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LESSON PLAN STEPS (HERBARTIAN APPROACH)
LESSON PLAN
Introduction
A lesson plan is the systematic preparation done in a scientific manner. Effective and successful
teaching mainly depends on perfect lesson planning. A lesson plan represents a single teaching unit meant
for a class period. Generally a lesson plan is teacher’s mental and emotional visualization of classroom
activities.
Definition
“Lesson plan is the title given to a statement of the achievement to be realized and the specific
means by which these are to be attained as a result of the activities engaged in during the period”.
Bossing
“Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and arranging the subject matter
and determining the method and procedure”.
Binging and Binging
Stands – A lesson is “A plan of action”
Needs of Lesson Planning
The lesson plan does not allow the teacher to deviate and its keep him on the way. In the process of
teaching, lesson plan is needed due to the following reasons.
i. Through lesson plan, the teacher regularly achieves the teaching objectives and process in the
form of complex objectives and processes.
ii. A lesson plan develops the possibilities of adjustment in the classroom situation which makes
the teaching effective.
iii. A lesson plan helps in calling every step of curriculum unit.
iv. A lesson plan helps in planning the process of teaching on the basis of class control, motivation
and individual differences.
IMPORTANCE OF LESSON PLAN
Planning is essential for every aspect of human activities, but for a planned teaching more planning
is required.
1. Suitable Environment
In a lesson plan objectives are fixed and the teaching strategies, techniques and material aid etc. are
decided beforehand. When a proper teaching environment is created, the teaching task goes in a much
planned way.
2. Based on previous knowledge
In preparing lesson plans, the teacher presents new knowledge as the basis of previous knowledge
of the pupils. This enables the pupils to gain the knowledge very conveniently on one side, the teacher
succeeds in acquiring his objective on the other side.
3. Psychological teaching
The teacher uses proper teaching strategies, techniques and instruments keeping in mind the
interests, aptitudes, needs, capacities and abilities of the pupils for teaching them when the lesson plans are
prepared. This makes the teaching more psychological.
4. Limitation of subject matter
In a lesson plan, the subject matter becomes limited. This enables the teacher to give up irrelevant
things. He only remembers definite and limited matter and its presentation before the pupils become easy.
The pupils also receive the knowledge in a systematic and organized way.
5. Determination of activities
In a lesson plan, the teachers and pupils activities are pre-decided according to the class level. This
makes the teaching activities meaningful and purposeful.
6. Preparation of material aids
At the time of preparing a lesson plan, the teacher decides what facts are to be clarified by what
strategies, techniques and instruments and what aid is to be used at what time. This prepares the necessary
and effective aids before starting the teaching task.
7. Developing of teaching skill
The lesson plan acts as an important means for developing teaching skills in the pupil-teacher.
8. Use of Theoretical knowledge
Whatever the pupil-teachers get theoretical knowledge during their training period, that knowledge.
9. Teaching with confidence
The preparation of a lesson plan makes the subject and other allied subjects more clearly to the
teachers. This arouses self confidence among them. When a teacher gets developed the feeling of self-
confidence, then he presents the new knowledge to the pupils with more enthusiasm and pleasure.
10. Discipline in class
By preparing lesson plan, the teacher becomes aware of what, when and how much is to be done in
the class. This absorbs all the pupils in their respective tasks. Hence, it results in appreciable classroom
discipline.
11. Time sense
Lesson plan is prepared allotting to the duration of the periods.
12. Teaching from memory level to reflective level
In an ideal lesson plan, development and thought provoking questions should be asked. Also there
should be an effort to stretch the teaching from memory level to reflective level.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD LESSON PLAN
1. Objective based
The lesson plan must be based on one or the other objective. While writing this, objectives should
be written and defined clearly because its main objective is to achieve some goal.
2. Decision about appropriate material aids
The material aid an important means of the teacher. Hence correct decision regarding the charts,
graphs, pictures, diagrams and maps should be taken while preparing ideal lesson plan and these should be
marked at proper places which a teacher is to use them while teaching.
3. Based previous knowledge
An ideal lesson plan should be based on the previous knowledge of the pupils. This will avoid
difficulty in acquiring new knowledge by the pupils.
4. Division of lesson plan in units
Lessons are of three types (a) knowledge lesson (b) skill lesson (c) appreciation lesson. In an ideal
lesson plan all the relevant steps of these three types of lesson plan should be determined. Each lesson
should be divided into suitable units so that the pupils may understand the lesson gradually.
5. Simplicity of activities
In an ideal lesson plan, the simplicity of the lesson plan and clarity of thoughts should be according
to the mental level of the pupils.
6. Determination of activities
In an ideal lesson plan, the activities of a teacher and the pupils should be determined before-hand.
7. Home work
There should a provision of home work in an ideal lesson plan. This will enable the pupils to learn
the appreciation of the acquired knowledge.
8. Self-evaluation
A good lesson plan must have a suitable plan for self-criticism. The teacher should put some
questions to him and find out the answer and there by judge the effectiveness of the lesson writing.
9. Use of illustration
Examples should be used which have relevance with the daily life of the peoples.
10. Use of blackboard
The blackboard summary of each and every unit should be written on the blackboard.
This approach generally known as Herbartian five steps approach in the procedure of the Herbartian
School of propagated byJ.F.Herbart (1776-1841) and his followers.
The formal steps involved in the approach as below
i. Introduction / Motivation
ii. Presentation
iii. Comparison and association
iv. Generalization
v. Application
vi. Recapitulation
Introduction / Motivation
This step is concerned with the task of preparing the students for receiving new knowledge. In
preparation, nothing new is taught to students. Relevant to the topic in hand he teacher should make himself
sure of what the pupils already know, by putting a few questions, based on the pupils previous knowledge.
In general, with the help of this step, the teacher can check the students entering behavior before he starts
teaching the lesson. Thus, testing previous knowledge, developing interest in the minds of students and
maintaining curiosity of the students can be achieved with the help of this step.
The following activities involved in this step
· The assumption about the previous knowledge of the students in relevance to the lesson
· The testing of the previous knowledge
· Utilizing the previous knowledge for introducing the lesson
· Motivating the students for studying the present lesson
Presentation
It is the key step and only through which the actual process of teaching is going to take place. Here
the aims of the lesson should be stated clearly and the heading should be written on the blackboard. We
have to provide situation for both the teacher and the students to participate in the process of teaching and
learning. Our ultimate aim of the presentation is to make the concepts understandable to the students.
Therefore simple language is used. Appropriate and specific examples and illustrations of the concepts will
make the understanding better. The interest of the students on the subject matter should be maintained
continuously by the way of asking questions from time to time in this stage. The teacher should carefully
and skillfully arrange his material so that his pupils may clearly and readily grasp it. The teacher should
make proper use of questions, charts, graphs, pictures, models and other illustrative for demonstration and
explanation.
At the end of each section a few questions concerning that section only should be asked to whether
the pupils are now ready for the acquisition of new knowledge.
Comparison of Association
More importance should be given in this stage to compare the facts observed by the students with
another concept by way of giving examples. By making use of this comparison, the students can derive
definitions or theories. The students are encouraged to give new suitable examples for the concept instead
of the examples given in the book to make them think in an innovative manner.
Generalization
This step is concerned with arriving at some general ideas or drawing out the necessary conclusions
by the students on the basis of the different comparisons, contracts and associated observed in the learning
material present by the teacher. As far as possible the task of formulation should be left to students. The
teacher at this stage should try to remain in the background for providing only necessary guidance and
correction.
Application
In this stage, the teacher makes the students to use the understood knowledge in an unfamiliar
situation. Unless the knowledge of science is applied in new situations or in our day-to-day life, the study of
science will become meaningless. This application of scientific principles will strengthen learning and will
make the learning permanent.
Recapitulation
This stage is meant for the teachers to know whether students have grasped by reviewing a lesson or
by giving assignments to the students. Only through this step achieving closure (in teaching) is possible.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Instructional objectives represent the desired change in the pupil who undergoes instruction in a
lesson. There are two types of instructional objectives. They are
1) General Instructional Objectives
2) Specific Instructional Objectives
When a teacher plans a lesson, he should ask himself, “Why should I teach this lesson?” The answer to
this question constitutes Instructional objectives. All instruction will result in learning which in turn bring
about changes in the behavior of the learners. So the instructional objectives it means the anticipated
behavior change, which is what is what the teachers expect as a result of their teaching.
1) General Instructional Objective (GIO’s)
If the objectives are stated in general and vague manner, then they are called general objectives.
They contain non-behavioral verb i.e. they contain non-action verb.
For example;
i. The learner acquires knowledge of the various branches of science.
ii. The learner develops skill in manipulating apparatus.
Here the verbs ‘acquires’ and ‘develops’ are non-action verbs which are cannot measure or observe
directly, because they are in the form of inner development or passive aspect of mental activity.
Example;
The pupil,
i. Acquires knowledge of friction
ii. Understands various types of friction
iii. Applies knowledge of friction in relevant unfamiliar situation
iv. Develops skill in doing experiments
v. Develops interest in experimenting
2) Specific Instructional Objectives (SIO’s)
If the objectives are stated in specific, then they are called specific objectives. They contain behavioral
verb i.e. they contain ‘action’ verb. The observable and measurable behavioral changes as a result of
realizing an objective is termed as specific instructional objectives or specification.
For example
The learner defines friction Here defines is the active verbhttp://freenaleen.blogspot.com/2013/12/lesson-plan-steps-herbartian-approach.html The statement of specification should contain two parts
i. Modification Part (MP)
ii. Content Part (CP)
Example;
The learner definesfriction
MP CP
The table showing illustrative examples of specifications with specified behavioral part and content
part from physical science.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / SPECIFICATIONS
LEVEL THE BEHAVIORAL
THE CONTENT PART
Recalls The branches of science
KNOWLEDGE Recognizes Distinguishes between metals and non-metals
Identifies the physical properties of metals
Selects colored salts from the salts
Compares velocity and acceleration
Classifies primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol
Identifiesbetween rest and motion
UNDERSTANDING relationships
Give examples for first order lever
Describes the preparation of Iron
Explains the function of generator
Generalizes the ideas of input devices
Gives reason Why sky appears blue?
Infers The result obtained in the experiment
Computes The normality of the liquid
Analyses Analyses situations
APPLICATIONEstablishes
Establishes relationship between metals and non-metals
relationships Improvisation to apparatus Suggests Apparatus with purpose
Selects Detects errors
Detects For friction
Give new
illustrations
Draws The diagram of screw gauge
Labels The part of a generator
SKILLDoing experiments
Of simple pendulum
Participates
In a science quiz
Collects Picture of scientists, some machines etc.
Prepares Posters on water pollution
INTEREST Writes An article on ‘Globalization’ for school magazine
Organizes science exhibition on ICT in Science Education
Organizes
VALUE EDUCATION
CONCEPTS OF VALUES
Value has very intimate relationship with the human interest. Values refers to objects that human
beings consider desirable and worthy of pursuit in their thoughts, feelings and actions. These may be
materials (flood, wealth and various consumer goods) or abstract qualities and states of mind and heart like
truthfulness, happiness, peace, justice etc.
Values reflect one’s personal attitudes and judgments, decisions and choices, behaviors and
relationships, dreams and visions.
For example, in the absence of hunger, the value of edibles becomes very much less. On the other
hand, when one is hungry, even a very ordinary food item seems to be very valuable. A thirsty individual is
ready to pay anything for a glass of water.
Definition
1) Views of Allport, “The term value means the relative prominence of the subject’s interest on the dominant
interest in personality”.
2) According to Edgar S.Bright Man, “In the most elementary sense, value means whatever is actually liked
prized, esteemed desired, approved or enjoyed by any one at any time. It is the actual experience of
enjoying a desired object or activity”.
3) According to Parker, “Values belong wholly to the inner world of mind. The satisfaction of desire is the
real value, the thing that serves is only an instruments. A value is always an experience never a thing or an
object”.
4) Views of Dr. Premkripal, “Values may be defined as(a) what we believe – professed values (b) what we
practices – operational values and (c) what we learn from experience in order to adapt and renew traditions
received from the past – traditional values”.
5) According to Cunning ham, “Educational values become aims of education according to these qualities
abilities and capacities are promoted in theindividuality which is inherently values of life”. Thus
educational values are those activities which are good useful and valuable from the point of view of
education.
Value Education:
Value education refers to a program of planned educational action aimed at the development of
value and character. Every action and thought of our leaves an impression in our mind. These impressions
determine in our behavior at a given moment and our response to a given situation. The sum total of all our
impressions in what determines our character. The past has determined the present and even so the present
our present thoughts and actions will shape our future. This is a key principle governing personality
development.
CLASSIFICATION OF VALUES
1. Personal values
2. Religious values
3. Social values
4. Political values
5. Economic values
6. Intellectual values
7. Ethical values
1. Personal values:
Personal values refer to those values which desired and cherished by the individual irrespective of
his/her social relationship. The individual determines his own standards of achievement and attains these
targets without explicit interaction with any other person.
Example: ambition, courage, honesty, punctuality, self-confidence, simplicity, dignity of labor etc.
2. Religious values:
Worship, devotion and faith come in the category of religious values. Religious values are related to
faith in God, means of reaching him, consequences that result from the deviations of not adhering to such
noble paths.
3. Social values:
It refers to those values which are others oriented. They are concerning to society. Social values are
always practiced in relation to our neighbors, community, society, nation and the world.
Example: Accountability, courtesy, forgiveness, freedom, friendship, hospitality, justice, love,
patience, responsibility sympathy etc.
4. Political values:
These values arise out of man’s desire for power. Any political system it treats all men equal in the
eyes of justice and administers the people becomes a higher value
5. Economic values:
Economic values come to be known through market prices. Wealth and money is needed for the
fulfillment of the needs of life. It includes all those commodities which can be purchased. All things that
have an exchange value may be said to have economicvalues.
6. Intellectual values:
The importance of knowledge and acquisition of truth under the category of intellectual values. This
is related to knowing the truth in many of its forms. The knowledge of truth is made use of in various ways
to get satisfaction.
Methods of value education
The programs of value education should be pre-planned. All the curricular, co-curricular and extra-
curricular activities of the schools should appropriately be geared to achieve the desired goals. The methods
of value-education involve. The formal, informal and non-formal methods of teaching.
i. Direct and Indirect Methods of Teaching:
Direct approach means teaching values directly to others. Here efforts are made cautiously to teach
different values to others. Sometimes it may result in reaction formation or contra-suggestions being
formed, which will be defeating the purpose of instruction.
Indirect approach of teaching the different values is more convenient and effective. Here teaching in
done unconsciously. The students learn values incidentally.
ii. Formal and Informal Approach:
When the learners are taught about difficult values by using formal ways it may not have greater
effect. Here materials from book are taught with the motive of teaching certain values. On the other hand,
the learner or the receiver of values is unaware of everything. He reads some materials from the books and
is able to pick up values of life incidentally. This type of learning in of greater values and lants longer.
iii. Curricular and co-curricular Approach:
According to curricular approach separate syllabus on framed which aims at teaching different
values to the learners the syllabus is prescribed and teaching in done to finish the syllabus. In the text books,
the different values may be integrated in different chapters. Thus, the students have curricular program
which helps them to learn different values.
The co-curricular activities can be well exploited for the development of secular, moral and social
values. According to co-curricular program, different activities such as singing poem, recitation, drama,
debate essay writing competition etc. are organized with the main motive of inculcating different values of
life in the youth.
Value education is essentially a matter of educating the feelings and emotions. It is the training of
the heart and consists in developing the right feelings and emotions. It does not involve any cognitive
abilities that can be trained. It is to ‘caught’ rather than taught. It is essentially a matter of creating the right
atmosphere, imitation and learning by example communication with nature or modeling on self after an
ideal. There are five dimensions of value education and they are
i. Physical education
ii. Emotional education
iii. Mental education
iv. Aesthetic development
v. Moral and spiritual domain
Importance of Values
i. Values and Sub-Systems of the society:
Sub-systems of the society like political economic social educational, religious, industrial system
depends upon values. For e.g. political values affects everyone in India and the world over there is a decline
in value system at political level there is corruption and crime everywhere. It is due to the erosion of values
in political system.
ii. Values and family:
Family’s peaceful environment and its development depend upon their values.
iii. Values and Locality:
Behavior of individuals at a particular locality depends upon their values.
iv. Values and Individual:
Growth is development of an individual / society depends upon its values.
v. Values and Educational Institutions:
The environment in different educational institutions depends upon value system being followed.
Decline is value system leads to decline in educational standards.
In this way there is a great importance of values in our lives.
According to Mahatma Gandih;
“It wealth is lost, nothing is lost”
“It health is lost, something is lost”
“It character is lost, everything is lost”
Values are the guiding principles decide in day to day behavior as also is critical life situation values
are a set bring of principles or standard of behavior values are regarded desirable, important and held in
high eastern by a particular society in which a person live.Source of vhttp://freenaleen.blogspot.com/2013/12/value-education.htmlalue: Values are there with in the individuals and they develop in them as are the situations all around and the circumstances hey are placed in our values are embedded in all our institutions which are the artifacts of society and culture. So values are not something which is remote and unattainable. Moreover there values can be identified in our achievements. Various sources of values are;
1) Religion:
Religion is an important source of values. It means to bind and unity the people. It is thus unifying
force. Every religion has its distinctive philosophy and approach to life. They propagate different values.
Hindu religion advocates self-realization or Moksha. Everyone ultimately tries to merge his own self
with universal God.
Christianity, Islamand Sikhism emphasis a particular way of life banned on the doctrines and
principles of respective religion. All the religions some common values such as (a)Simplicity (b) Pursuit of
truth (c) Dignity of labor (d) Tolerance (e) Broad Mindedness (f) Welfare of Mankind (g) Attainment of
bliss Moksha (h) Holy life and (i) Purity and simple living.
2) Philosophy:
Philosophy of live is another important source of values. There are varying philosophy of life and
education. Idealism recommends higher and fundamental values of life such as Truth, Beauty and
Goodness.
3) Literature:
Literature in also an important source of values. Literature and social life are closely interlinked.
The basic function and role of language and literature is to promote right types values among the people.
4) Social customs:
Social customs such as social functions, cultural heritage, social beliefs, and social practices
advocate different types of values.
5) Science:
It is an important social institution and is a source of values. Through science we are able to have
our knowledge banned on observation, experimentation and rational thinking. According to Barber, the
values more favorable for science are (a) Rationality (b) Utilitarianism(c) Universalism (d) Individualism.
Project Method
Introduction
The Project Method of teaching was first propounded by John Dewey. The basic idea of this method
is that pupil can learn a lot of things with the help if association and mutual co-operation. This method
promotes purposeful activities through a group of pupils and the pupil will work co-operatively. The pupils
will work together by forming small groups according to their interest and abilities. The main objective of
this method are learning by doing and learning by living together.
Definition
“A project is a whole hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment”.
-Kilpatrick
“A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural selection”.
-Prof. Stevenson
“A project is a bit of real life that has been imported into school”.
-Ballard
Principles underlying Project Method
1. Purposiveness
There must be some objective of the project because the pupils do that work with more enthusiasm
which has definite and clear objectives.
2. Freedom
The pupils are free to select the project. They select the project according to their will and they
execute it with the advice of the teacher.
3. Activity
The project should be activity centered because the knowledge gained if activity is stable and useful.
4. Reality
The project should be real. Only then the pupils would be able to complete it naturally and in real
conditions.
5. Utility
The project must process the quality of utility because the pupils do the work more interest which is
useful for them.
Essential Steps of Project Method
The following steps are involved in this method
i. Providing a situation
ii. Choosing the project
iii. Planning
iv. Executing the project
v. Evaluation of the project
vi. Recording of the project
1. Providing a situation:
In this step, a situation is provided to the students to think over in choosing some project to work on.
They may be confronted with a problem while studying in the classroom, participating in co-curricular
activities and going on excursion etc. It may force them to think about for choosing some project.
2. Choosing the project:
In this second step students try to choose a definite and appropriate project keeping in view of the
resources in hand and the nature of the problem faced in the first step. They are properly guided by their
teachers in this selection task. Then the aims and objectives of choosing a project are properly discussed
through group participation.
3. Planning:
The project chosen is again discussed in terms of laying down a plan and procedure for the
execution of the project.
4. Executing the project:
In this step students are engaged in the execution of the project in a natural way without involving
any artificiality. They plan their roles according to their abilities and capacities with a true, social and co-
operative spirit.
5. Evaluation of the project:
In this step the work done on the project is evaluated from time to time. The line of action and mode
of execution may be modified on the results of such evaluation.
6. Recording:
A complete record of the work, their planning, discussion on significant aspects, their achievement
etc. has to be developed by the pupils at the end. Also they should record the criticism of their own work
and the suggestions for the further work.
Criteria of a good project
A good project can be accessed using the following criteria.
v A project should be purposeful, useful and practically applicable to the daily life of the students, with clear,
well defined objectives.
v The project should help in providing useful and meaningful learning experiences to each member of the
group.
v The project should be within the reach of the students in accordance with their interest and ability levels.
v The project should be feasible in terms the availability of human and material resources and time limit.
v The level of complexity of the project should match the ability level of the students.
v The learning activities of the project should be life-like purposeful and natural.
Merits of project method
1. Psychological method
Project method is based on psychological principles. The innate tendencies, interests and aptitudes
of the students are best utilized in this method.
2. Democratic way of learning
Liberty, equality and fraternity are some of the cardinal principles which form the basis of project
method. Right from the selection of the project till its execution students are provided sufficient freedom for
thinking, decision making and going ahead in their assigned tasks. All of these students cooperate in a
common project according to their tastes, temperaments, abilities and capacities.
3. Development of the social virtue
Many virtues essential for good citizenship like self-confidence, tolerance, patience, self-
dependence sense of responsibility duty blondness, resourcefulness, mutual love and co-operation etc.
4. Practical method
This method of the maxims of teaching like ‘learning by doing’ and learning by living. Therefore
what is to be learnt in project method is learnt by doing that in a very practical way. In project method the
problems concerning actual life activities are undertaken therefore, it provides sufficient training to the
students to use their learning in their practical life.
5. Dignity of learner
Project method emphasizes dignity of labor. Students irrespective of their caste, creed and social
status join their hands in doing mental and manual labor in the execution of the project.
Demerits of project method
1. Difficulty on the part of the teacher
Project method provides many challenges to the teachers in charge right from theselection of the
project till its execution. Every teacher is not equipped with such enthusiasm abilities and leadership
essential for working with such a method.
2.Uneconomical method
Project method is an uneconomical method in the sense that the time, labor and amount spent in this
method is quite larger than return received.
3. Not suitable for teaching subject
No organized and systematic teaching is possible in the project method.
http://freenaleen.blogspot.com/2013/12/project-method.html4. Difficulty in covering the syllabus Project method put obstacles in terms of the coverage of lengthy school syllabus. Through projects hardly a part of the syllabus can be covered and therefore, it doesn’t suit the present day teaching.5. Not suitable to the present day condition In India, our schools can be neither afford sufficient money nor provide appropriate personal for teaching with project method. For using this method, suitable textbooks are also not available. Schools are over crowed and the educational structure is examination oriented.
JOYFUL LEARNING
PLAY - WAY LEARNING
Introduction:
An activity combined with happiness and satisfaction is the basis of play-way method of learning. It
is an improvement on the activity principles. This term was first introduced by H. Caldwell Cook. He
discovered that children took keen interest in learning English grammar and language when they were
required to participate in Shakespearian plays. In dramatization spontaneity freedom and laughter were
associated with the learning process.
FROEBEL and Play – way learning
Friedrich Wilhelm August. Froebel, a German educator, is well known as the father of Kindergarten
concept. He popularized the concept of play-way learning. In his integration school the following methods
were used for teaching the children.
a) Learning through activitiesis given not only to bridge the gap between knowledge and action but also to
foster self-expression and satisfaction of the children.
b) Gift and Occupation: Gifts are simple educational toys of different colures, size and shapes. Occupations
include activities like construction with paper, clay, wood and other materials.
c) Play: Play is the characteristic activity of childhood. It is through play that the child expresses his real self
and reveals his interest.
Principles of play way learning
The play way method of learning emphasizes the following principles:
i. Learning by Doing:
Learning through some activity is more in line with the fundamental urges of the child. This not
only leads to desire able sensory training but also provides opportunity for the gratification of urges like
self-expression, self-assertion and construction.
ii. Related to Life:
If we relate the activities in the classroom with the life of the child, the child does not feel that he is
living in an artificial atmosphere at school and therefore the tendency to avoid attendance does not arise.
iii. Sympathetic Attitude:
Sympathetic attitude is conductive to efficient learning and the children accept the suggestions of
the teacher without much hesitation.
iv. Free Expression:
Opportunities should be provided for free expression in any from which may be of interest to the
child.
v. Individual’s Importance:
The teacher should realize that interests and need of children are seldom alike. Therefore while
planning education through play-way he should cater to the needs of each child individually.
vi. Relevant Method of Teaching:
Rigid, formal and bookish methodsshould be replaced by activities natural to the child. These
should be based on the needs and interests of the child.
Advantages of Play-way Learning
The play-way method has a number of advantages which are given below:
1. Natural Motivation:
Play-way being the natural urge of the child he takes keen interest in it. Play given him happiness and
satisfaction and education is a by-product of the activities.
2. Whole – hearted Response:
In play-way there is whole-hearted response of the children and he becomes serious about his work.
3. Balanced Development of Personality:
Play-way provides means for the social emotional and moral development of the children besides giving
intellectual training.
4. Self – discipline:
In play-way learning child is engaged in activity with interest so he doesn’t need any external control. He
lives according to the self-imposed regulations.
5. Self – advancement:
Play-way ensures self-advancement through self-education.
6. Training of the sensory Organs:
Training of the sensory organs for meaningful sensation is also encouraged.
PERSONALISED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION (PSI)
(OR)
KILLER PLAN
Fred S. Keller and his associates devised the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) in 1963 to
cater the needs of a new psychology programmed in a new university of Brazil PSI functions as bridge
between the theory and practice of individualized instruction. It components are essentially programmed
instruction where the frame has been enlarged and personal social element have been added in the teaching
learning process. It is an approach to classroom instruction designed to change the role of teacher from
agent of information to the engineer or manager of students learning.
Defining PSI, Green has (1974) has said, “The Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) gets its
name from the fact that each students is served as an individual by another person, face to face and one to
one, in spite of the fact that the class size is large”. Thus PSI means a system of instruction which is person
– oriented.
SALIENT FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF PSI
In a research article entitled “God bye to Teacher”, published in 1968. Keller pointed out the salient
features of PSI as follows.
1. Mastery Oriented Evaluation
The PSI evaluation is based upon a fixed standard or mastery over the content respective of the time
period. Every student has to achieve 80 to 90 percent of determined objectives, only then they can proceed
to next lesson.
2. Self-Pacing
It provides an opportunity that each his student works at is own pace according to his background of the
subject and level to academic motivation.
3. Multimedia Approach
It facilitates the students learning by the use of multimedia approach. In addition to the lecture method,
by the teacher in PSI uses films, radio and television programmes, computer and many other such aids.
4. Emphasize on written works
It emphasizes the importance of written work. The teacher provides the situation to learns to practice on
well-designed assignments. It provides an opportunity for assimilating the content.
5. Use of Pear Proctors in Tutorials
Proctor is, the outstanding students in the class are used to assist the students individually while in the
process of learning.
6. Teacher’s Responsibility
The teacher has to deal individually with large number of students working with the system and to test
their progress of learning.
7. Motivation
This provides appropriate motivation or frequent reinforcement to the learners.
PURPOSE OF APPLYING PSI
The PSI can be effectively applied following purpose
a) For developing efficient learning methods or strategies for creating interest in education among the new
generations.
b) For improving the retention power of the students.
c) For raising the performance of student in all disciplines.
d) For attaining better transfer of learning.
e) For developing desirable attitude amongthe learns by creating interpersonal relationship between teacher
and students.
Joyful learning was started as an experiment in classroom transaction. Spearheaded by the teachers
themselves. It was began in HeggadaDevanaKoteTaluk in Mysore district. In 1995 MN Baigs, Education
Officer of Mysore district along with UNICEF decided to receive the micro Plan and look in to Activity
Based Learning (ABL).
Joyful learning created a veritable revolution is classroom transactions. The walls in classrooms
were hung with colorful charts and craftworks. The learning load was reduced to a reality and achievable
level language mathematics and environmental studies were to be taught through art, craft, songs, dance and
other activity oriented methods.
Joyful learning envisages the breaking down of the traditional hierarchy that exists between teacher
and student and all the teaching learning materials are handmade by the teacher and hands on
experimentation are encouraged.
The Joyful learningmethod of classroom transaction not only gives a greater autonomy to the
teacher but also creates the right atmosphere for the child to learn in a friendly and Joyful way. Learning
takes places systematically in groups organized according to agewise competencies in an interactive
manner. When children master the competency of one group, they move on to another group to learn the
next competency. In Joyful learning method a minimum level of learning could be scrutinized among all the
students.
(UNICEF – United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund)
Stage Basic Conflict Important
Events
Outcome
Infancy (birth to
18 months)
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.
Early Childhood
(2 to 3 years)
Autonomy vs.
Shame and
Doubt
Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads
to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of
shame and doubt.
Preschool (3 to 5
years)
Initiative vs.
Guilt
Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over
the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power
experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
School Age (6 to
11 years)
Industry vs.
Inferiority
School Children need to cope with new social and academic
demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while
failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence (12
to 18 years)
Identity vs. Role
Confusion
Social
Relationships
Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships
Adulthood (19 to
40 years)
Isolation with other people. Success leads to strong relationships,
while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Middle
Adulthood (40 to
65 years)
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
Work and
Parenthood
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them, often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.
Maturity(65 to
death)
Ego Integrity vs.
Despair
Reflection on
Life
Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in
psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our
ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help
shape and guide a person's behavior. The formation of identity is something that begins in childhood and
becomes particularly important during adolescence, but it is a process that continues throughout life. Our
personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to
grow as we age.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to
develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for
failure.
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and
quality of the child's caregivers.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.
Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides.
When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience
tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.2
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control one's bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and
clothing selection.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to
will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the
ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments
and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence or a belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those
who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the
future.
Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by
society's standards and expectations.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are committed and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong
sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are
more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to
form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your
life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These
individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
