are two areas of possible confusion concerning this matter. First, you

may find the idea of basing a religion on the performance of commandments

perplexing if you have been taught that sin is inherent in all humans and that, as a

result, individuals are by nature unable by their own power to rise above sin. But this

is not a typical Jewish assumption. Instead, Jews have tended to believe that humans

can not only choose to observe the commandments but may also be successful in

doing so, achieving religious rightness with God in the process. (Thus there is no

savior figure in Judaism, since Judaism holds that humans can become right with God

by their own power.) Judaism has not stressed the Adam and Eve story and does not

infer from it an idea of inherited or "original" sin. On the contrary, rabbinic literature

draws attention to the story of Cain and Abel, the sons of Adam and Eve. In the

biblical account, Cain murders his brother Abel. But in the verse immediately

preceding this murder, God speaks to Cain, who has become "very angry" with his

brother, and tells him that he "must master" sinful desire (see Genesis 4:6–8). The

rabbis interpreted this to mean that humans have the innate capacity to control sinful

urges and, therefore, we are solely responsible for our choice of action. In short, we

are able, by our own volition, to live holy lives. (Note the biblical injunction in

Leviticus 19:2 that the people are to "be holy, for I, the Lord your God, am holy.")

Hence, obedience to divine commandments has been a defining characteristic of

Jewish religion.

A second area of possible confusion is the name Orthodox Judaism, since we have

learned that Judaism is primarily an orthopraxy system. In the case of Orthodox

Judaism, however, the term Orthodox simply conveys the sense of traditional, i.e.,

Rabbinic, and should not be confused with the technical term orthodoxy.

(Unfortunately, Alan F. Segal in the Oxtoby text uses the term Orthodoxy to refer to

Orthodox Judaism.) Though it may seem awkward, Orthodox Judaism stresses

orthopraxy, not orthodoxy. Indeed, you may observe in your reading that each branch

of modern Judaism emphasizes orthopraxy, though in different ways. Orthodox

Judaism demands the full range of practice of the commandments, Reform Judaism a

smaller or reduced range of practice, and Conservative Judaism somewhat less than

Orthodox but more than Reform.


*Ashkenazim – one of the two groups of Jewish people in the premodern world.

These people originated in the central and eastern Europe areas, away from the

Mediterranean and Sephardim Jews. The names themselves came from Obadiah 20

and were commonly found in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania and Russia. The

Ashkenazim were all under Christian domination from repression and persecution.

Most of the Ashkenazims were uprooted and moved to the new world…more

Ashkenazims than Sephardics.

Hesed – a higher spherah that is Gods aspect of “lovingkindness”

Kabbalah – the teaching of tradition or ritualistic aspect of Judaism that believe lining

up the 10 different spherots or “spheres of life” through ritual and pious deeds will

line up a life through divine means

*mezuzah – a scroll on the door frame which contain commandments and literal

observances of them on the doors of the Jewish houses

minyan – a quorum for group prayer, which for Jewish groups is a body of 10 people

who usually pray together daily in the synagogue

Passover – a time of “Spring Cleaning” that gives the Jewish people a new beginning

by eating unlevened bread for 7 days. Jews also sometimes use separate pots and

pans for milk from meat. A season of agricultural rebirth and renewal, these meals

must be eaten with newly cleaned equipment and eat an elaborate dinner called seder.

*Rosh Hashanah – known as the “New Year” celebration for the Jewish lunar

calendar that occurs at the fall equinox.

Sabbath – Friday evening to Saturday evening which is dubbed a holy time. Jews

may not work during the Sabbath, including cooking food over a fire or giving

commands. The only loop hole is when a holiday falls on a Sabbath, which moves

the Sabbath hours to another day.

*seder – a ritual dinner that is symbolic and uses plants. It is the Jewish people’s

historical participation in the Passover.

*Sephardim – The Sephardic Jews were from the Mediterranean and was a place the

Jews migrated to at the fall of their Empire. Spain and Portugal dominate the

Sephardim history.

*sukkah – a booth or tabernacle that is a small, temporary shelter outside the house

which Jews sleep in or at least eat in when possible. This occurs at Sukkoth, the 8

day autumn harvest.

*tallith – a rectangular piece of cloth known as a prayer shawl

*tefillin – cube like boxes that aer tied together with a leather thong, one to the

forehead and 1 on the upper arm. There are passages in the Torah explaining that the

word of God should always be upon the hand and in between the eyes

yarmulke – a skull cap worn by men to cover their heads while praying, an ancient

tradition

*Yom Kippur – known as the Day of Atonement, the most solemn day of the year.

This day begins the Autumn harvest by blowing in a rams horn (shofar) and the rabbi

reminds his congregation to consider their deeds from the past year.

Reading Questions

Medieval Judaism (pp. 91–111)

o Where did medieval Jewish philosophy flourish? Why?

Everywhere that there was Islam and they were welcoming.

Muhammad let the Jews have their freedom of whatever religion they

wanted to practice.

o Why is Maimonides considered the most impressive Jewish philosopher?

He bridged the gap between faith and reason in Judaism. He proved

that logic applies to the thought of the resurrection and salvation,

which reassured the Jewish population of their faith.

o How does Merkabah mysticism differ from Kabbalah? What are the spherot?

(Note that this word is a plural form in Hebrew.)

Merkabah is the chariot mysticism that was the longest lasting. It is

interested in God’s size, heavenly accents, ritualistic/magical spells

and the apocalypse, which Kabbalah had 10 sperots (spheres or

realms) that must be lined up to be pointed in a divine way. Kabbalah

also began at the fall of Merkabah.

Jewish Observances (pp. 111–30)

o How is the Sabbath observed?

The Sabbath is from Friday evening to Saturday evening, which has a

service at the synagogue on Saturday evening. Sabbath is the holiest

day of the Jewish year, even though it occurs every week. They cease

all work from sundown to sundown because that is what the

Commandments called God’s followers to do in Exodus 31. They

clean the house and prepare a Sabbath meal. Every move on this day

is sanctified to God as well as their rest and thanksgiving.

o What are the major features of the Jewish dietary laws?

They must not eat meat that is not kosher, or ritually acceptable, by

any means. This includes eating pork, because the pig is considered

unclean. All animals and birds that eat other animals are not allowed

EXCEPT for fish. The blood from these animals must be washed and

salted out, not removed by any other means.

o Which annual festivals seem to have had agricultural and pastoral origins?

How were these festivals later interpreted?

Rosh Hashanah – fall equinox – new year (pastoral)

Yom kippur – day of atonement - autumn harvest (agricultural)

Sukkoth – Israelite’s living in temporary shelter – concludes autumn

harvest (agricultural)

Hanukkah – eight days of menorah oil and marks freedom and uniting

of Jews – December (pastoral)

Purim – like Halloween or Mardi Gras from Esther – march (pastoral)

Passover – birth and renewal – kosher food (agricultural)

Shavuoth – weeks of late spring 50 days after Passover – giving of the

torah at Sinai (agricultural)

The ninth of Ab – late summer – destruction of 1st and 2nd temple and

wear nothing elaborate from sun up to sun down, as well as fast

(agricultural)

o What are the major life-cycle events and rituals in Judaism?

Birth – circumsion on the 8th day of life

Give child a jewish education stressing learning and doing

good deeds

Get a aliyah to go up and read the Torah during the hours of the

synagogue

Natah – pleasurable feelings from birth

Bar mitzvah – coming of age ceremony around 12 or 13

Must be educated in how to read it and the cultural significance

of their history

Marriage – joined together in order to raise children

Rabii is present for legal purposes

Death – faced without an illusion

Corpse was washed, laid the people in a stone coffin and when

the body decomposed, the bones are laid in a sacrocophagus

with the rest of the family.

No embalming is allowed.

The family receives visitors for 7 days after the death

Mirrors are covered, wear somber clothing, rip the clothing and

children recite the Kiddish in their honor for a year after their

death.

The Modern World (pp. 130–50)

o How did each of the major branches of modern Judaism (Reform,

Conservative, and Orthodox) emerge? How do the branches differ?

Reform Judaism began in England during the 18th century and was

formed around the modern European lifestyle. The Reformed Jews

found their Jewish identity in the modern lifestyle and meshed the two

into one, leaving the Orthodox ways. The Reformed ways helped the

Jewish population of mainly Germany to have a significant religious

side while still living a life acceptable for the times. The reformed

Jews had church services instead of a mass type service, dressed in

attire from the Western tradition and refer to their “church place” as a

temple instead of a synagogue. The Conservative Jews have the

“middle road” between Reform and Orthodox Jews. They use history

to tell them how to act and what to wear over the times of the nation

they are living in. They have also not changed much of their services

and outlook on Judaism since its inception, unlike the Reformed Jews.

One of the few things that have changed since the Orthodox ways was

that men and women can both attend services together and women can

now lead alongside men, which Orthodox Jews do not condone.

Orthodox Jews have held many of the original Jewish life traditions,

with one of the only changes being modern dress. Their services are

still in the traditional Hebrew language and live out the rules set out in

the Bible. Israeli people practice Orthodox Judaism as their official,

national religion.

Written Assignment

Distinguish between Sephardim and Ashkenazim.

o Both the Sephardic and Ashkenazim Jews were present during the time of

medieval Judaism. The Sephardic Jews were from the Mediterranean and was

a place the Jews migrated to at the fall of their Empire. Spain and Portugal

dominate the Sephardim history. The Ashkenazim Jews originated in the

central and eastern Europe areas, away from the Mediterranean and

Sephardim Jews. The names themselves came from Obadiah 20 and were

commonly found in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania and Russia. The

Ashkenazim were all under Christian domination from repression and

persecution. Most of the Ashkenazims were uprooted and moved to the new

world…more Ashkenazims than Sephardics came to America.

Summarize the writings and significance of Maimonides.

o Maimonides wrote the Misneh Torah in Hebrew and wrote a responsa or a

commentary to advise the Jewish community on matters like false conversions

and the resurrection of the Messiah. Although that was important, he was

most known for the book Guide of the Perplexed, his major philosophical

piece that proved faith through reason. The book was a breakthrough of its

time and was written as if to one student, not the Jewish population. This

work also resolved the tension between faith and reason because it pointed out

that the Torah used allegories to prove its points, which gave the Torah’s

philosophy a certain peace among its people.

Contrast Hanukkah and Yom Kippur. (Note that Hanukkah was covered in the

previous lesson.)

o Hanukkah focuses on the Jewish population being united and is about the

purification and rededication of their church. Hannakuh was also initially a

smaller holiday with not much emphasis until the Maccabees threw over the

Jewish reign and brought the entire Jewish religion together. Hannakuh is a

eight day celebration and uses a menorah to remember how the amount of oil

for one day kept a lamp on for 8 days. Hannakuh is also unique because its

importance is not recorded in the Mishnah, so the day became a celebration of

a miracle rather than a religious holiday, which is appropriate since it

celebrates a day of independence instead of a spiritually important day. Yom

Kippur (or the day of Atonement) is a bigger holiday when the congregation

focuses on the past year. Yom Kippur is also the most solemn day out of the

Jewish calendar year and Jewish population focuses in the final judgment on

God’s people.

What are the major differences among the modern forms of Judaism (i.e., Orthodox,

Conservative, Reform) with regard to the law and the liturgy (i.e., rituals of worship)?

o The Reformed ways helped the Jewish population of mainly Germany to have

a significant religious side while still living a life acceptable for the times.

The reformed Jews had church services instead of a mass type service, dressed

in attire from the Western tradition and refer to their “church place” as a

temple instead of a synagogue. The Reformed considered themselves to be a

spiritual community instead of a nation, do not consider diet and holy rituals

as a way to further yourself in faith and that the Bible has its own idea of

clothing and concepts that have changed over time, which the people of their

religion can adapt with throughout the ages. The Conservative Jews have the

“middle road” between Reform and Orthodox Jews. They use history to tell

them how to act and what to wear over the times of the nation they are living

in. They have also not changed much of their services and outlook on

Judaism since its inception, unlike the Reformed Jews. One of the few things

that have changed since the Orthodox ways was that men and women can both

attend services together and women can now lead alongside men, which

Orthodox Jews do not condone. Orthodox Jews have held many of the

original Jewish life traditions, with one of the only changes being modern

dress. Their services are still in the traditional Hebrew language and live out

the rules set out in the Bible. Israeli people practice Orthodox Judaism as

their official, national religion.

Lesson Four: The Christian Tradition: From Its Origin Through Imperial Christianity Mary-Catherine Ciuba

Lesson Objectives



o outline what we know about the origins of Christianity, including the life and

teachings of Jesus, the writings of Paul, and the development of the New

Testament canon

o relate the development of Christian thought and literature after the New

Testament period

o recognize the various forms of early Christianity

Reading Assignment


Discussion

This lesson explores the beginnings of Christianity, including its history, thought, and

literature. The Oxtoby text discusses the apostolic writings that eventually came

together to form the New Testament canon, part of the authoritative collection of

scripture for Christianity. It will also trace the development of Christianity from Jesus

and the church's beginnings in Judea, through its spread to the Greco-Roman world,

to its solidification in the city of Rome.

At the center of Christian understanding is the doctrine of the Incarnation, the idea

that God became a historical human being in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. While

Judaism and Islam might regard the claim that a human being could have been the

recipient of the fullness of the deity as incomprehensible and even blasphemous,

Christians understand this doctrine as a supreme expression of God's love for

humanity. Furthermore, Christian tradition has maintained that the death of Jesus was

the means for reconciling the rift between God and humanity and that the resurrection

of Jesus is the assurance of eternal life. As you will see, there arose other convictions

about Jesus' divinity, etc. Indeed, differences over particular faith claims about Jesus

and/or their correct interpretations have occasioned many of the serious divisions

within Christianity. Even discussions regarding the relationship between faith and

works in the life of the Christian have often been hotly debated ones. The divisions

among Christians concerning theological issues have gained for Christianity the

description that it tends to emphasize orthodoxy over orthopraxy. Few, if any, major

schisms have centered on debates over correct behavior, a fact that further fortifies

the notion of Christianity's emphasis on orthodoxy.

There is another means by which we might compare Christianity and other religions

regarding orthodoxy and orthopraxy. In an entry in Western Ways of Being Religious

(edited by Gary E. Kessler), Lawrence S. Cunningham provides the following

characterization of Christianity:

Christianity seems so complex in its history and practice one can forget that, at its

core, Christianity is based on a simple premise. Christianity asserts that human beings

exist in a state of alienation; that alienation (from each other, from God) has been

healed through the life and saving deeds of a single person, Jesus of Nazareth. (p.

104)

How does this concept of alienation compare with Jewish thinking in this regard? To

be clear, Judaism agrees that there can be alienation from God, but asserts that

humans not only can but must heal the alienation individually, by and for themselves.

Christianity, on the other hand, claims that humans cannot accomplish the healing of

the alienation by and for themselves, at least not the totality of the healing.

Put in the simplest of terms then, Judaism asks, "If humans can act by and for

ourselves, what should we do?"—and responds with the mitzvoth, the

commandments. (Recall that, according to Judaism, the salvation of both Jews and

Gentiles is linked to the performance of commandments. Review the discussion of the

Noachic commandments on p. 90 in Oxtoby.) Christianity asks, "If humans cannot

heal alienation from God by and for ourselves, what should we believe?"— and

responds, in part, with the creeds, i.e., statements of correct belief. You will learn in

this lesson about various creeds that were produced by the developing Church, but

especially about the Nicene Creed (see pp. 227–28 in Oxtoby). Gary E. Kessler's

summary comment concerning the sometimes contentious debates leading up to and

surrounding the production of the creeds underscores the shift in emphasis you will

encounter in this lesson: "Many scholars have argued that these fights over correct

belief...turned Christianity into more of an orthodoxy-type of religion than an

orthopraxy-type such as Judaism. Correct belief...became more important than correct

practice" (Western Ways of Being Religious, p. 127). As you did in Lessons 2 and 3

in regard to the orthopraxic emphasis of Judaism, try to find examples as you read

that demonstrate that Christianity is primarily an orthodoxy.


*Advent – beginning of the Christian liturgical year, a period including four Sundays

immediately preceding Christmas.

*Apostles' Creed – a brief statement of Christian doctrinal belief dating from about

the third century but ascribed to the apostles or first-generation followers of Jesus,

and often recited in unison by congregations.

baptism – sprinkling or immersion in water, the ritual by which a person is initiated

into membership in the Christian community. Baptism is considered a cleansing from

the skin.

bishop –the supervising priest of a district of diocese. In some branches of

Christianity the bishop has charge of ordaining priests as well as confirming

baptisms.

*Epiphany – the festival twelve days after Christmas commemorating the

manifestation of Jesus’ divinity, associated with the visit of the wise men from the

East to the infant Jesus.

*Eucharist – the ritual re-enactment of Jesus’ sacrifice to himself, patterned after his

sharing bread and wine as his body at his final Passover meal with his disciples. The

orthodox term it the liturgy, Catholics the mass, and Protestants the Lord’s supper or

holy communion.

*Lent – the period preceding Easter, consisting of forty days, not counting Sundays.

It is the season for most serious Christian spiritual reflection.

mass – the Eucharistic ceremony of Roman Catholics, in which bread and wine are

eaten as the body and blood of Christ.

*Nicene Creed – an ancient doctrinal formulation longer and more explicit than the

Apostles’ Creed and still in use through regular recitation in the Catholic mass.

Passion – the suffering and death of Jesus on the cross

*Pentecost – the fiftieth day after Easter, commemorated as the occasion when Jesus’

followers experienced dramatically the presence of the Holy Spirit and the ability to

preach and be understood in different languages

sacrament – a ritual action seen as signifying divine grace. The most widely accepted

as sacraments are baptism and the Eucharist; the Catholic church has regarded these

plus five other as sacraments since the thirteenth century.

Trinity – the conception of God as having three ‘persons’ or manifestations: as father,

as son, and as Holy Spirit. The doctrine emerged during the late third century and

was adopted after vigorous debate in the fourth.

Reading Questions

Celebrating a Birth (pp. 201–203)

o Approximately how many Orthodox, Catholics, and Protestants are there in

the world?

Orthodox – at least 150 million

Catholics – at least 900 million

Protestants – about 400 million

Christian Origins (pp. 203–223)

o Based on the summary of the Gospel of Mark, what are the major events in

the life of Jesus?

His ministry, miracles performed during his ministry, his trial, his

execution, death and how he rose again on the 3rd day.

o What are parables, and what is the Q source?

Parable – story with a moral

Q source refers to a German word meaning source. Some German

scholars assume Luke and Matthew received information we do not

have to create their accounts since they both have so many similarities.

o What are the essential elements of the "minimum core of Jesus' evident intent

as a teacher"?

He wants his followers to live up to the Jewish ideals from the Old

Testament, as well as place the ethics and beliefs from these texts

ahead of the way of life and the rituals the church performed.

o How does John differ from the other gospels?

John shows the reasoning behind why Jesus is the Messiah, while the

others focused on what He taught and miracles he performed.

o What are the major points of Paul's message? Why is he considered such an

influential figure in the development of Christianity?

Paul was a Pharisee turned Christian after a personal interaction with

Jesus after he was crucified. After that encounter, he was a believer.

He (Paul) went from church to church proclaiming that the only way to

be saved would be through faith, not works or dietary choices. He

explained that we made Jesus come down on that cross and that

through that deed, we were now saved. He left behind many of these

letters which make up a big part of the New Testament, as well as

lived out a life after his encounter that was an example.

o Who was Marcion, and what was his impact on the development of the

Christian canon?

Marcion pointed out the difference between the old and new testament,

because the God from both of them were different (old was a rule

follower, the new had a compassionate and loving God. He created

the canon, or a list of the writings that make up the Old and New

Testaments to make a definition of what is biblical and what is not.

Imperial Christianity (pp. 223–241)

o Why did Constantine give support and patronage to Christianity? How did the

Roman Empire become an officially Christian state?

Constantine claims to have seen a cross in the sky with the words

“conquer in this sign” written under it. Eusebius, a historian of the

time, recorded this and claims Constantine also shifted policies so that

the Roman Empire had the freedom to practice any religion under

Roman rule.

o What was the dispute between Arius and Athanasius about? What were their

positions?

Arius and Athanasius fought over the eternal characteristics of Jesus.

Arius argued that Jesus was not eternal and was placed into the time

line to save the world and is now gone since he fulfilled his purpose.

Athanasius claimed that God and Jesus were the same entity, both

eternal and powerful equally.

o How did the Council of Chalcedon arrive at a Christological formulation that

was acceptable both in Rome and Constantinople?

Written Assignment

Based on your reading in Oxtoby, give an academic description of the main

characteristics of the teaching of Jesus of Nazareth. Please do not provide personal

confessions of faith. In other words, make sure to maintain the outsider's perspective

we studied in the first lesson.

o Jesus showed the world that he was the Messiah and saved the world from

paying for their sins. Jesus claims that he is God through the miracles and

teaches his followers lesson to live by through parables and other teachings

from the Old Testament. Jesus was the human link between God and man,

and claimed to be fully both. He claimed to sacrifice himself, a sinless man,

to save the world from sin by bearing theirs’ on a cross willingly. He also

warned his followers that only those that believe and follow him and his

teachings would be saved by laying down their lives to further his kingdom.

Why are Matthew, Mark, and Luke called the synoptic gospels? How do Matthew

and Luke differ from Mark?

o Matthew, Mark and Luke are synoptic gospels declaring a common thesis,

while John is a biography disguised as a major theological essay. While the

other Gospels string together parables and miracles, John focuses on who

Jesus was and showed the world that he is the Messiah. Matthew and Luke

are thought to both have been born from the “Q Source”, a document we do

not have that helped Matthew and Luke both write their gospels since there

are so many similarities between them.

Based on your reading in Oxtoby, select what you would regard as the four most

significant persons or events in the development of Christianity in the time period

after Jesus of Nazareth up to the end of the fourth century ce. Briefly explain the

significance of each of your choices. Please include at most only one or two biblical

persons/events. The other two or three should be non-biblical.

o John, Paul, Marcion and Constantine are the four important men that I think

furthered Christianity throughout the world. John wrote the gospel book John,

which explained who Jesus was and why he came to pay for our sins. John’s

work was more of a intellectual piece of Jesus’s reasoning for coming than the

other three gospels, which had only his parables, his teachings and his story.

Paul realized that Jesus did this and furthered his kingdom telling the church

that deeds will not save them (like the Old Testament claims) but they must

accept Jesus’ sacrifice and follow his teachings now. Even though Marcion is

a strange choice, it was important to decide what teachings and books of the

Bible were God-breathed and what was not biblical. Marcion helped the

church make those decisions to see what was divinely written and what was

just an interpretation of scripture already in circulation. Constantine changed

the government’s outlook on religion and let everyone have the choice to

practice whatever religion they believed, which was mainly Christianity.

What did the Council of Chalcedon decide about Christology, and how did it "steer a

middle course between the Nestorians and the Monophysites"?

o Nestorians believed that the divine and human realms of Jesus were separated,

while the Monophysites believed nature and deity are one, so Christ’s

humanness was swallowed by the deity. The Council of Chalcedon ruled that

Christ had two natures in one person (both fully human and fully man). From

this ruling, the Eastern Roman empire broke apart the Anglicans and

Protestants in time. It was a middle road between Nestorians and

Monophysites because it brought the 2 full parts in 1 man idea, combining the

2 halves to 1 whole and 1 swallowed by another into a different possibility.

Lesson 5 - The Christian Tradition: The Medieval Latin World and the Protestant Reformation Mary-CatherineCiuba

Lesson Objectives



o state the factors that gave rise to medieval Latin theology and how it differed

from that of the early period

o discuss the development of the structure of the medieval Latin Church,

including the papacy and monastic orders

o describe events, practices, and items attached to medieval Latin Christianity

o explain the forces that gave rise to the Protestant Reformation and the

significant changes it brought

Reading Assignment


Discussion

Some forms of Christianity, such as Monophysitism and Nestorianism, have had

continuous presence in portions of the world like Africa and India since ancient times.

We will, however, now turn our attention to Christianity among Eurasians,

particularly Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, as we enter a discussion of

the Middle Ages. Medieval Christianity is a complicated mixture of various Christian

elements that bridge the early and modern periods. Developments in the papacy,

monastic orders, theology, and practices of the Church eventually gave rise to a

reform movement, generally known as the Protestant Reformation. This lesson will

enumerate the people involved in the developments and the reform and attempt to

clarify the issues that were at stake.


Atonement – Christ’s restoration of humanity to a right relationship with God,

variously interpreted as divine victory over demonic power, satisfaction of divine

justice, or demonstration of a moral example

*excommunication – formal expulsion from the Church, particularly the Roman

Catholic Church, for doctrinal error or moral misconduct

*friar – a member of a Latin mendicant order such as the Dominicans, Franciscans, or

Carmelites

Immaculate Conception – the doctrine that the virgin Mary was herself conceived

without sin, defined as Roman Catholic dogma in 1854

*indulgences – releases from specified amounts of time in purgatory, a realm to

which in Catholic doctrine the soul proceeds after death for an unspecified period of

preparation to enter heaven

*lectionary – a schedule of scriptural passages to be read in worship on a particular

day

mendicant orders – Medieval Latin religious orders operating in the cities and towns

rather than in monasteries apart from them. Members worked or begged for a living,

originally as a protest against the monasteries’ wealth.

mysticism – a tradition cultivating and reflecting on the content of moments of

intensely felt spiritual union with the divine

ontological argument – an argument based on logic holding that God must necessarily

exist and formulated by the eleventh-century theologian Anselm.

Puritanism – a movement in England from 1558 to 1660 seeking to ‘purify’ the

Church of England of Catholic influences in favor of Calvinist ones. Before running

its course in England, it became a major influence in Congregational Churches in

New England.

Reformed Churches – churches that are Calvinist in doctrine and often Presbyterian in

Church government, strong in the Netherlands and Scotland, and also found in

France, Switzerland, Hungary and places on other continents populated by settlers

from these lands.

*rosary – a string of fifty-eight beads and a small crucifix, used in Catholic devotion

to keep count when repeating Our Father and Hail Mary prayers

Stations of the Cross – fourteen locations marked in the nave of a Catholic church,

recalling events along the pilgrim route in Jerusalem from Jesus trial to his

crucifixion

Reading Questions

The Medieval Latin World (pp. 241–269)

o How has Augustine influenced later Christian thought?

Augustine made a difference with his approach to political events.

The City of God, Augustine’s book, showed how theology changed

over time, from the beginning of history until the present. And then he

challenged the Roman people to realize that God is much bigger than

their city will ever be, so their empire was a speck of dust in God’s

eyes. He also helped the Roman empire realize that the church

supersedes the state and will always hold more importance over

political power.

o What are the characteristics of the monastic life? How does monasticism

contrast with the mendicant orders?

Monastic life only encompasses all male living situations, no women.

Women had convents and called their inhabitants nuns. These men

must agree to vows of poverty, chastity and obedience before joining

the monastery and becoming monks. These men were vital to the

Greek and Latin churches since they followed a strict prayer and

worship lifestyle. The monks and nuns in this time period were

referred to as “a religious” and were seen as a different faction of the

community who were secluded in their position. Mendicant orders, on

the other hand, are the religious folk who lived among the ordinary

people, not separated from them. These people were the friars or any

other laypeople working and begging for their money from normal

folk to serve them and serve the church. The biggest difference

between monks and friars are that monks were solemn and become

recluse, while friars are part of the total community and serve as a part

of the community.

o What were the Crusades? What were they intended to accomplish?

There were three crusades that were military campaigns / wars that

were between Latin Christians and taking Jerusalem back from

Muslim control. Christians were allowed to pilgrimage from their

farms and hometowns to Jerusalem for religious purposes. There were

interrupted, which spurred wars.

o How did Christian regard for Mary develop?

Early Greek and Latin Christianity put a ton of importance on the

presence of Mary in the Bible and their church realm. In Matthew and

Luke, she was mentioned as the virgin mother and in John as being

present at Jesus’s crucifixion. Because of her presence, she became an

avenue to converse with the Trinity as well as a wellspring of love.

Some scholars believe she now rules with the Trinity in heaven, as

well as using the rosary to pray to her. The rosary is 58 beads and a

small crucifix attached. People would say the Lord’s prayer as well as

10 heal Mary’s following the sequence of the beads. Protestants,

however, praise her as a virgin and celebrate the immaculate

conception of the Messiah, but did not consider her to be the mother of

God. She is more seen as a bearer of Jesus, but should not be raised to

a higher standard (like saintdom) because she was a faithful vessel

used by the Lord.

o What was scholasticism? What is the importance of Anselm and Thomas

Aquinas to Roman Catholicism?

Scholasticism is the movement that occurred in the medieval

universities among the clergy. These intellectual findings from

thousands of years ago are still present today. Along with theology

comes philosophy in this era. Students of this time saw the faith and

reason stemming from theology and philosophy and mutually

confirmed their thoughts that Christianity is a valid religious practice.

Anselm furthered scholasticism among the Christians by moving away

from just reading the Bible and providing a rationale of why we

believe what we should believe. He confirms the presence of God

himself and is famous for the statement “I believe so that I may

understand”. Anselm’s impact on Christianity is primarily the

reasoning of why God became incarnate. Anselm argues that Jesus

came to pay the penalty for everyone’s sins who cannot pay the price

themselves. He also argues that Jesus’ human character was enough to

pay the penalty for our sins to God. Thomas Aquinas has also made

an impact of scholasticism through his five statements, proving God’s

existence. The first three reasons are cosmic related (as a big time

turner in the sky), while the fourth says that there must be a being that

is supremely good and true since there are levels of good and true and

the fifth explains that the universe has a plan that can only be

explained by the presence of a divine being, planning everything.

These five principles are still evident and used in Christian apologetics

(or arguments proving Christianity to be true) today.

o What is mysticism? What is characteristic of the Christian mystical

experience? What was the role of women in medieval Christian mysticism?

Mysticism is not just a mysterious and uncertain experience, but that

someone’s belief in God is based on an vivid, memorable experience

convincing them, not doctrine. These moments are normally

temporary and if written down, show a bridge between humans and

God. Mysticism puts an emphasis on the internal life, which is

sometimes dubbed the spiritual life. This aspect of life is seen to

“develop” with prayer and contemplation within the heart and soul of a

person. Women serve a primary role in Christian mysticism,

especially Jan van Ruysbroeck, Hildegard of Bingen, Catherine of

Siena, Julian of Norwich and Joan of Arc. Many of them had visions

of who God is and spread their thoughts and experiences among

Christians, showing them how God portrayed his love for us.

The Protestant Reformation (pp. 269–289)

o How did Protestantism emerge? What was the background of the

Reformation? What were Martin Luther's major claims or arguments?

During this portion of time, religion boomed across country lines,

whether it be Christianity or Islam among Asian countries. Spanish

navigators took Christianity with them to the New World, which is still

considered the dominant religion in North America today. Christianity

was on the cusp of dominance Europe began to have on the world.

Luther exploded with the Protestant reformation in response to the

indulgences brought forth in the Catholic community, which allows

people to buy their way into heaven to remove sins from their file. To

revolt, Luther posted 95 theses nailed to the door of the Catholic

church, reasoning that the Catholic church practices were not biblical

or right. Many people gave their support to Luther for spiritual and

political reasons, but Luther’s core reasoning was theological. Luther

argues that it is by grace that we are saved and justified by faith alone,

not by the rituals and requirements of the Catholic church. The

Protestant reformation was spread throughout the world primarily due

to the printing press and mass producing Luther’s teachings to the

world. Luther’s teachings were translating the Bible literally,

especially with the Eucharist and breaking bread that resembles

Christ’s body, because Christ explained the bread “was his body”.

Protestantism also rejected the central control like the pope has over

the Catholic church.

o Compare and contrast the major characteristics of the sixteenth century

branches of Protestantism, i.e., the Lutherans, the Anglicans, the Calvinists,

the Anabaptists, and the Unitarians.

Lutherans – they kept a Eucharist like mass, but did it in English

instead of Latin. They kept priests and bishops as positions of power

like the Catholic church, but they were now permitted to marry.

Anglicans – created to break from the Catholic church because Pope

Clement VII would not grant King Henry VIII to annul their marriage,

he created his own religion known as Anglican. In this denomination,

the king had the authority and granted divorce in this practice. Known

as Episcopalian church in the US, it is a broad church that looks

exactly like the catholic church except for these changes.

Calvinists – focused on spiritual discipline and trust in God’s power

and caring providence. Knowledge and faith are synonymous in their

book. They also believe in predestination and is Presbyterian here in

the states.

Anabaptists – it is known for becoming established before any other

reformed church. They emphasize getting baptized as an adult and

making the decision for yourself, rather than baptizing babies around

birth.

Unitarians – people who struggle with the thoughts of the Trinity and

other Christian doctrine to the point that they have free minds and

decide for themselves what they believe. They are not necessarily

Christians, but are a “community of free minds”.

o What are the major features of Protestant worship?

Not all Protestant worship contains the Eucharist and believe that

anyone can communicate with God (there is no reason for a

middleman, like a priest). They also look for the Holy Spirit moving

through the community, not accepting it as chance or from the clergy

in that area.

Written Assignment

Who was the African bishop Augustine? How did he influence Christianity in the

medieval and later periods?

o Augustine was a bishop who was converted from Manichaean to Christianity

by a passage in Romans 13. Predestination and grace theories of Christianity

are still based on Augustine’s thoughts from his book in culture today. The

City of God, Augustine’s book, showed how theology changed over time,

from the beginning of history until the present. And then he challenged the

Roman people to realize that God is much bigger than their city will ever be,

so their empire was a speck of dust in God’s eyes. He also helped the Roman

empire realize that the church supersedes the state and will always hold more

importance over political power.

Write a description of medieval monasticism. In what ways did it influence Christian

thought and/or practice?

o Monks and nuns were a part of a very structured religious institution were

these men and women who sacrificed a lot of worldly and monetary pieces to

serve the church. These communities took vows of poverty, chastity and

obedience to the church, which provided stability and a community of people

working together and sacrificing for one common cause. They were an

alternative group who had a rigorous schedule of prayer, studying and worship

in their monasteries or convents, respectively. These men and women also

sacrificed the option of ever being married to be celibate for the rest of their

lives. The monastic and nunnery life effects thoughts and practices of the

Christian religion because they singlehandedly brought Christianity to the

Western civilization. Most of the churches brought in new people and

travelers in and provided food and water, as well as optimism and hope

through their beliefs. Ordinary people would share this view with others and

their positive experience at the church, which pushed Europe into a religious

age. When mendicants (friars) also came into the cities, they furthered this

thought process and belief system all over until it became a (at that time)

“worldwide pandemic”.

What was Christian scholasticism? What do you see as the major contribution of

Anselm? of Thomas Aquinas?

o Scholasticism is the movement that occurred in the medieval universities

among the clergy. These intellectual findings from thousands of years ago are

still present today. Along with theology comes philosophy in this era.

Students of this time saw the faith and reason stemming from theology and

philosophy and mutually confirmed their thoughts that Christianity is a valid

religious practice. Anselm furthered scholasticism among the Christians by

moving away from just reading the Bible and providing a rationale of why we

believe what we should believe. He confirms the presence of God himself and

is famous for the statement “I believe so that I may understand”. Anselm’s

impact on Christianity is primarily the reasoning of why God became

incarnate. Anselm argues that Jesus came to pay the penalty for everyone’s

sins who cannot pay the price themselves. He also argues that Jesus’ human

character was enough to pay the penalty for our sins to God. Thomas Aquinas

has also made an impact of scholasticism through his five statements, proving

God’s existence. The first three reasons are cosmic related (as a big time

turner in the sky), while the fourth says that there must be a being that is

supremely good and true since there are levels of good and true and the fifth

explains that the universe has a plan that can only be explained by the

presence of a divine being, planning everything. These five principles are still

evident and used in Christian apologetics (or arguments proving Christianity

to be true) today.

What was the Protestant Reformation? In what ways did Protestants challenge

traditional Catholic doctrine and practice?

o During this portion of time, religion boomed across country lines, whether it

be Christianity or Islam among Asian countries. Spanish navigators took

Christianity with them to the New World, which is still considered the

dominant religion in North America today. Christianity was on the cusp of

dominance Europe began to have on the world. Luther exploded with the

Protestant reformation in response to the indulgences brought forth in the

Catholic community, which allows people to buy their way into heaven to

remove sins from their file. To revolt, Luther posted 95 theses nailed to the

door of the Catholic church, reasoning that the Catholic church practices were

not biblical or right. Many people gave their support to Luther for spiritual

and political reasons, but Luther’s core reasoning was theological. Luther

argues that it is by grace that we are saved and justified by faith alone, not by

the rituals and requirements of the Catholic church. Luther’s teachings were

translating the Bible literally, especially with the Eucharist and breaking bread

that resembles Christ’s body, because Christ explained the bread “was his

body”. Protestantism also rejected the central control like the pope has over

the Catholic church, which caused splintering of different denominations and

beliefs over time.

Lesson 6 - The Christian Tradition: Roman Catholicism after 1500 and the Modern World Mary-Catherine Ciuba

Lesson Objectives



o discuss the impact of the Protestant Reformation on Roman Catholicism

o describe the impact the Enlightenment and the modern world had on Roman

Catholicism and Protestantism

o discuss new theological and structural developments in Roman Catholicism

Reading Assignment


Discussion

The efforts to reform Christianity during the sixteenth century produced some

profound results. First, Catholic Christianity reaffirmed and clarified its doctrines and

practices and, through the thought and work of people such as Teresa of Avila and the

Jesuits, was greatly revitalized. Some Christian reformers found that their doctrinal

reformulations and changes in church structure were inconsistent with continued

Catholic affiliations and, thus, there emerged new, Protestant denominations.

Furthermore, there was an increased spread of Christianity to all parts of the world.

Due to factors such as missionary activities and colonialism, Christianity became a

truly world religion.

Since by the end of this lesson you will have thoroughly examined one tradition with

an orthopraxic orientation (Judaism) and one that, by comparison, stresses orthodoxy

(Christianity), it is appropriate to emphasize that these are emphases, not exclusive

traits. Of course, Judaism has some shared beliefs, and Christianity encourages

certain practices. It is a matter of which receives more focus and has been spelled out

more in each tradition. In his book, We Jews and You Christians: An Inquiry into

Attitudes (p. 68), the rabbi and scholar Samuel Sandmel summarizes the situation

very nicely:

If a neutral observer were to ask one of you [Christians] what he believes, he would

answer in terms of creed or theology, while one of us [Jews], if asked, would answer

in terms of our Jewish sacred days and our ethical precepts. In a word, in your

tradition, faith is explicit, and conduct usually left undefined or only implicit; in our

tradition, faith is left implicit, and the conduct made definite and explicit.

The truth of this statement can be underscored by the following. While most

Christians acknowledge the creeds produced by the first seven ecumenical councils,

with some Christians viewing them as having "special authority," Judaism does not

have even one creed that is shared by all Jewish religious groups (unless one counts

the Shema [see Oxtoby, pp. 64–65], which is effectively only one sentence). Recall

that while Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Faith "almost constitute" a creed for

Orthodox Judaism, Reform Jews certainly oppose the majority of these principles.


*ecumenism – movement for reunion or collaboration between previously separated

braches of Christianity

fundamentalism – a 20th century reaction to modernity by Protestants who advocated

strict literal inerrancy of scripture and doctrine. “Fundamentalism” has come to

imply calls for strict conformity in conduct as well as militancy in defending tradition

and attacking modernity.

Glossolalia – speaking in strange tongues, which is a principal feature of charismatic

behavior.

*imprimatur – permission given by a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical official before a

book on a theological or moral subject may be printed.

Pentecostal Churches – modern protestant groups emphasizing outbursts of exotic,

generally unintelligible, speech as a mark of the Holy Spirit’s presence and of the

individual’s holiness or spiritual perfection.

Pietism – a movement originating in late 17th century Lutheran Germany, expressing

a spontaneity of devotion and a confident certainty of forgiveness, over against

institutional rigidity. It contributed to Methodism in 19th century England.

*transubstantiation – the Catholic doctrine that the bread and wine of the Eucharist

are at the movment of consecration in the service miraculously transformed into the

body and blood of Christ.

Reading Questions

Roman Catholicism after 1500 (pp. 289–305)

o What was the Council of Trent? In what ways may we speak of the "Counter-

Reformation"? How do historians differ in assessing the Roman Catholic

response to the Reformation?

o Who are the Jesuits? How did they emerge? What are they known for?

o How widespread have Catholic missions been?

Modernity (pp. 305–331)

o Oxtoby writes: "To the extent that we today think of science and religion as

antithetical, it is not Newton's era but an earlier one (Galileo's) or a later one

(Darwin's) on which that impression is built" (p. 308). What are the major

arguments of Galileo, Newton, and Darwin? How did Christian leaders react

to each of these men in his own day?

o What were Vatican I and Vatican II? What did each council discuss and

decide?

o How did cultural expectations of the role of women in society change in the

twentieth century?

Writing Questions

Describe the Council of Trent and its importance for Catholicism.

o

What impact did nineteenth-century historical and archaeological discoveries have on

the interpretation of the Bible?

o

Describe Vatican Council I and Vatican Council II and their importance for Catholics and Protestants.

o

Explain in your own words how women and men have sought to redress patriarchal bias in Christianity.

11/29/10 12:14 PM

11/29/10 12:14 PM

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