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LegalRightsTheGuideforDeafandHardofHearingPeople

FourthEdition

NationalCenterforLawandDeafnessGallaudetUniversityPress

Washington,D.C.

title: LegalRights:TheGuideforDeafandHardofHearingPeopleDuBow,Sy.;Geer,Sarah.;Strauss,Karen

author: Peltz.

publisher: GallaudetUniversityPressisbn10|asin:printisbn13: 9781563680007ebookisbn13: 9780585103259

language: English

subjectDeaf--Legalstatus,laws,etc.--UnitedStates,Hearingimpaired--Legalstatus,laws,etc.--UnitedStates.

publicationdate: 1992lcc: KF480.5.D4L431992ebddc: 346.7301/3

subject:Deaf--Legalstatus,laws,etc.--UnitedStates,Hearingimpaired--Legalstatus,laws,etc.--UnitedStates.

Pageiv

FourthEdition1992,FourthPrinting1998PublishedbyGallaudetUniversityPressWashington,DC20002

©1982,1984,1986,1992byGallaudetUniversityAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymethodwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

FourthEdition,Published1992.FourthPrinting1998PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationDate

DuBow,Sy.Legalrights:theguidefordeafandhardofhearingpeople:featuringtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct/NationalCenterforLawandDeafness.4thed.,updatedandrev.p.cm.Authors,SyDuBow,SarahGeer,KarenPeltzStrauss.Rev.ed.of:Legalrightsofhearing-impairedpeople/NationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf.3rd.ed.1986.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN1-56368-000-91.DeafLegalstatus,laws,etc.UnitedStates.2.HearingimpairedLegalstatus,laws,etc.UnitedStates.I.Geer,Sarah.II.Strauss,KarenPeltz.III.NationalCenterforLawandDeafness(U.S.)IV.Legalrightsofhearing-impairedpeople.V.Title.KF480.5D4L431992346.7301'3dc2091-44372347.30613]CIP

TheNationalCenterforLawandDeafnesswasapublicserviceofGallaudetUniversityfrom1975until1996.DeafpeopleinneedoflegaladviceorinformationcannowcontacttheNationalAssociationoftheDeafLawCenterat814ThayerAvenue,SilverSpring,MD20910,(301)587-1788(Voice/TTY).

Pagev

Authors

FourthEdition

SyDuBowLegalDirectorNationalCenterforLawandDeafness(NCLD)J.D.,GeorgeWashingtonUniversity

SarahGeerStaffAttorney,NCLDJ.D.,UniversityofNorthCarolina

PreviousEditions

SyDuBowLegalDirectorNationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf(NCLD)J.D.,GeorgeWashingtonUniversity

LarryGoldbergU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicesAssociateLegalDirector,NCLD,1976-83J.D.,GeorgeWashingtonUniversity

SarahGeerStaffAttorney,NCLDJ.D.,UniversityofNorthCarolina

ElaineGardnerAssociateLegalDirector,NCLDJ.D.,GeorgetownUniversity

KarenPeltzStraussStaffAttorney,NCLDJ.D.,UniversityofPennsylvania

AndrewPennAttorneyMarylandAdvocacyUnitfortheDevelopmentallyDisabledStaffAttorney,NCLD,1978-81J.D.,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

SheilaConlonMentkowskiNorCalCenteronDeafnessStaffAttorney,NCLD,1981-88J.D.,GeorgetownUniversity

MarcCharmatzLitigationAttorneyNationalAssociationoftheDeafLegalDefenseFundJ.D.,NorthwesternUniversity

Pagevii

InmemoryofFredSchreiber,thehappywarriorfordeafpeople'srights

Pageix

ContentsPreface x

Acknowledgments xi

OneCommunicatingWithDeafAndHardOfHearingPeople

1

TwoTheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct

15

ThreeTheRehabilitationActof1973

47

FourPublicSchoolEducation

67

FivePostsecondaryEducation

87

SixHealthCareandSocialServices

101

SevenMentalHealth

121

EightEmployment

141

NineArchitecturalBarriers

167

TenTheLegalSystem

173

Eleven 191

Television

TwelveTelephoneService

203

ThirteenStateLegislaturesandCommissions

217

AppendixAReferencePublicationsonDeafnessandPL94-142

232

AppendixBAppropriatePublicEducation:SampleLettersofRequest

235

AppendixCProvidingInterpreterService:OneAgencyExample

239

AppendixDAModelActtoProvidefortheAppointmentofInterpretersforHearing-ImpairedIndividualsforAdministrative,Legislative,andJudicialProceedings

245

AppendixEStateCommissionsandCouncilsforDeafPeople

251

AppendixFEnablingLegislationforaStateCommission:TheExampleofVirginia

256

Index 261

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PrefaceDeafandhardofhearingpeopleareconfrontedwithbarrierstocommunicationthroughoutandinallaspectsoftheirlives.Stateandfederallawshavebeguntobreakdownthesebarriers.Thisbookexplainshowtheselawscanhelppeopleinareaswheretheirneedshavebeenignoredorinadequatelyaddressed.

Wehavetriedtoprovideonecomprehensiveandcurrentresourceonlegalrightsandremediesfordeafandhardofhearingcitizens.Wealsodescribeflexiblewaystoensureeffectivecommunicationandbetterunderstandingthroughtechnologicaladvances,interpretingalternatives,anddeafawareness.

ThisfourtheditionofLegalRightsincludesvitalinformationontheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA),landmarklegislationforalldisabledpeople.TheADA'srequirementsforremovingcommunicationbarriersfordeafandhardofhearingpeopleinemployment,stateandlocalgovernmentservices,publicaccommodations,andtelecommunicationsarediscussedindepth.Thisneweditionalsodiscussesrecentlegislativeadvances,suchastheTelevisionDecoderCircuitryActandtheHearingAidCompatibilityAct,thatwillprovideequalaccesstotelevisionprogrammingandtelephoneservice.

Ourdemocraticsocietyhasaresponsibilitytoensurethatallitscitizens,includingthosewithdisabilities,aregivenanequalopportunitytoleadproductivelives.Thisbookdiscussesthelegaltoolsnowavailabletoallcitizensconcernedwithsecuringthisfundamentalequality.

SYDUBOWNATIONALCENTERFORLAWANDDEAFNESS

GALLAUDETUNIVERSITYWASHINGTON,DC20002

Pagexi

AcknowledgmentsTheauthorsthankCynthiaComptonforthesectiononassistivelisteningsystemsinchapterone,andHeidiNortonforeditorialassistance.Permissiontousecopyrightedmaterialwaskindlygrantedby

HoughtonMifflinCompany,foraquotationinchapterfour;

LegalServicesCorporation,forpartsofchaptersfour,five,six,eight,andten;

Grune&StrattonIncorporated,forthesubstanceofchapterseven;

TempleLawReview,forpartofchaptereleven;

TheDeafAmerican,forasectionofchapterthirteen;

UniversityofRichmondLawReview,forAppendixB.

TextillustrationsarebyLauraWarrenStutzman.ThestaffofGallaudetUniversity'sArtandPhotographyServicesproducedmanyofthephotographs.Otherphotographswereprovidedcourtesyofthe

NationalCaptioningInstitute,Inc.(page194);

WashingtonPost(page220);

TheWhiteHouse(page16).

PartsofseveralchaptersoriginallyappearedinNCLDnewslettersandspecialreportsandwereadaptedforinclusionhere.

Pagexii

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ChapterOneCommunicatingwithDeafandHardofHearingPeopleMorethanmerelyabarriertosoundperception,hearinglossisabarriertocommunicationandunderstanding.Itisamajor,chronicdisabilitythataffectsoneoutofeverysixteenAmericans.Oneinevery100Americansisprofoundlydeafunabletohearspeechwellenoughtounderstandit.

1Thewiderangeofimpairment,thevarietyofmethodsofcommunication,anddifferencesintheageofonsetofdisabilitymakeitdifficulttogeneralizeaboutdeafandhardofhearingpeople.Butcertainfactsareapparent.

Deafandhardofhearingpeoplerelyoninformationtheycansee.Somemeansofmakingcommunicationvisibleisnecessarytoensurethattheyareabletoexplaintheirneedseffectivelyandunderstandwhatisexpectedofthem.Withsomeauxiliaryaidoraccommodationandsomesensitivitytotheirconditionbythosearound,deafandhardofhearingpeoplecancommunicateandparticipatefullyandeasilyinmostsettings.

Deafandhardofhearingpeoplehavenotreceivedfairtreatmentfromprofessional,social,andgovernmentserviceprovidersorfromthecourtsandpolice.Someaccommodationtotheconditionofhearinglosscanmakeacriticaldifferenceinwhetherdeafandhardofhearingpeoplereceiveservicestheyneedandtowhichtheyareentitledandwhethertheycanparticipatesatisfactorilyinsociety.Thematerialcostofsuchaccommodationismodestincomparisonwiththegainrealized.

Aswereviewthevariousmethodsthatdeafandhardofhearingpeopleusetocommunicate,onegeneralruleto

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bearinmindisthateachpersonhasapreferredmethod,becauseheorshehasspentalifetimenegotiatingtheproblemsthathearinglossimposes.Whatevermethodisnaturalforthatpersonisthemethodthatshouldalwaysbeused,preferablyfromthefirstmomentofcontact.

SignLanguageandInterpreters

AmericanSignLanguage(ASL)isavisiblelanguagethatislinguisticallyindependentofEnglish.Itssignalsarehandshapesandmovementsthatrepresentwords,concepts,orlettersoftheEnglishalphabet.ManydeafpeopleusesignlanguageratherthanEnglishastheirprimarymodeofcommunication.Formanydeafpeopleitisanativelanguagewithrichculturalassociations.

AninterpreterisaskilledprofessionalwhocantranslatethemeaningofspokenwordsintosignlanguageasthewordsarespokenandtranslatesignlanguagemessagesintocorrectEnglishastheyaresigned.InterpretationofwrittenorspokenEnglishintoASLrequiresahighdegreeofskill.Ittakesasmuchtimeandefforttolearnsignlanguageasanyotherlanguage.

Attimesaspecializedinterpretermustbeused.Forexample,apersonwhoisbothdeafandvisuallyimpairedmayneedaspeciallytraineddeaf-blindinterpreter.Somedeafpeopledonotusesignlanguagebutrequirean"oral"interpreterwhosilentlymouthsthespeaker'swordstothem.Theoralinterpreterisusuallyapersonwhomthedeafpersonfindseasytolipreadandwhoknowshowtosubstitutesynonymsforwordsthataredifficulttolipread.Anotherunusualsituationoccurswhenthedeafpersonhasrudimentarylanguageskillsordoesnotuseconventionalsignlanguage.Inthissituation,anotherdeafpersonmayhavetoprovideinterpretationintoconventionalsignlanguage,whichcanthenbeinterpretedintoEnglishbytheregularinterpreter.

QualifiedinterpreterscanbefoundthroughlocalandstatechaptersoftheRegistryofInterpretersfortheDeaf

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(RID),anationalprofessionalorganizationthatcertifiesinterpretersinvariousskillspecialties,includinglegalinterpreting.

2Interpreterscanalsobelocatedthroughlocalorganizationsofdeafpeople,thestateassociationofthedeaf,astatecommissionoragencyforhearing-impairedpeople,orschoolsfordeafchildren.Inaddition,deafpeoplemaythemselvessuggestlocalinterpreters.Professionalofficesandserviceagenciesshoulddeveloptheirownlistsofinterpreterswhomtheyknowtobereliableandcompetent.

Usingthesameinterpreterregularlycanenhancethequalityofthecommunication,sinceaninterpreterwhoisfamiliarwithaspeaker'svocalstyleandcustomaryphraseswillbeabletointerpretmoreeffectively.Theinterpreteralsocanprovidevaluableassistancetoserviceprovidersbyadvisingthemabouteffectiveuseofaninterpreterandaboutothermeansofcommunicatingwithdeafpeople.

Whileprofessionalcertificationmaybeusefulinevaluatingtheskillsofaninterpreter,theultimateauthorityonaninterpreter'squalificationsshouldbethedeafperson.Aninterpreterwhocannotprovideeffectivecommunicationtoadeafpersoninaparticularsituationcannotbeconsideredqualifieddespiteprofessionalcertification.

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InterpreterGuidelines

AprofessionalinterpretershouldupholdtheNationalRegistryofInterpretersfortheDeafCodeofEthics,whichcarefullydefinestheroleofaninterpreter.Thiscodeprohibitsaninterpreterfromcontinuinginanyassignmentifattemptstocommunicateareunsuccessfulforeitherparty.

Thefollowingareguidelinesforuseofinterpreters:

· Whentalking,lookatthedeafperson,nottheinterpreter;speakdirectlytothepersonasiftheinterpreterwerenotpresent.Forexample,say,''ThehearingwillbeonTuesday,"ratherthan,"TellhimthatthehearingwillbeonTuesday."Theinterpreterwillsignexactlywhatissaid.

· Somedeafpeoplewillspeakforthemselves.Otherswillnotspeak,sotheinterpreterwillsayinEnglishwhatthepersonsigns.Inbothcases,respondbytalkingtothedeafperson,nottheinterpreter.· Theinterpretershouldbedirectlybesidethespeakersothatheorsheiseasilyvisibletothedeafperson.

· Theinterpretershouldnotbeplacedinshadowsorinfrontofanysourceofbrightlight,suchasawindow.

· Noprivateconversationshouldoccurwiththeinterpreterorwithanyoneelseinthedeafperson'spresence.Theinterpretermustinterpreteverythingthatissaidinfrontofthedeafperson.Anydiscussionofthedeafperson'slanguageorcommunicationlevelshouldtakeplaceprivatelywiththeinterpreter.Askthedeafperson,nottheinterpreter,ifheorsheunderstandswhatisbeingsaid.

· Speaknaturallyandnottoofast.Rememberthatnamesandsomeotherwordsmustbefingerspelledandthatthistakesmoretimethansigning.Theinterpreterwillindicatewhetheritisnecessarytoslowdown.Avoidjargonorothertechnicalwordswithwhichthedeafpersonmaybeunfamiliar.Ifpossible,meetwiththeinterpreterbeforetheinterviewtodiscussthebestwaytointerpretcertaintechnicalconceptsintosignlanguagewithoutlosinganyofthemeaning.

· Makesurethattheinterpreterunderstandstheneedforcompleteconfidentiality.Donotallowtheinterpretertodiscussthedeafperson'sproblemswiththepersonortogiveanyadviceabouttheproblem.Theinterpreter'sonlyroleistofacilitate

communicationwiththedeafperson.

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Relyingonamateurswhomayknowsomesignlanguageisafrequenterror.Theabilitytomakeorreadafewsignsortofingerspellisnosubstituteforproficiency.Awell-meaning,beginningsignerwillusuallynotknowsignlanguagewellenoughtointerpretortocommunicateeffectivelywithmostdeafpeople.

ManyinexperiencedinterpretersdonotsigninASLbutusesignsborrowedfromASLinanEnglishwordorder.TheymayfrequentlyimposeacompletelyincorrectEnglishmeaningonasign,suchasusingthesignfortheadjectivefine,meaning"good,"toconnotethenounfine,meaning"penalty."Anunqualifiedinterpretermightfingerspellwordswhenheorshedoesnotknowasign;butdirectlytranslatedEnglishidiomsarerenderedmeaninglessinASL.Forexample,adirecttranslationoftheEnglishidiomhavetowouldmean"possess"inASL.

CommunicationBarriers

ProblemsofNotewriting

Manydeafpeoplerelyonwrittennotestocommunicatewithhearingpeopleortosupplementothermodesofcommunication.However,writingisnotalwayseffectiveorappropriate.Awrittenconversationistedious,cumbersome,andtime-consuming.Writtenmessagesarefrequentlycondensed.Thewriteromitsmuchoftheinformationthatwouldotherwisebeexchanged,sothedeafpersondoesnotgetthesameamountofdetailthatahearingpersonwould.

Somedeafpeoplearehighlyeducated.Othersarenot.Acommonmisconceptionisthatdeafpeoplecompensatefortheirinabilitytohearbyreadingandwriting.Manydeafpeople,especiallythosewholosttheirhearingbeforetheylearnedtotalk,havedifficultywithwrittenaswellasspokenEnglish.Datafroma1971nationalsurveyofhearing-impairedstudentsshowedthatreadingcomprehensionis

thehearing-impairedperson'smostdifficultacademicarea.Itistheareamostseverelyaffectedbydeafness.

3

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Mostpeoplelearntheirnativelanguagebyhearingitspokenaroundthemfrominfancy.ButapersonwhoisborndeaforwholosestheabilitytohearwhenveryyoungcannotlearnEnglishinthisway.Therefore,despitenormalintelligence,adeafpersonmayhavelimitedcompetenceinEnglish.Forsuchpeople,Englishisvirtuallyasecondlanguage.TheymayhavealimitedEnglishvocabularyandgrammar,aconditionthatcanleadtonumerousmisunderstandings.

TheextensiveuseofidiomsinEnglishalsoposessignificantreadingproblemsfordeafpeople.Forexample,theexpressionunderarrestintheMirandawarnings(discussedinchapterten)wouldbepuzzlingtomanydeafpeoplebecauseundertothemmeansonly"beneath."

4Forthesereasons,writtennotesormaterialswilloftenbeinadequatetoachieveeffectivecommunicationwithadeafperson.Thelimitationsofnotewritingasacommunicationmethodshouldbeobservedcarefullytoavoidmiscommunication.

LipreadingComprehension

Acommonmisconceptionaboutdeafpeopleisthattheyallreadlips.Veryfewpeoplecanreadlipswellenoughtounderstandspeech,evenunderoptimumconditions.Informationcollectedduringthe1972NationalCensusoftheDeafPopulationindicatedthat21.4percentofdeafadultswhocompletedoneormoreyearsofseniorhighschoolconsideredtheirlipreadingabilitytobepoortononexistent.5"Infact,eventhebestspeechreadersinaone-to-onesituationwerefoundtounderstandonly26percentofwhatwassaid[andm]anybrightdeafindividualsgrasplessthan5percent."6

ThislowlevelofcomprehensionoccursbecausemanyEnglishspeechsoundsarenotvisibleonthemouthorlips.Certainspokenwordsorsoundscreatesimilarlipmovements.Theambiguityoflipreadingis

demonstratedbythefactthatthesoundsofT,D,Z,S,andNalllookidenticalonthelips.Thewordsright,ride,andrisewouldbeindis-

Page7

tinguishabletoadeafperson,aswouldthesentences,"Doyouhavethetime?"and"Doyouhavethedime?"Themeaningofentiresentencescanbelostbecauseakeywordismissedormisunderstood.Whenadeafpersondoesnotunderstandasentence,thespeakershouldrepeatthethoughtusingdifferentwords.Thespeakershouldusegesturesfreely,forexample,pointingtoawristwatchtoindicatetime.

Manyfactorshinderone'sabilitytolipread.Lipreadingisdifficultwhen

· thespeakerisinmotionornotdirectlyfacingthelipreader;

· thelipsareobscuredbyhands,beards,ormustaches;

· thespeakerdoesnotarticulatecarefullyorhasdistortedspeech;

· thespeakerhasaregionalorforeignaccent;

· thespeakerisusingtechnicalorunfamiliarwords;

· thelipreaderisnotfamiliarwiththelanguagestructuresandvocabularyofspokenEnglish;

· thespeakerisnotwell-lighted;

· thelipreadermustlookintoaglareorlight;

· thelipreaderhaspoorvision.

Lipreadingoftensupplementsothermodesofcommunication,butitisseldomsufficientinitselftoensureeffectivecommunication.Unlessthedeafpersonindicatesapreferenceforusingonlylipreading,itshouldnotberelieduponextensively.

EnvironmentalInterferences

Environmentalfactorsofteninterferewithcommunicationwithadeaf

person.Theroomshouldbeadequatelylighted,withoutglare.Whileprofoundlydeafpeoplewillnotbeaffectedbybackgroundnoises,theywillbedistractedbyagreatdealofbackgroundmovementorchangesinlighting.Apersonwhousesahearingaidorwhohasresidualhearingmaybeseriouslydistractedbybackgroundnoises.Oneshouldtrytotalkinaquietplace,awayfromthenoisesofmachinery,otherconversations,anddistractions.

Page8

Whentalkingtoahearing-impairedperson,oneshouldspeakdirectlytothepersonwithoutmovingaround,turningaway,orlookingdownatpapersorbooks.Speaknaturally,withoutshoutingordistortingnormalmouthmovements.

Somedeafpeoplehavenormalandintelligiblespeech.Othersdonotspeakatall.Earlydeafnessinterfereswithlanguageandspeechacquisition.Manydeafpeoplewhocanspeakexhibitunusualtones,inflections,ormodulations.Whetherornotadeafpersonusesspeechisamatterofindividualpreference.Difficultyinunderstandingadeafperson'svoicecanberelievedbylisteningwithoutinterruptionforawhileuntiltheperson'sparticularvoicepatternsbecomefamiliar.

Thephrases"deaf-mute"and"deafanddumb"areconsideredbymostdeafpeopletobeinsultsandshouldnotbeused.

CommunicationDevices

Onefrustrationofdeafnessistheinabilitytouseaconventionaltelephone.Hearingpeoplerelyheavilyonthetelephoneandtakeitforgrantedincommunicatingwithbusinesses,friends,governmentagencies,andemergencyservices.Withnewdevicesfordeafpeoplecomingintomorefrequentuse,thetelephonehasbecomeameansratherthanabarriertocommunication.

ATDD(TelecommunicationDevicefortheDeaf),ortexttelephone,isamachinewithatypewriterkeyboardconnectedbyanacousticcouplertoaregulartelephone.Twopeoplewithcompatibleequipmentcanhaveatypedconversationoverthetelephone,enablinghearing-andspeech-impairedpeopletohavethesamefunctionaltelephoneserviceasotherpeople.Thedevicesarerelativelyinexpensiveandeasytouse.

Ifaprofessional,agency,orbusinessofficedoesnothaveaTDD,deaf

peoplewillnotbeabletogetinformation,makeappointments,ortransactbusinessbytelephone.Theofficewillbeunabletocontactdeafclientsexceptby

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mail,resultinginfrustratingdelays,inefficientservice,andlostbusiness.TheofficeshouldpublicizethefactthatitstelephoneisTDD-equippedandshouldindicatethisfactinalltelephonedirectorylistingsandonallannouncements,brochures,andletterheads.TheTDDcapabilityisindicatedbyplacingtheletters"(TDD)"afterthephonenumberorby"(VoiceorTDD)"ifbothoptionsareavailable.

Otherdevicesareavailablethatadapttelephonestothe

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individualneedsofhearing-impairedpeople.Amplifierswitchescanbeaddedtotelephonereceivers.Telephonesandotherauditorysystemsalarms,doorbells,orinhomebuzzerscanbeconnectedtoablinkinglightthatalertsahearing-impairedperson.Manyhearingaidsareequippedwithinductivecoil"telephoneswitches."Thesehearingaidsuseelectromagneticleakagefromcompatibletelephonereceiverstotransmitthemessage.If,inajobsituation,apersonusingthiskindofhearingaidisassignedtoanincompatibletelephone,acompatiblemodelcanbeacquiredatreasonablecost.

AssistiveListeningSystems

Backgroundnoiseandreverberationdegradeintelligibilitymuchfasterforindividualswhoaredeaforhardofhearing,whethertheywearhearingaidsornot.Thus,deafandhardofhearingpeoplearepreventedfromparticipatingonequaltermswithnormalhearingpeopleinlargerassemblyareasthatarenotequippedwithanassistivelisteningsystem.Eventhebestinsoundsystemstechnologycombinedwiththebestinhearingaidtechnologycannotsolvetheintelligibilityproblemsfacedbypeoplewhoaredeaforhardofhearing.Inrecognitionofthis,requirementsforinstallationofassistivelisteningdevicesinplacesofpublicaccommodationwereincludedintheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA),whichwassignedintolawinJulyof1990.

Thepurposeofanassistivelisteningsystemistotransmitthesoundasdirectlyaspossibletothedeaforhardofhearingperson'sear.Suchsystemsshouldnotbeconfusedwithaudiosystems(e.g.,PAsystems)generallydesignedtoenhancethesoundqualityforpeoplewithouthearingaids.Therearethreebasicwirelesstechnologiesavailabletodaythatprovidedifferentmethodsofmeetingtherequirements:inductionlooptechnology,FMbroadcasttechnology,andinfraredlighttechnology.Nosingletechnologyisbestforallapplications.All

threetypesof

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assistivelisteningsystemscanbeeasilyandsuccessfullyinstalledinnewandoldfacilitiesalike,aslongastheirindividuallimitationsarekeptinmind.

InductionLoopTechnology

Inductionlooptechnologyisbasedonelectromagnetictransmissionandhasauniqueadvantageinthatthesignalisreceiveddirectlybytheuser'shearingaidwhenitisequippedwithatelecoilcircuitor"T"switch.Thereisnoneedforanadditionalreceiver,asisrequiredbyallothertechnologies.However,ifthelistenerdoesnothaveahearingaidequippedwithatelecoil,orhasnohearingaidatall,theninductionreceiversmustbeused.Therearethreetypesawand-likedevice,apocket-sizeddevicewithheadphones,andatelecoilinstalledinsideaplasticshellthatlookslike,butisnot,ahearingaid.Thefirsttwoaremostcommon.

FMBroadcastTechnology

FMsystemsoperateatFCCdesignatedfrequencies.Sinceeachsystemmayuseitsownbroadcastfrequency,severalsystemsmayoperatesimultaneouslyatonelocationwithoutinterferingwithoneanother.However,unliketheloopsystem,theFMsystemrequiresaspecialreceiverforeachperson,whethersheorhehasahearingaidornot.SeveraloptionsforcouplingahearingaidtoanFMsystemareavailable.Themostconvenientforpublicplacesconsistsofeitheranecklooporasilhouetteinductor(s)thatisusedwiththehearingaid'stelecoilcircuit.

InfraredLightTechnology

Fromapracticalpointofview,theinfraredreceiversystemisinmanywayssimilarinoperationtotheFMsystem.However,receiversmustbeintheline-of-sightoftheemitter(transmitter);thesignalcanonlybereceivedinsidethecoveredroom.AswithFMtechnology,each

person,hearingaidwearerornot,mustuseareceiver.TheoptionsforcouplingtheinfraredreceivertothehearingaidarethesameasforFMsystems.

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Thecommunicationmethodsandtheassistivelisteningsystemsdescribedabovearethemeansofcrossingandthuseliminatingthecommunicationsbarriersthatseparatedeaf,hardofhearing,andhearingpeoplefromoneanother.

Notes

1.J.ScheinandM.Delk,TheDeafPopulationoftheUnitedStates(SilverSpring,Md.:NationalAssociationoftheDeaf,1974),p.15.

2.ThenationalofficeoftheRegistryofInterpretersfortheDeafislocatedat8719ColesvilleRoad,Suite310,SilverSpring,MD20910.Telephone(301)608-0050(V/TDD).

3.GallaudetCollege,AcademicAchievementTestResultsofaNationalTestingProgramforHearing-ImpairedStudentsintheUnitedStates,Spring1971monograph.

4.MaryFurey,personalcommunication,June1976.

5.ScheinandDelk,DeafPopulation,p.63.

6.M.VernonandE.Mindel,TheyGrowinSilence:TheDeafChildandHisFamily(SilverSpring,Md.:NationalAssociationoftheDeaf,1971),p.96.

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Page15

ChapterTwoTheAmericanswithDisabilitiesActTheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA)islandmarkcivilrightslegislationforallcitizenswithdisabilities.

1TheADAprohibitsdiscriminationinalmosteveryaspectofsociety.Thislegislationprovideslegalprotectionsinemployment(TitleI),accesstostateandlocalgovernmentandpublictransportation(TitleII),publicaccommodations(TitleIII),andtelecommunications(TitleIV).TheADAwillbeoftremendousbenefittodeafandhardofhearingpeopleintheireffortstogainequalaccesstosociety.TheADAanditsregulationsprovidelegalrequirementstoremovecommunicationbarriers.

Title1:Employment

TitleIoftheADAanditsEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)regulations2prohibitanemployerfromdiscriminatingagainsta''qualifiedindividualwithadisability"inthefollowingareas:(1)jobapplicationprocedures;(2)hiring;(3)discharge;(4)compensation;(5)advancement;and(6)anyotherterms,conditions,andprivilegesofemployment.

EmployersCoveredUndertheADA

BeginninginJuly1992,theADAwillcoveremployerswith25ormoreemployees.AfterJuly26,1994,theADAwillexpanditscoveragetoallemployerswith15ormoreemployees.TitleIalsocoversemploymentagencies,unions,andjointlabor/managementcommittees.Ex-

Page16

emptedfromtheADA'srequirementsaretheUnitedStatesgovernment,Indiantribes,andtax-exemptprivatemembershipclubs.

3

A"Qualified"Individual

TheTitleIprotectionsapplyonlytoa"qualified"individualwithadisability.4UndertheADA,a"qualified"individualisonewho,withorwithout"reasonableaccommodation,isabletoperformtheessentialfunctionsoftheemploymentpositionheldordesired.''"Essentialfunctions"arethosejobtasksthatarefundamental,notmarginal.Tasksthatcanbeeasilytransferredtoanotheremployeewithouthurtingtheemployer'sbusinessaremarginal.Alltoooftenemployershavebroadlyexcludeddeafandhardofhearingpeoplefromjobsbystatingthatabilitytoanswerthetelephoneisnecessary.TheADAfocusesonjobperformanceandnotmarginalduties(suchasansweringthetelephone)indeterminingwhatisanessentialfunctionofthejob.

Page17

InanIllinoiscase,afederalcourtheldthatansweringthetelephonewasnotanessentialfunctionofatime-and-attendanceclerkpositionatthepostoffice,despitethefactthatajobpostingsaiditwas.Thestandardjobdescriptionforthepositionandtestimonyonactualperformanceshowedthattheclerkwasresponsiblefortallying,documenting,andanalyzingthehoursthatpostalserviceemployeesworked.Thecourtheldthattheseweretheessentialfunctionsofthejob,andthatadeafpersoncanperformthesefunctions.(Davisv.Frank,711FSupp.447[N.D.Ill.1989]).

Indeterminingwhetherornotaparticularfunctionisessential,boththeADAstatuteandtheEEOCregulationsemphasizethatafactualdeterminationmustbemadeonacase-by-casebasis.Evidenceofwhetheraparticularfunctionisessentialcaninclude(1)theemployer'sjudgmentastowhichfunctionsareessential,(2)writtenjobdescriptionspreparedbeforeadvertisingorinterviewingapplicantsforthejob,(3)theamountoftimespentonthejobperformingthefunction,(4)thetermsofacollectivebargainingagreement,and(5)theworkexperienceofpastorpresentworkersinthejoborsimilarjobs.Thesefactorsarenotconclusiveandcanberebutted,aswasdoneintheDaviscasecitedearlier,basedontestimonyofactualperformanceorpastperformance.

ReasonableAccommodation

Reasonableaccommodationmeansmodificationsoradjustmentstothejobapplicationprocessandtheworkplacetoallowadisabledpersontoperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejob.

5Italsomeansprovidingadisabledemployeeequalaccesstothebenefitsandprivilegesofemployment.BoththeADAanditsregulationslistthemostcommontypesofreasonableaccommodation.However,thislistisnotintendedtobeexhaustive.Reasonable

accommodationmayinclude(1)makingexistingworkfacilitiesreadilyaccessibleandusabletoindividualswithdisabilities;and(2)jobrestructuring;part-timeormodifiedworkschedules;

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reassignmenttoavacantposition;acquisitionormodificationsofequipmentordevices;appropriateadjustmentormodificationsofexaminations,trainingmaterials,orpolicies;theprovisionofqualifiedinterpretersorreaders.

Fordeafandhardofhearingpeople,theseaccommodationsmaymeanthefollowing:

1.Jobrestructuringmayincludeanemployertransferringnonessentialmarginaljobfunctions.Forexample,wheretelephoneansweringisamarginalpartofthejob,theemployercanreallocatethattasktohearingcoworkers.

2.Reassignmentcanincludemovingahardofhearingworkerinanoise-intensiveworkingenvironmenttoanotherpositionthatislessnoiseintensive.Reassignmentcanbeespeciallyeffectiveinlargecompaniesthathavemanysimilarpositions.

3.Acquisitionofequipmentcanincludeatelecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf(TDD)orassistivelisteningdevices.

4.Modificationofequipmentcanincludeaphoneamplifierortelephonescompatiblewithhearingaidsforhardofhearingemployees.

Inaddition,employerscanmakeappropriateadjustmentormodificationofexaminations,trainingmaterials,orpoliciesbycaptioningtrainingfilms,providingaqualifiedinterpreterfortrainingsessions,andmodifyingwrittenteststhatmeasureadeafperson'slanguageskillsinsteadofhisorherabilitytodothespecificjob.

DiscriminationProhibited

TheADAandtheEEOCregulationsmakeitunlawfulforanemployertodiscriminateonthebasisofdisabilityagainstaqualifiedindividualinthefollowingareas:

6

1.Recruitment,advertising,andjobapplicationprocedures;

2.Hiring,upgrading,promotion,awardoftenure,demo-

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tion,transfer,layoff,termination,rightofreturnfromlayoff,andrehiring;

3.Ratesofpay;

4.Jobassignments,jobclassifications,positiondescriptions,andsenioritylists;

5.Leavesofabsence,sickleave,oranyotherleave;

6.Fringebenefits;

7.Selectionandfinancialsupportfortraining;

8.Activitiessponsoredbytheemployerincludingsocialandrecreationalprograms;and

9.Anyotherterm,condition,orprivilegeofemployment.

Someexamplesofprohibiteddiscriminationagainstadeaforhardofhearingpersonincludebeingdeniedaqualifiedinterpreterforajobinterview,notbeinghiredorpromotedbecausetheemployersayscommunicationisrequiredanddoesnotconsideranyreasonableaccommodation,beinghiredatalowerrateofpayfordoingthesamejobashearingworkers,andbeingdeniedanopportunitytoparticipateintrainingbecausetheemployerrefusestopayforaqualifiedinterpreter.

QualificationStandards,Tests,andOtherSelectionCriteria

ItisunlawfulundertheADAforanemployertousequalificationstandards,employmenttests,orotherselectioncriteriathatscreenoutortendtoscreenoutindividualswithdisabilities.

7Testsmaybegiveniftheyarejob-relatedandrequiredbybusinessnecessity.Itwouldbediscriminatory,forexample,foranemployertorequireeveryapplicanttopassawrittentestthatmeasureslanguage

skillswhentheessentialfunctionsofthejobinquestiondonotrequirethoseskills.Toooftensuchtestshaveexcludeddeafpersonsfrombeinghiredorpromoted.Insomesituations,partsofwrittentestsmaybewaivedasanappropriateaccommodationforadeafperson.

UndertheADA,anemployermustselectandadministerteststoapersonwithasensory,manual,orspeechimpairmentthataccuratelyreflecttheskillsoraptitudeofthetesttakerratherthanhisorherimpairment.For

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example,itwouldbeillegaltorequireanoraltestforapersonthatdoesnothavetheabilitytospeakwithoutsubstitutingawrittentest.

MedicalExaminations

Priortoajoboffer,anemployercannotconductmedicalexaminationsoraskaboutanapplicant'sdisability.

8However,anemployercanaskabouttheperson'sabilitytoperformjob-relatedduties.Anemployercanalsorequireamedicalexaminationafteranofferofemploymenthasbeenmadeandbeforethestartofemployment.Theemployermaymaketheofferofemploymentcontingentontheresultsoftheexaminationifallenteringemployeestaketheexamination,notonlythepersonwithadisability,andtheinformationobtainedduringtheexaminationiskeptseparatelyasaconfidentialmedicalrecord.However,supervisorsandmanagersmaybeinformedregardingnecessaryrestrictionsoraccommodationstotheworkoftheemployee,andfirstaidandsafetypersonnelmaybeinformedifthedisabilitymightrequireemergencytreatment.GovernmentofficialsinvestigatingcompliancewiththeADAmayalsobeinformedoftheexaminationresults.Finally,theemployercannotdiscriminateagainstthedisabledpersononthebasisoftheexamination.Repeatedly,deafandhardofhearingapplicantshavebeenexcludedfromconsiderationforjobsonthebasisofmedicalexaminationsbeforejobshavebeenoffered.ThissectionofADAwillprohibitsuchpractices.

EmployerDefenses

DirectThreat

Anemployercansometimesdefendagainstachargeofdiscriminationbyrequiringthatindividualscannotposeadirectthreattotheirownhealthorsafetyortothatofothersintheworkplace.9However,the

ADAhasastrictdefinitionof"directthreat,"whichstatesthatsuchadeterminationbebasedonanindividualizedassessmentof

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theperson'spresentabilitytosafelyperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejob.Ifapersonposesadirectthreat,theemployermustseeifareasonableaccommodationwouldeithereliminateorreducetherisktoanacceptablelevel.

Indeterminingadirectthreat,decisionsmustbemadeonacase-by-casebasisbasedonobjective,factualevidenceratherthanonfearsorstereotypes.TheADAlegislativehistoryandtheEEOCrefertoafederalcaseinvolvingahardofhearingperson,Strathiev.DepartmentofTransportation,716F2d227(3dCir.1983),asanexampleoftherequirementthatdecisionsonsafetybebasedonactualfactsofrisk.IntheStrathiecase,thestateofPennsylvaniahadaruleprohibitinghard-of-hearinghearingaidusersfromobtaininglicensestodriveschoolbuses.Adistrictcourthadsupportedthebanonissuingsuchlicensestohearingaidusersonthebasisofgeneralsafetyconcerns.Thefederalappealscourtreversedthelowercourt,findingevidenceintherecordrebuttingthestate'ssafetyconcernsandshowingthatanappropriatehearingaidwouldenableahardofhearingpersontodriveaschoolbuswithoutappreciablerisktopassengersafety.Thisevidencehadtobeconsideredindeterminingwhethera

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driverwearingahearingaidactuallywouldpresentanappreciablerisktothesafetyofschoolbuspassengers.

UndueHardship

Anotherdefenseanemployercanusewhenchargedwithnotmakingareasonableaccommodationisthattherequestedaccommodationwouldbean"unduehardship"ontheoperationofthebusiness.Unduehardshipmeanssignificantdifficultyorexpenseforthebusiness.Indecidingwhetheranaccommodationwouldbeanunduehardshiptothebusiness,thefollowingconditionsshouldbeconsidered:

1.Thenatureandnetcostoftheaccommodationneeded,takingintoconsiderationtheavailabilityoftaxcreditsanddeductions,and/oroutsidefunding;

2.Theoverallfinancialresourcesofthebusinesssiteprovidingtheaccommodation,thenumberofemployees,andtheeffectonresources;

3.Theoverallfinancialresourcesofthebusiness,includingitssizeintermsofnumberofemployeesandnumberandtypeofbusinesssites;

4.Thetypeofoperationofthebusinessandtherelationshipofthefacilitytotheoverallbusiness.

TheAnalysistotheEEOCregulationsgivesthefollowingexampleinvolvingadeafapplicant.TheanalysisexplainshowtoweighsomeofthefactorsjustlistedAnindependentlyownedfast-foodfranchisereceivesnomoneyfromtheparentcompanythatgivesoutthefranchises.Thefranchiserefusestohireadeafpersonbecauseitsaysitwouldbeanunduehardshiptoprovideaninterpreterformonthlystaffmeetings.Sincethefinancialrelationshipbetweenthelocalfranchiseandtheparentcompanyisonlyafranchisefee,onlythefinancialresourcesofthelocalfranchisewouldbeconsideredin

decidingwhetherprovidingtheaccommodationwouldbeanunduehardship.However,ifafactualdeterminationshowsthatthereisafinancialoradministrativerelationshipbetween

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theparentcompanyandthelocalsiteprovidingtheaccommodation,thentheparentcompany'sresourcesshouldbeconsideredindeterminingwhetherthehardshipisundue.

EnforcementProvisions

IndividualswithdisabilitieswillhavethesameremediesavailabletoallotherminoritiesunderTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,asamendedbytheCivilRightsActof1991.AnemployerfoundinviolationoftheemploymentsectionoftheADAmaybeorderedtodiscontinuediscriminatorypractices,tocorrectpoliciesandpractices,tohireaqualifiedindividualwithadisability,ortorehirethepersonwithbackpayandprovidethepersonwithareasonableaccommodation.Inaddition,theCivilRightsActof1991amendsTitleVIItoincludecompensatoryandpunitivedamagesforintentionaldiscrimination.IndividualswithdisabilitiesareprotectedbytheCivilRightsActof1991remediesunderbothSection501oftheRehabilitationActof1973,whichcoversfederalemployees,andtheADA.Damagesmaynotbeawardedwheretheemployerdemonstrates"goodfaithefforts"toidentifyandmakereasonableaccommodations.Employerswholoseaspecificcasewillberequiredtopaythedisabledperson'sattorney'sfeesandcosts.

TitleII:StateandLocalGovernments

TitleIIoftheADArequiresallstateandlocalgovernmentagenciestomakealloftheirservicesaccessibletoindividualswithdisabilities.Italsorequirespublictransportationagenciestobeaccessible.

ThisisimportanttodeafandhardofhearingpeoplebecauseitextendsprotectiontomanyagenciesthatwerenotcoveredbySection504oftheRehabilitationActof1973(seechap.three)becausetheydidnotreceiveanyfederalfunding.Forexample,manycourtsandpoliceorsheriff'sofficesdonotreceivefederalfinancialassistance.

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DeafpeoplecouldnotuseSection504tocomplainaboutdiscriminationwhenthesecourtsorpolicedepartmentsdidnotprovideinterpreterservices.NowtheycanrelyontheADAtoinsistonequalaccess.

ThegoalofTitleIIistomakesurethatallservices,programs,andactivitiesofstateandlocalgovernmentscanbeusedbypeoplewithdisabilities.Thelawappliestoanythingagovernmentagencydoes.AnypersonwithadisabilitywhomeetstheessentialeligibilityrequirementsforgettingservicesorparticipatinginagovernmentprogramisprotectedbytheADA.

TitleIIbecameeffectiveonJanuary26,1992.RegulationsimplementingandexplainingtherequirementsofTitleIIwereadoptedbytheU.S.DepartmentofJustice.TheycanbefoundinTitle28,Part35oftheCodeofFederalRegulations.

AgenciesThatMustBeAccessible

TitleIIoftheADAappliestoallstateandlocal"publicentities,"aswellastoAMTRAKandcommutertransportationagencies.Publicagenciesincludeschoolsystems;motorvehicledepartments;policeandfiredepartments;parksandrecreationprograms;jailsandprisons;libraries;foodstampoffices;welfareandsocialserviceagencies;andpublichospitals,clinics,andcounselingcenters.Thispartofthelawalsoappliestostateandlocalcourtsandcity,county,andstatelegislatures.

TheADAalsoappliestogovernmentactivitiesthatareactuallycarriedoutbyprivatecontractors.Forexample,theconcessionactivitiesinstateparksareoftenoperatedbyprivatecontractors,andsheltersandhalfwayhousesmaybeoperatedbyprivatenonprofitagenciesbutreceivestateandlocalgovernmentcontracts.

TitleIIoftheADAdoesnotapplytofederalgovernmentagencies.

Federalbuildingsandfederalexecutiveagenciesmustbeaccessible,too,buttheyarecoveredbytheRehabilitationActandtheArchitecturalBarriersAct,notbytheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct.

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DefiningDiscrimination

Ifapersonwithadisabilitymeetsthe"essentialeligibilityrequirements"foragovernmentservice,theADAsaysthatthegovernmentagencycannot(1)excludethepersonfromparticipatingintheservice;(2)denythebenefitsorservices,programsoractivitiesoftheagency;or(3)subjectthepersontodiscrimination,byreasonofthedisability.Inaddition,governmentagenciesmustcomplywiththefollowingguidelines:

1.Agovernmentagencycannotexcludepeopleorrefusetoservethembecauseofadisability.Forexample,cityrecreationprogramsmaynotturnawaypeoplewhoaredeaforimposeadditionalrequirementsonthem.Acounselingservicemaynotrefusetoacceptadeafclientbecauseofdifficultyincommunication.

2.Agovernmentagencymustmakereasonablemodificationstorules,policies,andpracticesthatareunfairtopersonswithdisabilities.Forexample,anagencythatrequiresadriver'slicenseastheonlyacceptablemeansofidentification,mustchangeitspolicybecauseblindindividualsorindividualswithotherdisabilitiesmaynotbeabletogetdriver'slicenses.Iftheagencyimposessafetyrequirementsthatarenecessaryforthesafeoperationoftheprogram(suchasarequirementtohaveavaliddriver'slicense),therequirementmustbebasedonactualriskandnotonmerespeculation,stereotype,orgeneralizationsaboutindividualswithdisabilities.

Apublicparkcannotaskadeafindividualtopayahigherdepositortakeoutadditionalinsurancetorentequipment.Thereisnovalidevidencethatdeafnessismorelikelytocausethepersontohaveanaccidentordamageequipment.Ifalicensingagencyrequiresapplicantstotakeanoraltest,itmusteitherprovideaninterpreterforthetestorallowadeafapplicanttotakeawrittentest,unlesstheagencyisactuallytestingtheapplicant'sabilitytohearforareason

relatedtogettingthelicense.

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3.Agovernmentagencymustremovearchitectural,communication,ortransportationbarriers.Theagencydoesnothavetoremovephysicalbarriersineverypartofeverypublicbuilding,aslongastheprogramsitofferscanbemadeavailabletopeoplewhocannotusethefacility.Forexample,theagencycouldserveapersonwithadisabilityinanaccessiblelocation,orprovideanaide,anassistant,oradevicethatwillenablethepersonwithadisabilitytousetheservice.NotallpaytelephonesinpublicbuildingshavetobeequippedwithTDDs,butacertainpercentageshouldbeusablebydeafpeople.

4.Mostimportanttodeafindividuals,agovernmentagencymustalsoprovidethe''auxiliaryaidsandservices"thepersonneedsinordertocommunicate.

WhatAreAuxiliaryAidsandServices?

Stateandlocalgovernmentsmustensureeffectivecommunicationwithindividualswithdisabilities.

10Inordertomakesurethatcommunicationforapersonwithahearing,vision,orspeechimpairmentisaseffectiveascommunicationwithothers,thepublicentitymustprovideappropriateauxiliaryaids.

Auxiliaryaidsincludequalifiedinterpreters,assistivelisteningsystems(loop,FM,andinfraredsystems),televisioncaptioninganddecoders,TDDs,videotextdisplays,transcriptions,readers,tapedtexts,brailledmaterials,andlargeprintmaterials.11Anysimilardeviceorservicethatisneededtomakespokenorauralinformationaccessibleisalsoconsideredanauxiliaryaid.

Thegovernmentagencymayhavetoprovidespecialequipment,ormodifyitsexistingequipment,tomakesuredeafpeoplecancommunicateeffectively.Forexample,anentrysystemthatrequiresa

persontoopenadoorinresponsetoasignalfromabuzzeroranintercomshouldbemodified.Agovernmentagencymayhavetohireinterpreters,transcribers,orotherpersonneltoprovidenecessarycommunicationservices.

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Theagencyshouldestablishandpublicizeproceduresfornotifyingthepublicabouthowtorequestthesespecialservices.

WhichAuxiliaryAidsShouldBeProvided?

Thegovernmentagencymustprovideauxiliaryaidsthatarenecessarytogivethedeafpersonanequalopportunitytoparticipateinandenjoythegovernmentservices,programs,oractivities.

12Theappropriateauxiliaryaidwilldependonthetypeofactivityandtheneedsoftheperson.AdeafpersonwhousessignlanguagemayneedaninterpretertounderstandaPTAmeetingortotalktoacountysocialworkerorpoliceofficer.Butadeaforhardofhearingpersonwhodoesnotusesignlanguagemayneedatranscriptionoramplificationsystemoranothermethodofmakingcommunicationunderstandable.Atelevisedorvideotapedprogramshouldbecaptionedandshownonamachinewithadecoder,ifaninterpreterisnotprovided.

TheJusticeDepartmentdefinesaqualifiedinterpreterasonewhocan"interpreteffectively,accurately,andimpartiallybothreceptivelyandexpressively,usinganynecessaryspecializedvocabulary."13Aninterpreterwhoisqualifiedenoughforonetypeofinterpretingassignmentmaynothavesufficientskillsforinterpretinginanothersituation.

Indeterminingwhetherornotaninterpreterisneeded,andthenecessaryskilllevel,thegovernmentagencyshouldconsiderthecontextinwhichthecommunicationistakingplace,thenumberofpeopleinvolved,theimportanceofthecommunication,andwhethertheinformationbeingcommunicatediscomplexorlengthy.Incertaincircumstances,afamilymemberorfriendmaynotbequalifiedtointerpretbecauseoffactorssuchasemotionalorpersonalinvolvement

orconsiderationsofconfidentialitythatmayadverselyaffecttheabilitytointerpret"effectively,accurately,andimpartially."

Althoughthepublicagencyhasthefinaldecisionaboutthetypeofauxiliaryaidthatwillbeprovided,thedeaf

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individualisinthebestpositiontoevaluatehisorherownneedsandtheeffectivenessoftheservice.TheJusticeDepartmentrulestatesthatindeterminingwhattypeofauxiliaryaidorserviceisnecessary,thegovernmentagencymustgive"primaryconsideration"totherequestsoftheindividualwithdisabilities.

14TheJusticeDepartmentanalysistoitsADArulestates:

Thepublicentitymustprovideanopportunityforindividualswithdisabilitiestorequesttheauxiliaryaidsandservicesoftheirchoice.Thisexpressedchoiceshallbegivenprimaryconsiderationbythepublicentity.Thepublicentityshallhonorthechoiceunlessitcandemonstratethatanothereffectivemeansofcommunicationexistsorthatuseofthemeanschosenwouldnotberequiredunder[theregulation].15

Deafindividualsshouldnotifygovernmentagenciesifinterpretersarenotsufficientlyskilledorifanauxiliaryaidisnoteffectivetogivethemequalaccesstoaprogram.

WhoPaysfortheInterpretersandOtherAuxiliaryAids?

Thegovernmentmaynotchargeapersonwithadisabilityanyextrafeeforprovidinganinterpreterorotherauxiliaryaid.16Forexample,courtsmaynotincludeaninterpreterfeeas"courtcosts"whenadeafpersonisinvolvedinatrialandisorderedtopaythe"costs"ofthetrial.17

TheADAdoesnotrequireanagencytoprovideanauxiliaryaidifitwouldresultinanundueburdenorifitwouldmakeafundamentalalterationinthenatureoftheservicestheagencyprovides.Interpreterswouldseldombeconsideredanundueburdenonanagencysincethecostiscomparedtotheoverallbudgetofthestateorlocalgovernmentthatisavailabletosupportagovernmentprogram.

Evenifaparticularauxiliaryaidisconsideredtobetooexpensiveor

burdensome,theagencymuststillfurnishanotherauxiliaryaid,ifavailable,thatdoesnotcauseafundamentalalterationorundueburdenontheagency.

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WhatTDDServicesAreRequired?

Whereagovernmentagencycommunicatesbytelephonewithindividualswithdisabilities,TDDsorequallyeffectivetelecommunicationsystemsarerequiredtocommunicatewithpersonswithimpairedhearingorspeech.

18TitleIVoftheADAestablishesanationwiderelaysystemthatmaybeadequatetogiveTDDusersaccesstomanygovernmentservices.ButpublicagenciesmuststillprovideTDDsanddirectaccesstoincomingTDDcallsiftherelayservicewillnotgivethemequalaccesstoservicesofferedbytelephone.

Telephoneemergencyservices,including911services,mustprovidedirectaccesstoindividualswithspeechorhearingimpairments.19Localgovernmentsthatprovide911-typeservicesmustmakesurethataTDDusercancalldirectly,withoutgoingthrougharelaysystemoraseparatetelephonenumber.Emergency-serviceoperatorsmustbetrainedtorecognizeandrespondtoTDDemergencycalls.

Whenapublicagencyoffersuseofatelephoneaspartofitsservices,itmustbeabletoofferTDDsandhearing-aid-compatibletelephonestoindividualswithhearingimpairments.Forexample,patientsincommunityhospitalsorotherresidentialfacilitiesneedequalaccesstotelephones.AgenciesthatprovidepaytelephonesforpublicusemustmakesurethatsomeoftheirtelephonesareequippedwithaTDD.Newpublicbuildingsmustmeetahighstandardofaccessibility,includingrequirementsforvisualflashingalarms,TDDequipment,andintercomaccessibility.

Whenarelaysystemisnotadequatetogiveaccesstoatelephoneservice,thegovernmentofficeshouldhaveitsownTDDforincomingcalls.Forexample,officeswithfrequentcontactswiththepublicor

withclientswhouseTDDsshouldhaveon-siteTDDstoprovidefordirectcommunicationbetweenthegovernmentagencyandtheindividual.

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FilingaComplaint

ApersonwhobelievesthatheorsheisavictimofdiscriminationbyastateorlocalgovernmentmayenforcetheADAbyalawsuitorbyfilinganadministrativecomplaint.ThesameremediesareavailableasthoseprovidedunderSection504oftheRehabilitationActof1973,includingareasonableattorney'sfeetotheprevailingparty(seechap.three).

Administrativecomplaintsmaybefiledwithanyagencythatprovidesfinancialassistancetotheprogram,orwiththeU.S.DepartmentofJustice,orwithoneofeightfederalagenciesthathavebeenassignedenforcementauthorityoverspecificsubjectareas.

· DepartmentofAgriculture:Farmingandraisingoflivestock,includingextensionservices.

· DepartmentofEducation:Educationsystemsandinstitutions(otherthanhealth-relatededucation)andlibraries.

· DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices:Schoolsofmedicine,dentistry,nursing,andotherhealth-relatedschools,healthcareandsocialserviceprovidersandinstitutions,andpreschoolandday-careprograms.

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· DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment:Stateandlocalpublichousing,andhousingassistanceandreferral.

· DepartmentofInterior:Landsandnaturalresources,includingparksandrecreation,waterandwastemanagement,environmentalprotection,energy,historicandculturalpreservation,andmuseums.

· DepartmentofJustice:Publicsafety,lawenforcement,andtheadministrationofjustice,includingcourtsandcorrectionalinstitutions;commerceandindustry,includingbankingandfinance,consumerprotection,andinsurance;planning,development,andregulation;stateandlocalgovernmentsupportservices;andallothergovernmentfunctionsnotassignedtootherdesignatedagencies.

· DepartmentofLabor:Laborandworkforce.

· DepartmentofTransportation:Transportation,includinghighways,publictransportation,trafficmanagement(non-lawenforcement),automobilelicensingandinspection,anddriverlicensing.

Complaintsshouldbemadeinwriting,signedbythecomplainantoranauthorizedrepresentative.Thecomplaintmustcontainthecomplainant'snameandaddressandadescriptionofthediscriminationbythepublicentity.Formoreinformation,ortofileacomplaint,contact:

CoordinationandReviewSectionCivilRightsDivisionU.S.DepartmentofJusticeP.O.Box66118Washington,DC200356118

TitleIII:PublicAccommodation

TitleIIIoftheADAprovidesdisabledpeoplewiththerightstoequalaccesstopublicaccommodations.Fordeafandhardofhearingpeople,TitleIIIanditsregulationswillbeoftremendoushelpinremovingcommunicationbarriers.

20TitleIIIcoversawiderangeofplaces,suchas

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hotels,theaters,restaurants,doctors'andlawyers'offices,retailstores,banks,museums,parks,libraries,day-carecenters,andprivateschools.Allofthesepublicaccommodationsarerequiredtoprovideauxiliaryaidsandservicestoensureeffectivecommunicationwithdeafandhardofhearingpeopleaswellasindividualswithvisionimpairments.

AuxiliaryAids

TheDepartmentofJusticeregulationstoimplementTitleIIIprovideacomprehensivelistofauxiliaryaidsandservicesrequiredbytheADA.

21Qualifiedinterpretersareincludedinthislistofauxiliaryaids.Theregulationdefines"qualifedinterpreter"tomean"aninterpreterwhoisabletointerpreteffectively,accurately,andimpartiallybothreceptivelyandexpressively,usinganynecessaryspecializedvocabulary."Thisdefinitionfocusesontheinterpreter'sactualabilitytomakecommunicationeffectiveinaparticularinterpretingsituation.Incertaincircumstances,afamilymemberorfriendmaynotbequalifiedtointerpretbecauseoffactorssuchasemotionalorpersonalinvolvementorconsiderationsofconfidentialitythatmayadverselyaffecttheabilitytointerpret"effectively,accurately,andimpartially."

Otherexamplesofauxiliaryaidslistedintheregulationsarenotetakers,computer-aidedtranscriptionservices,writtenmaterials,telephonehandsetamplifiers,assistivelisteningdevices,assistivelisteningsystems,telephonescompatiblewithhearingaids,closedcaptiondecoders,openandclosedcaptioning,telecommunicationdevicesfordeafpersons(TDDs),videotextdisplays,orothereffectivemethodsofmakingaurallydeliveredmaterialsavailabletoindividualswithhearingimpairments.

Auxiliaryaidsalsoincludetheacquisitionormodificationofequipment.TheADAanalysisgivestheexamplethatahotelconferencecentermayneedtoprovidepermanentorportableassistivelisteningsystemsforpeoplewithhearingimpairments.

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Thelistisnotintendedtobeall-inclusiveorexhaustive.TheJusticeDepartmentnotedsuchanattemptwouldomitnewdevicesthatwillbecomeavailableastechnologyadvances.

DefensetotheRequirements

TheADAdoesmakeallowancesfortheprovisionofauxiliaryaidsinspecificsituations.Forexample,theADAdoesnotrequiretheprovisionofanyauxiliaryaidthatwouldresultinan"undueburden"orinafundamentalalterationinthenatureofthegoodsandservicesprovidedbyapublicaccommodation.Anundueburdenisdefinedassignificantdifficultyorexpensetothepublicaccommodation.However,thepublicaccommodationisnotrelievedfromthedutytofurnishanalternativeauxiliaryaid,ifavailable,thatwouldnotresultinanundueburden.Thecostsofcompliancewiththeauxiliaryaidsrequirementsmaynotbefinancedbysurchargesondeafpersons.

EffectiveCommunication

Apublicaccommodationmustprovideanauxiliaryaidorservicewherenecessarytoensureeffectivecommunicationwithindividualswithdisabilities.TheJusticeDepartmentstronglyencouragesthatapublicaccommodationconsultwithanindividualbeforeprovidinghimorherwithaparticularauxiliaryaidorservice.Incertaincases,theDepartmentanalysistotheregulationpointsout,aninterpretermaybenecessarytoensureeffectivecommunication.Accordingtotheanalysis,thereisawiderangeofcommunicationsituations,includingareassuchashealth,legalmatters,andfinances,thatwouldbesufficientlylengthyorcomplextorequireaninterpreterforeffectivecommunication.

TDDRequirements

TitleIIIalsorequirespublicaccommodationstoprovideTDDsuponrequestwhensuchfacilitiesofferacustomer,

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client,patient,orparticipanttheopportunitytomakeoutgoingtelephonecallsonmorethananincidentalconveniencebasis.Whereentrytoaplaceofpublicaccommodationrequiresuseofasecurityentrancetelephone,aTDDorothereffectivemeansofcommunicationmustbeprovidedforusebyanindividualwithimpairedhearingorspeech.HotelsshouldalsoprovideaTDDatthefrontdeskinordertotakecallsfromguestswhouseTDDsintheirrooms.

DecodersandCaptioning

Hospitalsthatprovidetelevisionsforpatientuseandplacesoflodgingthatprovidetelevisionsinfiveormoreguestroomsmustprovide,uponrequest,ameansfordecodingcaptions.Whilemovietheatersarenotrequiredtopresentopen-captionedfilms,otherpublicaccommodationsthatimpartverbalinformationthroughsoundtracksonfilms,videotapes,orslideshowsarerequiredtomakesuchinformationaccessibletodeafandhardofhearingparticipantsthroughsuchmeansascaptioning.

ConferencesandPerformances

Tradeassociationsorperformingartiststhatleasespaceforaconferenceorperformanceatahotel,conventioncenter,orstadiumbecomeapublicaccommodationthatmustcomplywiththeADA.Theanalysistotheregulationstatesthatthetradeassociationorperformingartistshouldberesponsibleforprovidingauxiliaryaidsandservices,whichcouldincludeinterpreters,fortheparticipantsinitsconferenceorperformance.Thedeterminationofwhoactuallyprovidesauxiliaryaids(thelandlordortherenters)canbedecidedduringtheleasenegotiations.Forexample,ifatheaterrentsouttoaperformingartist,thequestionofwhoprovidesforarequestedinterpreterwillbedecidedbytheircontract.BoththelandlordandtenantaresubjecttotherequirementsoftheADA.

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UseofServiceAnimals

TheTitleIIIregulationalsoprovidesbroadprotectionsfortheuseofserviceanimals.

22Publicaccommodationshavetomodifytheirpoliciesandpracticestoallowtheuseofserviceanimals.Serviceanimalsarebroadlydefinedtoincludeanyguideorsignaldogorotheranimalindividuallytrainedtoprovideassistancetoapersonwithadisability.

ExaminationsandCourses

TheADArequiresprivateorganizationsthatofferexaminationsorcoursesforlicensing,certification,orcredentialstoprovideappropriateauxiliaryaidssuchasinterpreters.23Thisappliestohighschoolorcollegeeducationandtoprofessionalandtradetraining.Theprivateorganizationwouldnotberequiredtoprovideanauxiliaryaidifitcouldshowtheprovisionoftheauxiliaryaidwouldfundamentallyaltertheskillsorknowledgetheexaminationintendstotestorthecourseoffered.Examinations

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mustbeusedthatbestreflectanindividual'saptitudeorachievementlevelratherthanreflectingtheperson'simpairedsensory,manual,orspeakingskills.Theonlyexceptioniswherethoseskillsarewhattheexaminationseekstomeasure.

ExistingFacilities

TheADArequiresthatstructuralcommunicationbarriersberemovedfromexistingfacilities.

24Someexamplesofhowthiscanbeaccomplishedareinstallingflashingalarmsystems,permanentsignage,andadequatesoundbuffers.

NewConstructionandAlterations

TheU.S.ArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoardhasdevelopedADAAccessibilityGuidelines.25Accordingtotheseguidelines,allnewconstructionandbuildingalterationsmustbeaccessibletodisabledpeople.TherequirementsforTDDs,publictelephones,assistivelisteningsystems,andvisualalarmsareasfollows:

1.OneTDDmustbeprovidedinsideanybuildingthathasfourormorepublicpaytelephones,includingbothinteriorandexteriorphones.Inaddition,oneTDDmustbeprovidedwheneverthereisaninteriorpublicpayphoneinastadiumorarena;aconventioncenter;ahotelwithaconventioncenter;acoveredshoppingmall;orahospitalemergency,recovery,orwaitingroom.

2.Oneaccessiblepublicpayphonemustbeprovidedforeachlevelofapublicaccommodation.Ifalevelhastwoormorebanksofphones,theremustbeoneaccessiblephoneforeachbank.

3.Fixed-seatingassemblyareasthataccommodate50ormorepeople

orthathaveaudio-amplificationsystemsmusthaveapermanentlyinstalledassistivelisteningsystem.

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4.Hotelsmustmakefourpercentofthefirst100roomsandapproximatelytwopercentoftheremainingroomsaccessibletopeoplewithahearingloss.Theseroomsmustcontainvisualalarms,notificationdevices,volume-controltelephones,andanaccessibleelectricaloutletforaTDD.

Enforcement

Thepublicaccommodationsrequirementsbecameeffective,inmostsituations,onJanuary26,1992.Individualswithdisabilitiescanbringlawsuitsforcourtorderstostopdiscrimination,buttheycannotcollectdamages.Iftheindividualswinintheircourtcase,theycanrecoverattorney'sfeesandcosts.IndividualswithdisabilitiescanalsofilecomplaintswiththeAttorneyGeneral,whohasthepowertoinitiatelawsuitsincasesofpublicimportanceorwherea''patternorpractice"ofdiscriminationisalleged.Insuchcases,theAttorneyGeneralmayseekmoneydamagesandcivilpenalties.

26

TitleIv:Telecommunications

TitleIVoftheADArequirestelephonecompaniestoprovidebothlocalandlongdistancetelecommunicationsrelayservicesacrossthenationbyJuly26,1993.TheserelayserviceswillenableindividualswhouseTDDs,alsonowknownastexttelephones,tohavetelephoneconversationswithindividualswhouseconventionalvoicetelephonesanytime,anyplace,andforanyreasonwhatsoever.

RelayServicesRequiredUndertheADA

Tousearelayservice,aTDDuserplacesacalltoathirdparty,knownasarelayoperatororacommunicationsassistant(CA).TheTDDusertellstheCAthenameandnumberoftheindividualheorshewishes

tocall.TheCAthenplacesthecalltothepartyrequested.Whentheconnectionismade,theCAreadstothecalledpartywhattheTDDusertypesandtypestotheTDDcallerevery-

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thingthatthecalledpartysays.ThesameprocesscanbeperformedinreversewhenthecallisinitiatedbyahearingpersontoaTDDuser.

PriortotheintroductionoftheADA,fewerthanone-halfofthestateshadstate-mandatedrelayprograms.Eventhoseprogramsthathadalreadyexistedtendedtoimposemanyrestrictionsonthenumber,length,andtypeofcallsthatcouldbemadethroughtheirrelayservices.TheADAchangedallthatbyrequiringthatrelayservicesprovidedafterJuly26,1993,offertelephonecommunicationforpersonswithhearingandspeechdisabilitiesthatis"functionallyequivalent"tothetelephoneservicesavailabletoindividualswhodonothavetheseimpairments.

FunctionallyEquivalentRelayServices

OnJuly26,1991,theFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)adoptedregulationstoimplementTitleIV.

27Inthoseregulations,theFCCexplainedthattheADA'srequirementfor"functionallyequivalent"relayservicesisintendedtofulfillthetelephonecompanies'generalobligationtoprovideuniversaltelephoneservicetoallindividualswhorelyonTDDsfortelephonecommunications.TheFCCregulationsoutlinefunctionalequivalenceasfollows:

1.Relayservicesmustbeprovided24hoursaday/7daysaweekforalllocalandlongdistancecalls.

2.RelaysystemsmustacceptcallsinboththeBaudotandASCIIcomputerformats.TheBaudotandASCIIcodesaretwoformatsforsendingtypedtransmissionsacrossthetelephonewires.TheBaudotformat,whichwasdevelopedmorethan50yearsago,isnowhighlycriticizedforbeinganineffectiveformatforTDDuse.Incontrast,theASCIIformathasbecomethenationwidestandardforcomputer

transmissions.28ASCIIisfasterandallowsthetransmissionofmanymorecharactersthandoesBaudot.UnliketheBaudotformat,italsoallowsconversationstotakeplacein

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twodirectionsatthesametime.ManypredictthattheadvantagesoftheASCIIformatwilllikelyresultintheeliminationofBaudotwithinthenextfewyears.Fornow,however,thegreatmajorityofindividualswhouseTDDsstillrelyontheBaudotformat.Forthisreason,theFCCregulationrequiresthatrelayservicesbeaccessibletobothofthesecodes.

3.Relaycallsmustberelayedverbatim,unlessoneoftherelaypartiesrequeststhatthemessagesbesummarized.

4.Individualsusingrelayservicesmaynotbechargedanymorefortheircallsthanvoicetelephoneusersarechargedforcallswiththesamepointsoforiginationanddestination.

5.Norestrictionsmaybeplacedonthetype,length,ornumberofcallsmadebyanyrelayuser.Thismeansthatrelaysystemsmustbecapableofhandlingcoinsent,third-partynumber,callingcard,collect,andallothercallsnormallyhandledbytelephonecompanies.Theburdenofprovingthatrelayingaparticularkindofcallisnottechnologicallypossiblerestsonthetelephonecompanies.

ThisrequirementalsoallowsrelaycallerstorequestCAstomakeseveralcallsforthemeachtimetheycallintoarelaycenter.Forexample,anindividualwhowishestocallfivedifferentapplianceshopstofindoutthecostofpurchasingaparticulardishwashermaycallintotherelaycenteronetimeandrequestthesameCAtomakeallfivecalls.Thisisasignificantchangefromtheformerpracticeofmanyrelaycenters,whichrequiredcallerstocalltherelaycentereachtimetheywantedtoplaceanewcall.

6.CAsmaynotconsiderthecontentofaparticularcallindeterminingwhethertorelaythatcall.Inotherwords,undertheFCC'sregulation,CAscannotdecidethattheydonotwanttorelayacallbecausetheydonotlikethelegal,moral,orethicalnatureofthecall.Forexample,

whileaparticularCAmaynotpersonallyapproveofcertainexplicitmusicvideos,she

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wouldneverthelessberequiredtocompleteaconversationonthistopicbetweentwoteenagers.

Moreover,CAscannotbeheldcriminallyliableforrelayingunlawfulconversationsunlesstheyareknowinglyinvolvedintheillegaltransactionsorhaveactualnoticeoftheillegalityofthetelephonetransmissions.TheFCCregulationmakesclearthat,inthenormalperformanceoftheirresponsibilities,CAswillnotbedeemedtohaveahighlevelofinvolvementinanycriminalactivitythatmightbetakingplaceinarelayedconversation.Oneexamplemightbeadrugtransactionthattakesplaceinarelayconversation.UnlesstheCAhasactiveknowledgeofthetransactiontakingplaceandisinvolvedinthetransactioninsomeway,hewillnotbeheldcriminallyliableforrelayingtheconversation.

TheFCC'sprohibitionagainstrefusingcallsbasedontheircontentiscriticaltotheproperandeffectiveoperationofrelayservices.Withoutsuchaprohibition,practicesregardingcallcontentwouldvaryfromstatetostate,orCAtoCA,resultingininconsistentpracticesthroughoutthenation.Whatoneoperatormightconsiderlight-heartedhumor,anothermightfindextremelyoffensive.Whatoneoperatormightconsideraharmlessphrase,anotheroperatormightmistakeforcluesconcerningillegalbehavior.Neverknowingwhentheircallscouldbeterminatedorrefused,bothdeafandhearingpeoplewouldquicklylosealltrustintherelaysystemifthisrequirementwerenotinplace.TheFCC'sregulationtorequiretherelayofallcalls,regardlessoftheircontent,ensuresthatthiswillnothappen.

7.CAsarealsoprohibitedfromkeepingrecordsofrelayedconversationsbeyondthelengthofthetelephonecall.Theyarerequiredtokeepthecontentofallintrastaterelayedcallsconfidentialsothatrelayusershaveconfidenceintheprivacyoftheirconversations.CAsarealsoprohibitedfromdisclosinginterstateand

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foreignrelayedconversationswithtwoexceptions.Specifically,underSection705(a)oftheCommunicationsActof1934,CAsmayberequiredtodiscloseinterstateorforeignconversationswhendirectedtodosobyacourt-issuedsubpoenaoruponthedemandofsomeotherlawfulauthority.

8.AfunctionallyequivalentrelayservicealsomeansthatCAsmustmaintaincertainskillsandqualificationstoproperlyperformtheirrelayduties.Specifically,CAsmustbetrainedtomeetthecommunicationneedsofrelayuserswhoaredeaf,hardofhearing,speechimpaired,orotherwisedisabled.TheymustbesufficientlyacquaintedwithAmericanSignLanguageandwiththeculturesofthevariouscommunitiesthattheirrelaysystemsareintendedtoserve.Additionally,theymusthavecompetentskillsingrammar,typing,spelling,andrelayetiquette.

9.Relaysystemsmusthaveverylow"blockage"rates.Inthepast,relayuserswereoftenconfrontedwithbusysignalsandlongdelayswhentryingtoobtainaccesstorelaysystems.Thehighdemandforrelayservices,coupledwiththethreadbarebudgetsofmostofthesesystems,greatlyfrustratedtheindividualswhodependeddailyonthesesystems.TheFCCregulationresolvesthisproblem.Essentially,itrequiresthatrelayusersreceivebusysignalsfromrelaysystemsatapproximatelythesameratethatvoicetelephoneusersreceivebusysignalsoverthevoicetelephonenetwork.Inaddition,theregulationrequiresthatrelaysystemsbecapableofanswering85percentofallincomingcallswithin10seconds.Afterreceivingdialinginformationfromthecaller,CAsthenhave30secondstodialtherequestednumber.

10.Relayusersmustbegiventheirchoiceoflong-distancetelephonecompanies.

11.Relayusersmusthavethesameaccesstoalltelephoneoperator

servicesavailabletovoicetelephoneusers.

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RelayServicesProviders

UndertheADA,telephonecompaniesareresponsibleforprovidingrelayservicesinthegeographicareasinwhichtheyprovideconventionaltelephoneservice.Inaddition,individualstatescanreceivecertificationfromtheFCCtooperateandenforcetheirownstaterelayprograms.Bothtelephonecompaniesandstatesarepermittedtoproviderelayservicesindividually,throughacompetitivelyselectedvendor,ortogetherwithothertelephonecompaniesorstates.Thestatewiderelayprogramsalreadyinexistencedemonstratethevariousoptionsforestablishingrelaysystems.Forexample,inUtah,asinglenonprofitorganization,theUtahAssociationoftheDeaf,hasacontractwiththestatetoproviderelayservices.Incontrast,inNewYork,41localtelephonecompaniesjoinedeffortsundertheirumbrellaorganization,theNewYorkTelephoneAssociation,tocontractwithAT&Tfortheprovisionofrelayservices.ThetelephonecompaniesofNewYorkhavealsoagreedtojoineffortswiththestateofMaineinaregionalrelaycenter.Thisallowsbothstatestoreducetheoverallcostsofrelaystaff,administration,andequipment.

AstatethatwishestoreceivecertificationtooperateitsownrelaysystemmustsubmitdocumentationtotheFCCthatprovesthatitsprogramwill(1)meetorexceedalloftheoperational,technical,andfunctionalminimumstandardscontainedintheFCC'sregulation;(2)provideadequateproceduresandremediestoenforcethestateprogram;and(3)notconflictwithfederallawwhereitsprogramexceedstheminimumstandardscontainedintheFCCregulation.

ManyoftherelayprogramsnowinexistencewillneedtorevisetheirpracticesinordertomeettheFCCrequirementsforcertification.Forexample,manystatesstilldonotrelayinterstatecalls.Otherstatesplacerestrictionsonthehourseachdaythatcallsmayberelayed.

Theseandotherlimitationsonrelayservicemustbeeliminatedifthesestateswishtoreceivecertification.

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Whenastaterequestscertification,theFCCmustgivethepublicnoticeandanopportunitytocommentonthatrequest.Onceitisgranted,certificationremainsineffectforafive-yearperiod.AstatecanapplytotheFCCforrecertificationoneyearbeforeitscertificationexpires.Alternatively,theFCCmayrevokeorsuspendastate'scertificationifthatstate'spracticesdonotfollowtheFCC'sminimumguidelines.

NoticetothePublic

ThegoalofrelaysystemsistointegrateTDDusersintothegeneralpublictelecommunicationsnetwork.Inorderforthisgoaltobeachieved,potentialusersmustlearnaboutthebenefitsandfunctionsofrelaysystems.Towardthisend,theFCCregulationspecificallyrequirestelephonecompaniestopublishinformationabouttheirrelaysystems,includingthephonenumbersoftheirrelaycenters,intelephonedirectoriesandbillinginserts.Additionally,thesecompaniesmustensurethatinformationaboutrelayservicesisavailablethroughdirectoryassistanceservices.

Enforcement

ConsumerswhoarenotsatisfiedwitharelayservicemayfileacomplainteitherwiththestateagencyresponsibleforimplementingthelocalprogramorwiththeFCC.WhenanindividualfilesacomplaintwiththeFCCagainstarelayprograminacertifiedstate,theFCCwillreferthatcomplaintbacktothecertifiedstate.BoththestatesandtheFCCareresponsibleforresolvingcomplaintswithin180days.

AtelephonecompanythatviolatestheADA'srelayprovisionsmaybeorderedtobegincomplianceimmediatelyandmayhavetopaydamagestothecomplainingparty.Willfulviolationsoftherelaysectionmaybesubjecttocriminalpenalties,includingfinesofupto

$10,000.

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CaptioningofPublicServiceAnnouncements

TitleIVoftheADAalsorequiresalltelevisionpublicserviceannouncementsthatareproducedorfundedbythefederalgovernmenttoincludeclosedcaptioning.Occasionally,federalagencieshavetakenpartinthedevelopmentoftelevisionannouncementsonAIDS,aging,andothergeneralhealthandconsumerissues.Inthefuture,thevitalinformationintheseandotherfederallyassistedannouncementswillfinallyreachindividualswhorelyonclosedcaptionstoreceivetheverbalcontentoftelevision.

Notes

1.PublicLaw101-336,42UnitedStatesCode(U.S.C.)12101et.seq.

2.29CodeofFederalRegulations(C.F.R.),Part1630

3.29C.FR.§1630.2

4.Id.

5.Id.

6.29C.F.R.§1630.4

7.29C.F.R.§1630.10

8.29C.F.R.§1630.14

9.29C.F.R.§1630.15

10.28C.F.R.§35.160

11.28C.F.R.§35.104

12.28C.F.R.§35.160(b)

13.28C.F.R.§35.104

14.28C.F.R.§35.160(b)(2)

15.56Fed.Reg.35711-12(July26,1991)

16.28C.F.R.§35.130(f)

17.TheAnalysistotheJusticeDepartmentADAregulationstatesthat"thecostsofinterpreterservicesmaynotbeassessedasanelementof'courtcosts.'The[Justice]Departmenthasalreadyrecognizedthatimpositionofthecostofcourtroominterpreterservicesisimpermissibleundersection504...Accordingly,recoupingthecostsofinterpreterservicesbyassessingthemaspartofcourtcostswouldalsobeprohibited."56Fed.Reg.35706(July26,1991)

18.28C.F.R.§35.161

19.28C.F.R.§35.162

20.28C.F.R.Part36

21.28C.F.R.§36.303

22.28C.F.R.§36.302

23.28C.F.R.§36.309

24.28C.F.R.§36.304

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25.28C.F.R.§36.401

26.28C.F.R.§501-505

27.Asummaryoftheseregulationscanbefoundat56Fed.Reg.36729(August1,1991).ThecompleteReportandOrder,CCDocketNo.90-571,maybeobtaineddirectlyfromtheFCCat1919MStreet,NW,Washington,DC20036.

28.ASCIIisanacronymforAmericanStandardCodeforInformationInterchange.

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ChapterThreeTheRehabilitationActof1973Historically,disabledpeoplehavebeenunemployedandunderemployed.In1920Congresspassedthefirstfederallawstohelpdisabledpeoplegetjobtrainingandfindemployment.Buttheselawswereclearlyinadequate;evenqualifieddisabledpeoplecouldnotfindgoodjobsbecauseofwidespreaddiscriminationagainstthembyprivateemployersandbyfederal,state,andlocalgovernments.CongressaddressedtheproblembyenactingtheRehabilitationActof1973,TitleVofwhichhasbeenhailedasa"billofrights"fordisabledpeople.

ThepurposeofTitleVistomakesurethatprogramsreceivingfederalmoneycanbeusedbyalldisabledpeople.ThefourmajorsectionsofTitleVprohibitdiscriminationandrequireaccessibilityinemployment,education,andhealth,welfare,andsocialservices.

Section501appliestofederalgovernmentemploymentpractices.

1Itrequiresofeachexecutivedepartmentandagency,includingtheU.S.PostalService,anaffirmativeactionplanforthehiring,placement,andadvancementofqualifiedhandicappedpeople.(Formoreinformation,seechaptereight,Employment.)

Section502createstheArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoard.2Theboard'sprimaryfunctionsaretoensurecompliancewitha1968federallawprohibitingarchitecturalbarriersinfederallyfundedbuildingsandtoeliminatebarriersfrompublictransportationsystems.(Formoreinformation,seechapternine:ArchitecturalBarriers.)

Section503requiresaffirmativeactioninthehiring,placement,andpromotionofqualifiedhandicappedpeoplebyemployerswhohave

contractsorsubcontractswiththe

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federalgovernmentofmorethan$2,500ayear.

3Contractorswithfiftyormoreemployeesorcontractsformorethan$50,000arealsorequiredtohavewrittenaffirmativeactionplans.(Seechaptereight:Employment.)

Section504prohibitsdiscriminationagainstqualifiedhandicappedpeopleinanyfederallysupportedprogramoractivity.4Recipientsoffederalfinancialassistanceincludemostpublicandsomeprivateinstitutions,fromschoolsandnursinghomestomuseumsandairports.Thischapterwillbedevotedtotheimplementation,regulation,andapplicationofSection504.

Section504

Asamendedin1978,Section504oftheRehabilitationActreads:

NootherwisequalifiedhandicappedindividualintheUnitedStates...shall,solelybyreasonofhishandicap,beexcludedfromparticipationin,bedeniedthebenefitsof,orbesubjectedtodiscriminationunderanyprogramoractivityreceivingfederalfinancialassistanceorunderanyprogramoractivityconductedbyanyExecutiveAgencyorbytheUnitedStatesPostalService.5

Thestatuteisimplementedbydetailedregulationsthateveryfederalagencygivingfinancialassistancemustpromulgate,spellingouttheSection504obligationsofitsrecipients.6In1977theU.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare(HEW)*becamethefirstagencytopublishitsregulationanddetailedanalysis.7ThedepartmentalsoissuedasetofstandardsforotheragenciestouseindevelopingtheirownSection504regulations.

*HEWwasdividedintotwocabinet-leveldepartmentstheDepartmentsofEducation(ED)andofHealthandHumanServices(HHS)effectiveMay4,1980.Hereafter,referencestoHEWwillberestrictedtoactionstaken

beforethatdate.Unlessnotedotherwise,HEWpoliciesremainineffectatEDandHHS.

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PrimaryauthoritytomonitortheregulationsoftheagencieswasgiventotheDepartmentofJusticein1980.

WhoMustObeySection504?

Thefederalgovernmentassistsmanyprogramsandactivitiesaroundthecountry.TheHHSregulationdefines''federalfinancialassistance"as"anygrant,loan,contract(otherthanaprocurementcontractoracontractofinsuranceorguaranty),oranyotherarrangementbywhichtheDepartmentprovidesorotherwisemakesavailableassistanceintheformoffundsorservicesoffederalpersonnelorproperty."

8TheexclusionofprocurementcontractsmeansthatprivatebusinessesthatmanufactureitemspurchasedbythegovernmentdonothavetoobeySection504.However,theyaresubjecttoSection503,whichprohibitsemploymentdiscrimination.Someorganizationshavebothprocurementcontractswithandfinancialassistancefromthefederalgovernment.TheyhavetoobeybothSections503and504ofthelaw.

Becausethedefinitionoffederalfinancialassistanceissobroad,manyprivateaswellaspublicinstitutionsmustobeySection504.Thetypesofinstitutionsusuallyreceivingsomeformoffederalfinancialassistanceinclude

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elementaryandsecondaryschools,collegesanduniversities,hospitals,nursinghomes,vocationalrehabilitationagencies,publicwelfareoffices,stateandlocalgovernments,policeandfiredepartments,correctionandprobationdepartments,libraries,museums,theaterprograms,parks,recreationalfacilities,masstransitsystems,airportsandharbors,subsidizedhousingprograms,legalservicesprograms,andmostpartsofthejudicialsystem.

Section504isapplicablewhetherthefederalassistanceisreceiveddirectlyorindirectly,forexample,throughastateorlocalgovernment.A"recipient"isdefinedasanyinstitutionthatreceivesfederalassistanceorthatindirectlybenefitsfromsuchassistance.

Sometimesitisdifficulttodeterminewhetherandfromwhatagencyaninstitutiongetsfederalfinancialassistance.Iftheinstitutionispublic,citizensusuallycanexamineitsfinancialrecordsandreportstoseeifitreceivesfederalassistance.Manyfederalagencieskeeppubliclistsoftheprogramsandactivitiestheyfund.Iftheagencydoesnothavesuchalist,oriftheparticularinstitutionisnotlisted,arequestcanbefiledundertheFreedomofInformationAct(FOIA)witheachfederalagencythoughttobethefundingsource.

9

TheFOIArequestshouldidentifythepossiblerecipient,statethattheinformationisbeingsoughtundertheFreedomofInformationAct,andaskiftheparticularinstitutionreceivesfederalfinancialassistanceand,ifso,forwhatpurpose.Itisimportanttoidentifytheinstitutionfullyandcorrectlyandtogivethenameandaddressofanyparentorganization(s)towhichitbelongs.Forexample,alocalbranchlibrarymaynotbelistedasadirectrecipientoffederalassistance.Instead,thestate,regional,orcountyassociationmaybetheformalrecipient.Thefederalagencyissupposedtorespondtoan

FOIArequestwithintendays.

AcomplaintagainstaninstitutionforviolationofSection504canbefiledwithafederalagencyevenifitisnotclearwhetherthatinstitutiongetsfinancialassistancefromthatagency.Iftheagencydoesnotfinanciallysup-

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portthatinstitution,theagencywillsimplyrefusetoacceptthecomplaint.

Ifaninstitutionreceivesanyfederalfinancialassistanceforonepartofitsactivities,thenitmustobeySection504inallofitsactivitieswhich"receiveorbenefitfrom"thefinancialassistance,evenifthoseotheractivitiesdonotreceiveanydirectaid.

10Section504wasamendedin1987tomakeitclearthatthelawappliesto"alloftheoperations"ofanagency,department,college,hospital,orotherorganizationthatreceivesanyfederalfinancialassistance.11

Since1978,Section504hasappliedtofederalexecutiveagenciesandtheU.S.PostalServiceaswellastorecipientsoffederalfinancialassistance.Becausetheoriginal1973lawdidnotapplytofederalagencies,thecurrentSection504regulationsareallwrittentoapplyonlytorecipientsofassistancefromtheagencyandnottotheagencyitself.Sincethe1978amendments,however,theagenciesthemselvesmustobeySection504,whetherornottheyhaveadoptedspecificregulationsthatapplytotheirownactivities.

Section504Protections

Section504protectspeoplewithmanydifferentkindsofphysicalandmentaldisabilities.Thedefinitionof"handicapped"adoptedbyHEWisverybroad.Itincludesanypersonwho(1)hasaphysicalormentalimpairmentthatsubstantiallylimitsoneormoremajorlifeactivity,(2)hasarecordofsuchanimpairment,or(3)isregardedashavingsuchanimpairment.12

Majorlifeactivitiesaredefinedas"takingcareofoneself,"walking,hearing,doingmanualtasks,seeing,speaking,breathing,learning,andworking.Section504thereforeprotectsalmostanyonewitha

disablingcondition,whetherduetoacongenitalhandicap,disease,accident,oranyotherreason.

Forexample,Section504protectsdeaf,hardofhearing,andblindpeople;peopleinwheelchairs;peoplewith

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cerebralpalsy,diabetes,epilepsy,cancer,speechdefects,oremotionaldisturbance;recoveringalcoholicsandotherdrugabusers;andmentallyretardedpeople.ApersonwhoisnotactuallydisabledbutwhoisconsideredhandicappedinsomewayisstillprotectedbySection504.Forexample,peoplewhoexperiencedmentalillnessinthepastmayencounteremployersunwillingtohirethembecauseoftheirhistoryofillness.SuchpersonsareprotectedbySection504eventhoughtheyarenotillatthepresenttime.Thelawalsoprotectspeoplewhoweremisdiagnosedormisclassifiedashandicapped.

Section504doesnotguaranteehandicappedpeoplejobsorservicesmerelybecausetheyarehandicapped.TobeprotectedbySection504,ahandicappedpersonmustalsobe"qualified"forthejoborserviceinquestion.TheHEWregulationdefinesa"qualifiedhandicappedperson"as:

· Withrespecttoemployment,ahandicappedpersonwhowithreasonableaccommodation,canperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejobinquestion.

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· Withrespecttopublicpreschool,elementary,secondary,oradulteducation,ahandicappedperson(i)ofanageduringwhichnonhandicappedpersonsareprovidedsuchservices,(ii)ofanyageduringwhichitismandatoryunderstatelawtoprovidesuchservicestohandicappedpersons,or(iii)towhomastateisrequiredtoprovideafreeappropriatepubliceducationunder§612oftheEducationforAllHandicappedChildrenAct;and

· Withrespecttopostsecondaryandvocationaleducationservices,ahandicappedpersonwhomeetstheacademicandtechnicalstandardsrequisitetoadmissionorparticipationintherecipient'seducationprogramoractivity;and

·Withrespecttootherservices,ahandicappedpersonwhomeetstheessentialeligibilityrequirementsforthereceiptofsuchservices.

13

AhandicappedpersonmustfallundertheapplicabledefinitioninordertobeprotectedbythenondiscriminationprovisionsofSection504.

GeneralNondiscriminationProvisions

TheHEWSection504regulationlistsgeneralcategoriesofdiscriminatorybehavioragainsthandicappedpeoplethatareprohibited.ItalsoestablishesbroadpolicyguidelinestodeterminewhetheraparticulardiscriminatoryactisprohibitedbySection504.

EqualOpportunity

Themostsignificantprincipleisthatnorecipientorfederalagencymaydeny,onthebasisofhandicap,aqualifiedpersonanopportunity

toparticipateinorbenefitfromitsprogramsorservices.14Afederallyfundedprogramcannotrefusetoserveahandicappedpersonmerelybecauseofthathandicap.Adeafpersoncannotbedeniedadmissiontoamentalhealthcounselingprogrammerelybecauseheorsheisdeaf.Ifacounselingprogramisavailableonlytopeoplewholiveinacertaincounty,

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however,andthedeafpersondoesnotliveinthatcounty,heorshecanbedeniedadmissiontotheprogramforthatparticularreason.

Ahandicappedpersonmustbegivenanopportunitytoparticipateinorbenefitfromaprograminamannerthatisequaltoandaseffectiveastheopportunityprovidedtononhandicappedpeople.

15Tobeequallyeffective,aprogramdoesnothavetoproducetheidenticalresultorlevelofachievementforhandicappedandnonhandicappedparticipants;therequirementisonlythathandicappedpeoplebeprovidedanequalopportunitytoobtainthesameresult,togainthesamebenefit,ortoreachthesamelevelofachievementasnonhandicappedpeople.16Forexample,theadministratorofanadulteducationprogrammighttelladeafpersonsimplytoreadthewrittenmaterialsforaclass,withoutattendinglecturesanddiscussions.Thiswouldbeunfair.Becausethelecturesanddiscussionshelptoexplainandamplifythewrittenmaterial,thedeafpersonwouldnothaveanequalopportunitytobenefitfromtheclass.

DifferentorSpecialTreatment

Sometimeshandicappedpeoplewillneeddifferentorspecialtreatmentinordertogivethemgenuineequalopportunity.Intheareaofraceorsexdiscrimination,equalopportunityusuallymeanstreatingpeopleinexactlythesameway.Butahandicappedpersonmayneedsomespecialassistanceoraccommodationinordertogetbenefitsorservicesequivalenttothoseofanonhandicappedperson.Failuretoprovidethatspecialassistanceoraccommodationwouldconstitutediscrimination.AsexplainedintheanalysisaccompanyingtheHEWSection504regulation,

Differentorspecialtreatmentofhandicappedpersonsbecauseoftheir

handicaps,maybenecessaryinanumberofcontextsinordertoassureequalopportunity.Thus,forexample,itismeaninglessto"admit"ahandicappedpersoninawheelchairtoaprogramif

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theprogramisofferedonlyonthethirdfloorofawalk-upbuilding.Norisoneprovidingequaleducationalopportunitytoadeafchildbyadmittinghimorhertoaclassroombutprovidingnomeansforthechildtounderstandtheteacherorreceiveinstruction.

17

Atthesametime,Section504alsoprohibitsunnecessaryspecialordifferenttreatmentifitwouldtendtostigmatizehandicappedpeopleorsetthemapartfromnonhandicappedpeople.Differentorseparateaids,benefits,orservicestohandicappedpeopleareprohibitedunlesstheseparationisnecessarytoprovidethemwithservicesthatareaseffectiveasthoseprovidedtoothers.18Alegalservicesorganization,forexample,maydesignateaspecialofficetoservehandicappedclients,iftheofficeisphysicallyaccessibleandhaslawyerstrainedinhandicaplaw.Butitwouldbeunfairtorequireallhandicappedclients,regardlessoftheirlegalproblemsorhandicaps,touseonlythatspecialoffice.

CommunicationBarriers

ThegeneralnondiscriminationprovisionsintheSection504regulationapplytothecommunicationbarriersfacedbydeafpeopleaswellastophysicalbarrierstopeopleinwheelchairs.Adeafwomanmaybeabletowalkupaflightofstairstoajobcounselingcenterwithoutdifficulty.Butifshecannotunderstandtheintakeworker'sexplanationsaboutfillingouttheforms,shewillnotbeabletodoitcorrectly.Shewillnotknowwhatservicesareavailableorhowtogetthem.Adeafmanmaybeabletowalkintoahospitalormentalhealthcenter;butifhecannotcommunicatewiththedoctororcounselor,hedoesnothavemeaningful,equivalentaccesstotheprogramanditsfacilities.

Theanalysisoftheregulationgivesanexampleofawelfareoffice

thathasatelephone.19Clientscancalltheofficeforinformationortoreachcaseworkers.Staffcancallclientstoscheduleappointments.Butthisofficemust

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alsoprovideanalternativemeanstocommunicatewithitsdeafclients.ThebestexampleofsuchanalternativewouldbeaTDD-equippedtelephone.

CommunicationproblemsarespecificallyaddressedintheSection504regulationoftheU.S.DepartmentofJustice,whichrequiresrecipientstoensurethatcommunicationsareeffectivelyconveyedtopersonswithimpairedvisionorhearing.

20Theregulationrequiresrecipientstoprovideappropriateauxiliaryaids,includingqualifiedsignlanguageinterpretersandtelephoneequipment,todeafpersonsinordertogiveequalaccesstoprogramsandservices.21

WhentheJusticeDepartmentimplementedtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,itclarifiedSection504bydefiningauxiliaryaidsandservicestoalsoincludeamplifiers,assistivelisteningdevicesandsystems,hearingaid-compatibletelephones,televisiondecoders,captioning,TDDs,videotextdisplays,orothereffectivemethodsofmakingaurallydeliveredmaterialsavailabletoindividualswithhearingimpairments.TheJusticeDepartmentalsodefinedaqualified

interpreterasonewhoisabletointerpreteffectively,accurately,andimpartiallyboth

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receptivelyandexpressively,usinganynecessaryspecializedvocabulary.

22

ProgramAccessibility

Theregulationrequiresthatprogramsbeoperatedsothathandicappedpeoplecanusethemeasilyandhaveequalopportunitytobenefitfromthem.23Thisiscalled"programaccessibility."Forpeopleinwheelchairs,thismeansremovingarchitecturalandphysicalbarriers.Fordeafpeople,itmeansremovingcommunicationbarriers.Deafpeopledonothaveequalaccessto-theycannotfullyutilize-programsandfacilitiesinwhichtheycannotcommunicateeffectivelywiththepeopleoperatingthem.Programsandfacilitiesmustbe"usable"byhandicappedpeople.ThisrequirementoftheRehabilitationActsuggestsmuchmorethanphysicalaccessibilitytoasiteorbuilding.Ineffect,theactrequiresthathandicappedpeoplehavefunctionallyequivalentservicesandprograms.Asapolicyconcept,''programaccessibility"shouldbeinvokedaggressivelytohelpdeafpeopleovercometheirisolationandexclusionfrommanyprogramsandservices.

Thegovernmentregulationlistsmethodstomakeprogramsaccessible.24Whilethelistdoesnotprovidemuchguidanceformakingspecificprogramsaccessibletodeafpeople,thephrase"re-designofequipment"encompassesmodificationstotelephonesandauditoryalarmsystems;captionsforfilmsandvideotapes;andstage,podium,andaudiovisualsystemdesignsthatincludefacilitiesandlightingforinterpreters.Thephrase"assignmentofaides"canbeinterpretedtomeantheprovisionofappropriateinterpreters,notetakers,orotheraidesneededbydeafpeople.Becausethelistofmethodsintheregulationisnotinclusive,deafandhandicapped

peopleshouldfeelfreetorequestanyothermethodthatmakesprogramsandactivitiesaccessible.

AccessibleMeetings

AnexampleofprogramaccessibilityisanewHHSregulationforaccessiblemeetings.25Thisregulationestablishes

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notonlyphysicalaccessibilitystandardsformeetings,seminars,conferences,andothereventssponsoredbyHHSbutalsonecessaryservicerequirementstoensurethatsensory-impairedpeoplecanparticipatefully.Theregulationspecificallylistsnotetakers,trainedinterpreters(withadequatelightingtoenablethemtobeseen),andvolume-controlledandTDD-equippedtelephones.

Interpretersshouldbeavailableforanymeeting,class,orothergroupactivityheldbyanagencythatreceivesfederalfinancialassistance.Section504requiresinterpretersforculturalevents,citygovernmentmeetings,adulteducationclasses,parkprograms,oranyothereventthatdeafpeoplemaywishtoattend.Publicityformeetingsshouldannouncetheavailabilityofspecialservicesandinterpretersandshoulddescribetheproceduresforrequestingthem.

TheneedsofdeafpeoplearespecificallyaddressedbyoneHHSregulationthatrequiresfundingrecipientstoensurethatpeoplewithimpairedvisionorhearingcanobtaininformationaboutthevariousservicesthatareaccessibletothem.

26Forexample,incomingtelephonelinesforinquiriesmustbeTDD-equippedandbeindentifiedassuchintherecipient'sdirectorylisting,letterhead,andanywhereelsethattherecipient'stelephonenumberisgiven.Televisedpublicserviceannouncementsshouldbesignedorcaptioned.Ifprogramsorservicesareannouncedbyradio,arecipientmightensurethathearing-impairedpeoplereceivethesameinformationbydirectmailorbyannouncementsinsertedinlocalnewslettersornewspapersdistributedbyclubsorassociationsofhearing-impairedpeople.

EnforcementofSection504

Ahandicappedpersonwhobelievesthatarecipientoffederal

financialassistancehasdiscriminatedagainsthimorheronthebasisofthehandicaphasseveralalternativeproceduresforseekingredress.

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AdministrativeEnforcement

ThereisnocentralenforcementmechanismforSection504.AlthoughtheDepartmentofJusticehasoverallsupervision,everyagencythatprovidesfederalfinancialassistanceisrequiredtoadoptitsownenforcementproceduresaswellasitsownsubstantiveregulation.EachagencymustmakeitsrecipientssignassurancesofcompliancewithSection504andusethesameenforcementproceduresasthoseestablishedtoenforceTitleVIoftheCivilRightsActof1964.

27Withinthisframework,theproceduresusedbythevariousagenciescandiffersubstantially.However,mostoftheagencieshaveadoptedproceduresthataremodeledonthosedevelopedbyHEWandnowusedbytheDepartmentsofEducationandofHealthandHumanServices.

Self-Evaluation

Allrecipientsmustconductaself-evaluationoftheirSection504compliance,assistedbyinterestedpeopleincludinghandicappedpeopleororganizationsrepresentingthem.28RecipientsofHEWfundingweregivenuntilJune3,1978,tocompletetheirself-evaluations,modifyanypoliciesorpracticesthatwerenotincompliancewithSection504,andtakeappropriateremedialstepstoeliminatetheeffectsofanydiscriminationthatresultedfrompastpoliciesandpractices.29Ifarecipienthasnotyetconductedaself-evaluationormadeappropriatemodifications,apersonbringingacomplaintagainstitcanusethismechanismtofocusattentionondiscriminatorypractices.Ifarecipientrefusestoconductaself-evaluation,anyinterestedpersoncanfileacomplaintaskingtheappropriatefederalagencytocompelcompliance.

InternalGrievanceProcedure

TheDepartmentsofEducationandofHealthandHumanServicesrequirerecipientswithfifteenormoreemployeestoadoptgrievanceproceduresforcomplaintsalleging

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discriminationunderSection504.SuchrecipientsmustalsodesignateatleastonepersontocoordinateSection504compliance.Thegrievanceproceduremustincorporateappropriatedueprocessstandardsandprovidefor"promptandequitable"resolutionofcomplaints.

30Complaintproceduresneednotbeestablishedforapplicantsseekingemploymentoradmissiontopostsecondaryinstitutions.

Agrievanceprocedurecanbeauseful,inexpensivemechanismtoresolvesimplecomplaints,especiallythosestemmingfromignoranceormisunderstandingsabouthandicapsandSection504obligations.Correspondence,memoranda,andotherdocumentsgeneratedingrievanceproceedingscanbeusedlaterasevidenceoftherecipient'sdiscriminatoryattitudesorpolicies.Becausethegrievanceprocedureissetupandoperatedbytherecipientitself,though,itwillusuallybeineffectivetoresolvemajororcontestedcomplaints.

ComplainttotheFederalAgency

Ahandicappedperson,orotherinterestedpersonwhobelievesthatarecipientoffederalfinancialassistancehasviolatedSection504,canfileacomplaintwiththefederalagencythatprovidedthefinancialassistance.ComplaintsagainstrecipientsoffundingfromagenciesoftheDepartmentsofEducationorofHealthandHumanServicesshouldbefiledwiththatagency'sregionalOfficeforCivilRights.Theappropriateregionalofficeisthatregioninwhichtherecipientislocated.

FilingComplaints

Complaintsmustbefiledwithin180daysoftheallegeddiscriminatoryact.Forexample,ifadeafpersonwenttoahospitalonFebruary1st,anddidnotgetaninterpreter,thepersonmustsenda

complainttoHHSbyAugust1st.Ifheorshewaitslongerthanthat,thedepartmentwillnotberequiredtodoanythingaboutthecomplaint.However,thetimeforfilingcanbeextendedatthediscretionofthedepartment.Manydiscriminatoryactsarecontinuous;

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theyrepresentageneralpolicyorcourseofconduct.Whenthisisthecase,the180-daylimitisnotaproblem.Ifthereisanydoubtwhetherthetimeperiodhaselapsed,thecomplainantshouldtrytousetheprogramorserviceagainre-applyforbenefitsoremployment,orrenewtherequestforauxiliaryaidssotherewillbenoquestionthatthediscriminatoryacttookplacewithinthetimelimits.

Thecomplaintcanbeasimpleletterthatmerelynotifiesthefederalagencyofanallegeddiscriminatoryact.However,itwillhavemoreimpactifitsetsoutalloftheimportantfactsofthediscriminationandfullyidentifiesthepartsoftheSection504regulationthathavebeenviolated.

Thecomplaintshouldincludethefollowinginformation:

1.Thename,address,andtelephonenumberofthepersonlodgingthecomplaint("complainant"),andanyspecialinstructionsfortelephoningadeafcomplainant;

2.Thename,address,andtelephonenumberofcomplainant'sattorneyorotherrepresentative,ifany;

3.Astatementthatthecomplainantisa"qualifiedhandicappedperson"underSection504;

4.Thename,address,andtelephonenumberoftheprogramorfacilitythatdiscriminatedandastatementthatthisprogramreceivesfinancialassistancefromthefederalagency;

5.Acompletedescriptionofthediscriminatoryacts,inchronologicalorder;(Thecomplaintshouldbeasspecificaspossibleaboutthedates,places,names,andtitlesofthepeopleinvolved.Thecomplainantshouldalsoexplainwhytheconductwasdiscriminatoryandhowthecomplainantwasqualifiedforthejob,benefit,service,orprogram.)

6.Adescriptionofanyattemptstocomplainaboutthediscriminationandtheorganization'sresponse;

7.Anyotherinformationordocumentsthathelpexplainthediscriminationanddescribewhathappened;

8.Alistofwitnesses,includingnames,addresses,titles,andtelephonenumbers;and

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9.Ifpossible,ananalysisofthepartsoftheSection504regulationthathavebeenviolated.

Anyrelevantdocumentsshouldbephotocopiedandattachedtothecomplaint.Donotsendoriginaldocuments.Anyattacheddocumentsshouldbenumberedandclearlyidentifiedbynumberinthetextofthecomplaint.

AgencyInvestigation

ThefederalagencywilltheninvestigatetodeterminewhethertherehasbeenaviolationofSection504.Agencyinvestigatorsshouldinterviewthecomplainant,representativesoftheprogram,andotherrelevantwitnesses.Thecomplainantisnotaformal"party"totheinvestigation.Thecomplainantshouldtrytobeactivelyinvolvedintheinvestigation,however,tomakesurethatthefederalinvestigatorhascontactedimportantwitnessesandisfamiliarwiththeissuesraisedbythecomplaint.ThisisparticularlyimportantinSection504complaintsinvolvingdeafness.Becausefewinvestigatorsareknowledgeableaboutdeafnessandthetypesofauxiliaryaidsorreasonableaccommodationsthatmaybenecessarytoovercomecommunicationbarriers,theinvestigatormayneedtomeetwithexpertsorotherpeoplewhocanproviderelevantinformation.

IfthefederalagencyfindsthatarecipienthasviolatedSection504,itwillnotifythecomplainantandtherecipientinwriting.Itwillthentrytonegotiatewiththerecipienttoprovidetheappropriaterelief.Theagencycanrequiretherecipienttotakenecessaryremedialactiontoovercomeeffectsofthediscrimination.

31Remedialactioncanincludereinstatementofemployees.Theagencycanalsorequirearemedialactionplanthatshowswhatstepstherecipientwilltakewithinaspecifictimeperiodtocomeintocompliance.Theplanrequirestherecipienttodocumentitsefforts.If

therecipientfailstotaketherequiredcorrectivesteps,orifnegotiationsdonotresultinasatisfactoryresolution,thefederalagencywillthen

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instituteenforcementproceedingstoterminatefederalfinancialassistancetotherecipient.

JudicialEnforcement

ApersonhastherighttobypassSection504agencycomplaintproceduresbybringingalawsuitinfederalcourt.Investigationsbyfederalagenciescantakealongtime;bythetimetheyarefinished,itmaybetoolatetohelpthehandicappedperson.Alawsuitinfederalcourtcanoftenprovideaquickerandmoreeffectiveremedy;and,ifthepersonwins,attorney'sfeesandothercourtcostscanbeawarded.Adeafwomanwhowasabouttohaveababyfoundoutthatherhospitalwouldnotallowaninterpreterinthedeliveryroom.ShecouldnotwaitforHEWtoinvestigatehercomplaint,soshefiledalawsuitinfederalcourtandgotimmediatehelp.Federalinjunctionshavealsobeenupheldincasesinvolvingcollegestudentsneedingclassroominterpretersonshortnotice.

EachofthesemethodstoenforceSection504shouldbereviewedcarefullytodeterminewhichwillbemosteffectiveinaparticularcase.

Notes

1.29UnitedStatesCode§791

2.29U.S.C.§792

3.29U.S.C.§793

4.29U.S.C.§794

5.Id.

6.ExecutiveOrderNo.11,914(1976),printedin41FederalRegister17,871,April28,1976.

7.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84

8.45C.F.R.§84.3(h)

9.5U.S.C.§552

10.45C.F.R.§84.2

11.CivilRightsRestorationActof1987,P.L.100-259,29U.S.C.794(b)

12.45C.F.R.§84.3(j)

13.45C.F.R.§84.3(k)

14.45C.F.R.§84.4(b)(1)(i)

15.45C.F.R.§84.4(b)(1)(iiandiii)

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16.45C.F.R.§84.4(b)(2)

17.42Fed.Reg.22,676(1977)

18.45C.F.R.§84.4(b)(3)

19.42Fed.Reg.22,687(1977)

20.28C.F.R.§42.503(e)

21.28C.F.R.§42.503(f)

22.28C.FR.§35.104

23.45C.F.R.§84.22(a)

24.45C.F.R.§84.22(b)

25.45Fed.Reg.25,394(1980)

26.45C.FR.§84.22(f)

27.28C.F.R.§41.5

28.28C.F.R.§41.5(b)(2)

29.45C.F.R.§84.6(c)

30.45C.F.R.§84.7

31.45C.F.R.§84.6(a)(1)

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ChapterFourPublicSchoolEducationInthesedays,itisdoubtfulthatanychildmayreasonablybeexpectedtosucceedinlifeifheisdeniedtheopportunityofaneducation.Suchanopportunity,wherethestatehasundertakentoprovideit,isarightwhichmustbemadeavailabletoallonequalterms.Brownv.BoardofEducation

1

TheBrowncasewasdecidedin1954,butmanyhandicappedchildrenarestilldeniedtheirrighttoequaleducationalopportunity.In1975Congressfoundthatmorethanhalfofthisnation'seightmillionhandicappedchildrenwerenotreceivingappropriateeducationalservices,andonemillionwereexcludedfromthepublicschoolsystementirely.2Congresshasenactedseverallaws,discussedinthischapter,thatguaranteehandicappedchildrentherighttoqualifiedteachers,accessibleclassrooms,andappropriatematerialsandprograms.

Section504oftheRehabilitationActof1973applies,amongotherthings,toschoolsystemsandeducationalagenciesthatreceivefederalfinancialassistance.Likeallotherinstitutionsthatreceivefederalmoney,schoolsareprohibitedfromdiscriminatingagainsthandicappedpeople.Theirprogramsmustbeaccessibletoandusablebyhandicappedpeople.IntheDepartmentofEducation'sSection504regulation,publicelementaryandsecondary

Partsofthischapterandchaptersfive,six,eight,andtenareadaptedfromS.DuBowandS.Geer,"CommunicationsBarriers."InP.Hearne,ed.,LegalAdvocacyfortheHandicapped:ALegalServicesPracticalManual

(Washington,D.C.:LegalServicesCorp.,1981),chapter3.Usedbypermissionofthepublisher.

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schoolsarerequiredtoprovidea''free,appropriatepubliceducation"toqualifiedhandicappedchildren,regardlessofthenatureoftheirhandicap.

3

Thismeansthat,ifthelocalschoolsystemdoesnothaveappropriateteachersorprogramstoeducateachild,itmustsendthechildtoanotherschoolthatdoes,payingthechild'stuitioniftheschoolisprivate.Theschoolsystemcannotmakethechild'sparentspayforanyofthespecialservicesthechildneeds.Iftheschoolsystemrefusestoprovideanappropriateeducationtoahandicappedchild,EDcancutofffederalfunds.

PublicLaw94-142

Congresspassedanotherlawin1975thatismorespecificabouttheeducationofhandicappedchildren.ThislawisPublicLaw94-142,theEducationforAllHandicappedChildrenAct;in1990,thisactwasrenamedtheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct.4ItissimilartoSection504inthatitrequirespublicschoolsystemstogivehandicappedchildrenafree,appropriatepubliceducation.ButthislawismorecomprehensivethantheeducationprovisionsofSection504.Itprovidesthestateswithmoneyforspecialeducationandimposesclearproceduralandsubstantiverequirementsonhowthatspecialeducationshouldbeprovided.RegulationsimplementingPL94-142wereadoptedin1977.

Thelawanditsregulationsareintendedtofulfillfourmajorpurposes:

1.toensurethatallhandicappedchildrenhaveavailabletothemafree,appropriatepubliceducationwhichemphasizesspecialeducationandrelatedservicesdesignedtomeettheiruniqueneeds;

2.toensurethattherightsofhandicappedchildrenandtheirparentsorguardiansareprotected;

3.tohelpstatesandlocalitiespayfortheeducationofallhandicappedchildren;

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4.toensureandassesstheeffectivenessoftheeducationalprograms.

5

TherestofthischapterwilldiscussthespecificrequirementsofPL94-142astheyrelatetotheeducationofdeafchildrenandtosomeoftheparallelrequirementsofSection504.Inadditiontothesetwofederallaws,moststateshaveadoptedtheirownlawsorregulationstogoalongwiththePL94-142requirements.TheyusuallygivehandicappedchildrensimilareducationalrightsunderstatelawandestablishproceduresforgettingspecialeducationservicesthatmeetthestandardsofPL94-142.

ThehandicappedchildrenprotectedbyPL94-142aredefinedinveryspecificterms.Thelawcoverschildrenwhoneedspecialeducationandrelatedservicesbecauseoftheirhandicaps.Thelistincludeschildrenwhoarementallyretarded,hardofhearing,deaf,speech-impaired,visuallyhandicapped,seriouslyemotionallydisturbed,orthopedicallyimpaired,deaf-blind,multihandicapped,orwhohaveotherhealthimpairmentsandspecificlearningdisabilities.'

UnderPL94-142

·Deaf"meansahearingimpairmentthatissoseverethatthechildisimpairedinprocessinglinguisticinformationthroughhearing,withorwithoutamplification,whichadverselyaffectseducationalperformance.

·Deaf-blind"meansconcomitanthearingandvisualimpairments,thecombinationofwhichcausessuchseverecommunicationandotherdevelopmentalandeducationalproblemsthattheycannotbeaccommodatedinspecialeducationprogramssolelyfordeaforblindchildren.

·Hardofhearing"meansahearingimpairment,permanentorfluctuating,whichadverselyaffectsachild'seducationalperformancebutwhichis

notincludedunderthedefinitionof"deaf''inthissection.6

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AppropriateEducation

Theheartofthelawistheguaranteedrightofeverychildtoafree,appropriateeducation.UnderPL94-142andSection504,everyhandicappedchildhasarightto(1)speciallydesignedinstructiontomeethisorheruniqueneedsand(2)relatedservicesthatmaybenecessarytohelpthechildbenefitfromthespecialprogram.Moreover,thiseducationmusttakeplaceintheleastrestrictiveenvironment.PublicLaw94-142requiresstatestoensurethat,tothemaximumextentpossible,handicappedchildrenareeducatedwithchildrenwhoarenothandicapped.Specialclassesandseparateschoolplacementsareappropriateonlywhenthehandicapisofsuchanatureorseveritythatplacementinregularclasseswiththeuseofsupplementaryaidsandserviceswillnotmeettheeducationalneedsofthatchildsatisfactorily.Thephysicalintegrationofhandicappedandnonhandicappedchildreninschoolclassroomsiscalled"mainstreaming."*

Mainstreamingcanreducethestigmaandisolationformanyhandicappedchildren,butitisnotalwaysappropriatefordeafchildren.Withoutsubstantialsupportsystemsandservices,theassignmentintoaclassroomofhearingchildrenconstitutesamoresociallyandeducationallyrestrictiveenvironmentthanasettinginwhichthestudentsandteachershaveasharedlanguage.Theindividualchild'sspecificneedsmustgovernanydecisionabouthisorherprogram.

TheIndividualizedEducationProgram

UnderPL94-142aschoolsystemmustdeviseanappropriateIndividualizedEducationProgram(IEP)foreachhandicappedchild.TheIEPisawrittenreportthatidentifiesandassessesthechild'sdisability,establisheslong-andshort-termlearninggoals,andstates

whichservices

*SeeAppendixAforareferencelistofpublicationsondeafnessandPL94-142,includingaspecialsectiononpublicationsthatdealwithmainstreaming.

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theschoolmustprovidetohelpthechildachievethem.SpecialeducationandrelatedservicesarethenprovidedinaccordancewiththetermsoftheIEP.

AschoolviolatesPL94-142ifitdrawsupanIEPandmerelypresentsittoparentsfortheirconsent.Parentsworkwithschoolofficialstodevelopit.Themeetingswherethisworkisdonecanalsoincludethechild'scurrentteacher,arepresentativeoftheschoolsystemwhoisqualifiedtoprovideorsupervisethespecialservices,thechild(whereappropriate)andotherpeopleatthediscretionoftheparentsortheschool.

7Parentsmayaskprofessionalandlegalexpertstoattendthemeeting.Iftheparentsaredeaf,thelawspecificallyrequiresthattheschoolsystemprovideaninterpretersotheycanparticipatefullyinthemeeting.BeforetheIEPmeeting,theparentsshouldexercisetheirrighttoreview,withoutcosttothem,theirchild'sschoolrecordstomakesurethattheinformationisaccurateandcomplete.

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PublicLaw94-142saysthatparentsmustbeinvolvedintheidentification,evaluation,andplacementdecisionsinvolvinghandicappedchildrenandthatnochildcanbeplacedinaspecialeducationprogramwithoutparentalconsent.Thelawrequiresthatparentsbefullyinformedaboutplacementandeducationaldecisionsaffectingachildandconsenttotheinitialprogramsandlaterchangesinplacement.

8

TheIEPmustinclude:

1.Astatementofthechild'spresentlevelsofeducationalperformance.

2.Astatementofannualgoals,includingshort-terminstructionalobjectives.

3.Astatementofthespecificspecialeducationandrelatedservicestobeprovidedtothechild,andtheextenttowhichthechildwillbeabletoparticipateinregulareducationalprograms.

4.Theprojecteddatesforinitiationofservicesandanticipateddurationoftheservices.

5.Appropriateobjectivecriteriaandevaluationproceduresandschedulesfordetermining,onatleastanannualbasis,whethertheshort-terminstructionalobjectivesarebeingachieved.9

ThegoalsandobjectivesthatarewrittenintotheIEParenotlimitedtoacademicperformance.Thegoalsshouldrelatetosocial,psychomotor,communication,andemotionalneedsaswellastoconventionalacademiccurriculumgoals.

TheIEPisthecriticalmechanismwherebyparentsmaymakecertain

thattheirchildreceivesanappropriateeducation.TheschoolislegallyrequiredtoprovidetheservicesthatarewrittenintotheIEP.Parentsshouldbecertainthatitincludeseveryspecialservicethatthechildneeds.TheyshouldnotsignanIEPthatdoesnotspecifyingreatdetailtheservicestheybelievethechildneedsinordertobenefitfromaspecialeducation.Parentswhodisagreewiththeproposedserviceplan,haveanycomplaints,orareunconvincedthattheschoolhastheneces-

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saryresourcesshouldnotsigntheIEP.Theyinsteadshouldinitiatedueprocessprocedures(discussedlater).

Parentsshouldaskforandkeepacopyoftheirchild'sIEPsotheycanrememberwhatwasagreeduponandholdtheschooltoitspromises.Iftheylaterhavetogotocourttoobtaintheservices,theIEPwillbetheprimaryitemofevidence.

TheIEPmustbewordedtoensurethedeafchild'saccesstocommunicationintheclassroom.Somehearing-impairedchildrenbenefitfromhavingsupplementaryhearingdevicesthatrangefromconventionalhearingaidstospecializedauditorytrainingdevicesandamplificationequipment.Besidesthese,achildmayneedspecialservicestoincreaseuseofresidualhearing.TheseservicesshouldbespecifiedintheIEPandprovidedaspartofthechild'sprogram.

Forexample,controlofbackgroundnoisemaybeessentialifachildistoreceivethefullbenefitofahearingaid.Ifso,thisneedshouldbeidentifiedsotheschoolcantakeappropriatestepstoimproveacoustics.Improvedlightingmaybenecessarytoensurethatinformationpresentedvisuallyisclearandunderstandable.Speechtherapy,auditorytraining,andmediasupportservices(suchascaptionedTVandfilms)areotherrelatedservicesthata

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deafchildmightneed;ifso,theseservicesshouldbewrittenintotheIEP.

PublicLaw94-142specificallymentionstheserelatedservices:transportation,speechpathology,audiology,psychologicalservices,physicalandoccupationaltherapy,recreation,counselingservices,andmedicalservicesfordiagnosticorevaluationpurposes.

SupremeCourtDecisions

InJune1982theU.S.SupremeCourtdecideditsfirstcaseinvolvingPL94-142.ThecasewasHendrickHudsonSchoolDistrictv.Rowley.

10LowercourtshadruledthatAmyRowley,amainstreamedelementaryschoolstudent,requiredasignlanguageinterpretertomakeclassroominstructionfullyaccessible.TheSupremeCourtaffirmedtherightofallhandicappedchildrentoreceivepersonalizedinstructionandthesupportservicestheyneedtobenefitfromtheireducationalprogram.InRowley'sparticularcase,however,theCourtfoundthatshedidnotneedaninterpreterbecauseshewasdoingwellinschoolwithoutone.Shewasreceivingsufficientothersupportservices,saidtheCourt,toenablehertobenefitfromhereducation(e.g.,aphonicearlisteningdeviceandapersonaltutor).

Thisdoesnotmeanthatotherdeafchildrenwillbeunabletogetinterpreterservicesortotalcommunicationprograms.Itmerelymeanstheymustshowthattheycannotbenefitfromtheireducationwithoutsuchaservice.Amy'slipreadingskills,residualhearing,andhighintelligencemadeheraspecialcase.

AmajorityoftheCourtfoundthatCongressdidnotintendtogivehandicappedchildrenarightto"strictequalityofopportunityorservices"becausethatwouldrequireimpossiblemeasurementsandcomparisons.ButPL94-142doesrequireaccesstoafree,appropriate

publiceducationforhandicappedchildrenthatis"meaningful."TheCourtheldthatastate''...satisfiesthisrequirementbyprovidingpersonalizedinstructionwithsufficient

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supportiveservicestopermitthechildtobenefiteducationallyfromthatinstruction."

TheCourtupheldthemajorpurposesofPL94-142asoutlinedonpages68-69.TheIEPandthedueprocesshearingforparentswerenotchanged.Theyremainattheheartofthelawandcontinuetogiveparentstheopportunitytoprovethattheirchildneedsaparticularserviceorprogram.

AnotherSupremeCourtdecisionin1984supportedachild'srighttorelatedservicesnecessaryforher"meaningfulaccess"toeducation.InIrvingIndependentSchoolDistrictv.Tatro,104S.Ct.3371(1984),theCourtheldthataschooldistrictmustprovideachildwhohasspinabifidawithcatheterizationsothatshecanremainatschoolduringtheday.

In1985,theCourtheldthatpublicschoolsmustreimburseparentsforthecostsofaprivateschooltuitionwhenacourtfinallydecidesthattheirchildshouldhavebeenplacedinthatprivateschool.TownofBurlingtonv.MassachusettsDepartmentofEducation,105S.Ct.1996(1985).TheseunanimousSupremeCourtdecisionswillalsohelphearing-impairedchildrenandtheirparents.TheyshowtheCourt'sintentiontoupholdtheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationActandtorequirenecessaryservicesforhandicappedstudents.

WritingtheIEP

Inthecaseofdeafchildren,thestatutorymandateofafreeandappropriatepubliceducationposesunusualandcontroversialproblemsthataffectthewritingoftheIEP.Anemotionalandsometimesbitterhistoricaldebateexistsconcerningthebestmethodsforteachingdeafchildren.Manyprofessionalsarefirmproponentsofonemethodoranother,whichcomplicatesthetaskofaparentorattorneyseekingexpertguidanceinformulatingachild'sIEP.

Inadditiontothefourprimarymethodsofinstruction(seebox),"totalcommunication"hasreceivedwideatten-

MethodsofInstruction

FourprimarymethodsofinstructioncurrentlyusedintheUnitedStatesaredescribedbyD.F.Moores:

1.Oralmethod.Inthissystem,alsocalledtheoral-auralmethod,childrenreceiveinputthroughspeechreading(lipreading)andamplificationofsound,andtheyexpressthemselvesthroughspeech.Gesturesandsignsareprohibited.

2.Auditorymethod.Thisapproach,asopposedtotheoral,isbasicallyunsensory.Itconcentratesondevelopinglisteningskillsinchildren,whoareexpectedtorelyprimarilyonhearing.Earlyreadingandwritingarediscouraged,asisadependenceonspeechreadingorsigns.Althoughthismethodwasdevelopedforchildrenwithmoderatehearinglosses,someattemptshavebeenmadetouseitwithprofoundlyimpairedchildren.

3.Rochestermethod.Thisisacombinationoftheoralmethodplusfingerspelling.Childrenreceiveinformationthroughspeechreading,amplification,andfingerspelling,andtheyexpressthemselvesthroughspeechandfingerspelling.Readingandwritingusuallyreceivegreatemphasis.Theproficientteacherspellseveryletterofeverywordincoordinationwithspeechandcanpresentattherateofapproximatelyonehundredwordsperminute.Thesystemofneo-oralismdevelopedintheSovietUnionalsoutilizesspeechandfingerspelling.

4.Simultaneousmethod.Thisisacombinationoftheoralmethodplussignsandfingerspelling.Thechildrenreceiveinputthroughspeechreading,amplification,signs,andfingerspelling.Theyexpressthemselvesinspeech,signs,andfingerspelling.SignsaredifferentiatedfromfingerspellinginthattheymayrepresentcompleteideasorwordsratherthanstandingforindividuallettersoftheEnglishalphabet.

11

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tioninrecentyears.PerhapsthebestdefinitionofthetermcomesfromtheConferenceofExecutivesofAmericanSchoolsfortheDeaf:"Totalcommunicationisaphilosophyincorporatingappropriateaural,manual,andoralmodesofcommunicationinordertoensureeffectivecommunicationwithandamonghearing-impairedpersons."

12

AppropriateLanguageMedium

Anyconsiderationofeducationalmethodsusingmanualcomponentsiscomplicatedbytheexistenceofsignlanguagedialectsandbythenumberofdifferentpossiblesystemsforusingmanuallanguagewithchildreninalearningsetting."Signlanguage"isacontinuumoflanguagesystemsthatcanbedifferentiatedbythetypesofvisualcomponents(signs,fingerspelling,bodymovement,andfacialexpression)usedandbythedegreetowhichaparticularsystemparallelsformalEnglishsyntaxandvocabulary.

AmericanSignLanguage(ASL)islinguisticallyindependentofEnglish.However,anumberofothersystemsusedinschoolsarecloselyrelatedtoEnglish.Theyhavebeendevisedto"makeEnglishvisible"byprovidingword-by-wordtranslationofEnglishthroughuseofsignsandfingerspelling,withadditionalsignstorepresentwordendingsandothergrammaticalforms.Cuedspeechisanothermethodthathasbeenintroducedinsomeschoolsystemsinrecentyears.Themethodisnotalanguagebutasystemofspecifichandshapesplacedatspecificlocationsaroundthehead;thecombinationofhandshapesandlocationsrepresentthephonemesofEnglish.Thechildlipreadswhilesimultaneouslyreadingthemanualcues.

Indeterminingthepropereducationalprogramforahearing-impaired

childandinwritingtheIEP,thecriticalfirststepistoidentifythelanguagemediumthatisappropriateforthatchild.Whatisbestvariesfromchildtochild,dependingonhisorhernativelanguage,theamountandtypeofresidualhearing(ifany),thelevelofthechild'scommunicationskills,hisorherexposureto

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manualcommunicationmethods,ageofonsetofdeafness,andotherconditions.WhatisfoundtobeappropriateshouldbespelledoutintheIEP.

Selectingthepropercommunicationmediumisimportantbecauseitmakesinstructionpossibleandmeaningful.Alleducatorsofdeafchildrenareconcernedwithmaximizingthechild'sspeakingandunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage.Arelatedbutmoreimmediategoalistomakewhathappensintheclassroomaccessibletothatchild.Withsomechildren,thismightmeanprovidingonlyahearingaid;otherchildrenwillrequirebothanaidandasignlanguageinterpreter;andstillotherswillneedaspecialteacherandarangeofsupportservices.TheIEPshouldspellouttheindividual'srequirements.

ExperiencedProfessionals

Childhooddeafnessisalow-incidencedisability.Mostschoolsystemshaverelativelyfewdeafchildrenineachagegroup,afactorthatincreasesthedifficultyofprovidingproperlytrainedteachersandhighlyspecialized,relatedservicestoensureanappropriateeducationinmainstreamclasses.

A1976positionpaperoftheInternationalAssociationofParentsoftheDeaf(nowtheAmericanSocietyforDeafChildren)noted:

Currently,manylocalandpublicschoolslackqualifieddiagnosticstaffformakingtheplacement,lacksupportiveservices,lacktrainedpersonnel,lacknecessaryamplificationequipmentandadesirablevisualenvironment,lackanunderstandingoftotalcommunicationwhichmaybeessentialforcommunicationwithstudents,andinmanycases,lackfinancialresourcesrequiredfortheeducationofdeafchildrenandlackcommitment.

13

Schoolsystemsarerequiredbylawtoevaluatechildrenforhearingloss,tocreatespecialprogramstopreventhearingloss,andtoprovidecounselingandguidancetostudents,parents,andteachers.Theyareresponsiblefor

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determiningachild'sneedforamplification,forselectingandfittinganappropriateaid,andforevaluatingtheeffectivenessoftheamplification.

14Theseresponsibilitiescanoverwhelmteachersandadministratorswholackspecialtraining.Opportunitiesforsuchtrainingmustbemadeavailabletoschoolstaffsotheymaybecomemoreknowledgeableaboutdeafnessandotherdisabilities,therangeofpossiblesolutionsandaccommodations,andhowtheymaybestmeettheirresponsibilitiesunderthelaw.In-servicetraining,specialcertification,andsignlanguagetrainingmaybeappropriate.

ProceduralSafeguards

BothSection504andPL94-142provideproceduralsafeguardsbywhichparentscanbeassuredofboththeirown

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participationinthedecision-makingprocessandanappropriateeducationfortheirchild.

Aschoolsystemmustgivewrittennoticetoparentswhenitwishestoinitiateorchangetheidentification,evaluation,orplacementofahandicappedchild.

15Thenoticemustdescribeproceduralprotections,theactionthattheschoolsystemproposesorrefusestotake,anditsreasons.Thenoticemustalsodescribeanyoptionstheschoolsystemconsideredandexplainwhythoseoptionswererejected.Eachevaluationprocedure,test,record,report,orotherrelevantfactortheschoolsystemusedasabasisfortheproposalorrefusalmustbedescribedinthenotice.

Thenoticemustbewritteninlanguageunderstandabletothegeneralpublicandprovidedinthenativelanguageoftheparentoranyotherpossibleformofcommunicationusedbytheparent.Ifthenativelanguageorformofcommunicationisnotawrittenlanguage,theschoolsystemhastotranslatethenoticeandensurethattheparentunderstandsit.16Thenoticemustbetranslatedandexplainedtodeafparentsbyaqualifiedsignlanguageinterpreter.

Iftheparentsdonotaccepttheschoolsystem'sevaluationandproposedplacementorprogram,oriftheyarenotconfidentthattheschoolsystemhastheresourcestoprovideanappropriateeducation,theycanrequestadueprocesshearing.*Theysimplynotifytheschoolofficialsthattheyaredissatisfied,statetheirreasons,andaskforahearing.Thenotificationshouldbutdoesnothavetobeinwriting.Thehearingandafinaldecisionmustbecompletedwithinforty-fivedaysoftherequest.

Thedueprocesshearingisintendedtobeaninformaldispute-resolutionprocessduringwhichboththeparentsandtheschoolcan

presenttheirgrievancestoaneutralhearingofficer.Eithertheparentsortheschoolcanrequestahearing.Aneutralhearingofficerisappointed

*SeeAppendixBforsamplelettersrequestinganyofthefollowing:anevaluationofachild'seducationprogram,achild'sschoolrecords,adueprocesshearing,orastatereview.

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accordingtoproceduresestablishedbythestate.Thehearingofficermaynotbeanemployeeoftheagencyorunitinvolvedintheeducationorcareofthechildandcannothaveanypersonalorprofessionalinterestthatwouldimpairhisorherobjectivityinthehearing.Publicagenciesmustkeepalistofhearingofficersandtheirqualifications.

PreparationfortheHearing

Thereareseveralstepstobetakeninpreparationforthehearing.Oneessentialstepistofindexpertsineducationwhocantestifyinsupportoftheparents'positionthattheplacementisinappropriate.Theexpertshouldvisittheproposedandcurrentplacementsbeforethehearinginordertotestifywhethertheproposedplacementcanmeetthespecificneedsofthatindividualchild.TheparentsthemselvesshouldvisittheproposedplacementandseehowtheIEPcouldbeimplementedwiththeschool'sresources.

Theparentsalsoshouldexamineallschoolrecordsrelevanttotheirchild'splacement.UnderPL94-142,theschoolsystemmustcomplywithanyreasonablerequestbytheparentstoinspectandreceiveanexplanationoftheirchild'srecordsbeforeanyhearing.Iftheparentsbelievethatinformationinthefileisincorrect,theycanrequestamendmentoftherecord.Iftheparentsdisagreewiththeeducationalevaluationoftheirchild,theyhavetherighttoanindependentevaluation;theschoolsystemisrequiredtotakethisevaluationintoaccountindecidingthechild'splacement.Wellbeforethehearingdate,theparentsshouldrequestalistofwitnesseswhowillbetestifyingfortheschool.

Parentshavetherighttorequestattendanceoftheirchild'sproposedclassroomteacher,andtheyshouldexercisethatright.Itisessentialthatthehearingofficerbemadeawareoftheteacher'squalificationsandthattheparentshaveanopportunitytoquestionhowtheteacher

hopestoimplementtheindividualeducationalplanfor

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theirchild.Theparentsshouldalsorequesttheattendanceofteachersfromanyalternativeplacementtheparentsmaywishtopropose;theseteacherscantestifyastohowtheywouldmeettheindividualneedsofthechild.

Thekeyissueatthehearingiswhethertheproposedplacementisappropriatetomeettheindividualneedsofthatdisabledchild.Atthehearing,theparentscanhavealawyerandcancallwitnesseswhoareexpertsineducatingdisabledchildren.Theyalsohavetherighttopresentevidenceandtoconfrontandcross-examineanyofthewitnesses.

Parentscanobtainawrittenorelectronicverbatimrecordofthehearing,whichisimportantinanappeal.Thehearingofficermustprovidewrittenfindingsoffactforhis/herdecision.Untiladecisionisrendered,thechildmustremaininthepresenteducationalplacementunlesstheschoolandtheparentsagreeotherwise.If,however,thecomplaintinvolvesapplicationforinitialadmissiontopublicschool,thechildmustbeplacedinthepublicschoolprogramuntilcompletionofallproceedings.

DecisionsandAppeals

Thehearingofficerhastheauthoritytodeterminetheappropriateplacementforthechildandisnotrestrictedtomerelyacceptingorrejectingtheschool'sprogram.Thehearingofficercanorderservicesthatarenecessarytoprovideafree,appropriateeducationforthechild.Thedecisionofthehearingofficerisfinalandmustbeobeyedbytheschoolsystem,unlessitisappealedtothestatedepartmentofeducationorthecourts.

Ifanappealismadetothestateeducationagency,theagencymustconductanimpartialreviewofthedecision.Theofficialwhoconductsthereviewmustexaminetheentirehearingrecord,ensure

thattheproceduresatthehearingwereconsistentwiththedueprocessrequirementsofthelaw,seekadditionalevidenceifnecessary,affordthepartiesanopportunityfororalorwrittenargumentorboth,makeanindependentdecisiononcompletionofthe

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review,andgiveacopyofwrittenfindingsandthedecisiontotheparties.

Theparentsmayfileacivillawsuitinstateorfederalcourttochallengethedecisionofthestateagency.ComplaintstothefederalDepartmentofEducation'sOfficeforCivilRightsortheBureauforEducationoftheHandicappedmaybeappropriateiftherearesystematicviolationsofSection504orPL94-142byaschoolsystem.Iftheschoolsystemfailstocomplywiththelaws,thefederalagencycanordertheterminationoffederalfundsfortheentiresystem.

SchoolActivities

PublicLaw94-142appliesonlytodeafandhandicappedschoolchildren,butsomeschoolactivitiesareopentoadultsaswellastochildren.Becausemostschoolsystemsreceivefederalfinancialassistance,theymustobeySection504inalltheirprograms.Deafpeoplemustbeabletousetheprogramsoftheschool,evenifthedeafpersonisnotastudentatthatschool.Forexample,manyschoolsystemsoffercontinuingeducationclassesforadultsorhobbyclassesthattakeplaceintheschoolsduringeveningsandweekends.Iftheseprogramsreceiveorbenefitfromfederalfinancialassistance,theymustbeopenand

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accessibletodeafpeople,andtheschoolshouldprovideinterpretersforthedeafstudentstoenablethemtoparticipateintheclasses.

Schoolsalsoshouldprovideinterpretersfordeafparentswhoneedtheminordertoparticipateinparent-teacherconferencesandotherschoolactivitiesinvolvingparents.Theprovisionshouldbemaderegardlessofwhetherthechildofthedeafparentsisalsodeaf.

Notes

1.375U.S.438at493(1954)

2.20UnitedStatesCode§1401

3.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84.33(a)

4.20U.S.C.§1401etseq.

5.34C.F.R.§300.1

6.34C.F.R.§300.5(b)

7.34C.F.R.§300.343,300.344(a)

8.34C.F.R.§300.345

9.34C.F.R.§300.346

10.102S.Ct.3034(1982)

11.D.F.Moores,EducatingtheDeaf:Psychology,Principles,andPractices,2ded.(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1982),p.9.Usedbypermissionofthepublisher.

12.QuotedinMervinD.Garretson,''TotalCommunication,"inRobertD.Frisina,ed.,ABicentennialMonographonHearing-Impairment:TrendsintheU.S.A.(Washington,D.C.:AlexanderGrahamBellAssociationfortheDeaf,1976),p.91.

13.InternationalAssociationofParentsoftheDeaf,October1976positionstatement.

14.34C.F.R.§300.303

15.45C.F.R.§84.36

16.34C.F.R.§300.505(b)(1)

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PostsecondaryEducationTheDepartmentofEducation'sregulationsforSection504helpmakepostsecondaryeducationaccessibletodisabledpeople.Basically,theregulationprohibitsthoseinstitutionswhichreceivefederalmoney,includingvocationalandcommercialschools,fromdiscriminatingagainstdisabledpeopleinrecruitment,admissions,andprograms.Toaccommodateadisabledperson,theinstitutionisnotobligatedtochangesubstantiallytherequirementsofitsacademicprogram;itmust,however,affordequalopportunityforthepersontobenefitfromtheprogram,withoutsegregationfromtheotherstudentsorlimitsonparticipation.Auxiliaryaidsaremandatedbytheregulations,andmethodsofevaluationarerequiredtomeasurethestudent'sactualachievementandnothisorherabilitytotaketests.

RecruitmentandAdmissions

Educationalinstitutionsmayneitherrefusetoadmitdisabledapplicantsbecauseoftheirhandicapnorsubjectthemtoanyformofdiscriminationinadmissionorrecruitmentprocedures.

1Ifthecollegerequirespre-admissioninterviewsofitsapplicants,deafapplicantsmustbeinterviewedtoo,withinterpretersprovided.Ifthecollegehastoursororientationmeetings,thedeafapplicantmustbeabletoparticipatewithaninterpreterpresent.Ifacollegesendspromotionalinformationormakesrecruitmentvisitstoareahighschools,thenitmustdothe

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sameforareadeafschools.Theinstitutioncannotplacealimitorquotaonthenumberorproportionofdisabledstudentswhomaybeadmitted.

Inaddition,theEDregulationprohibitscollegesanduniversitiesfrommakingpreadmissioninquiriesabouthandicaps,exceptintwosituations:(a)whentheschoolistakingremedialactiontoovercometheeffectsofpastdiscrimination,or(b)whenitistakingvoluntaryactiontoovercometheeffectsofconditionsthatlimitedtheparticipationofdisabledpersonsintheschool'sprogramsinthepast.Ineitherofthesecircumstances,theschoolmustclearlystatethattheinformationsoughtisintendedforuseonlyinconnectionwithremedialorvoluntaryaction.Afterthestudentisadmitted,theschoolcanmakeconfidentialinquiriesabouthandicapsthatmayrequiresomeaccommodation.

TheSupremeCourthasdecidedacaseconcerningpreadmissioninquiriesaboutaperson'shandicap.InSoutheasternCommunityCollegev.Davis(discussedlaterinmoredetail),theCourtheldthatanursingschoolcouldrequire"reasonablephysicalqualificationsforadmissiontoaclinicaltrainingprogram"andrejectastudentwhosehandicapwouldrequiresubstantialmodificationsofaprogram.

2Forotherkindsofacademicprograms,however,thesectionoftheDepartmentofEducationregulationconcerningpreadmissioninquirieswasleftintact.Exceptforprofessionalclinicalprograms,suchasthenursingprogramintheDaviscase,educationalinstitutionsarestillprohibitedfromaskingaboutorconsideringphysicalhandicapintheadmissionprocess.

Educationalinstitutionsmustensurethatadmissionstestsareselectedandadministeredsothatthetestresultsaccuratelyreflectthe

applicant'sactualaptitudeorachievementlevelandnottheeffectsofhisorherhearingimpairment.3Forexample,oralinstructionsshouldbetranslatedintosignlanguageorputintowriting.Oralexaminationsshouldbeconductedwithaqualifiedsignlanguageinterpreterorotherappropriateaid.IfatestisdesignedtomeasureaptitudefororachievementinsomeareaotherthanEnglishlanguageskills,thenthetestshouldbemodifiedforthedeafapplicant

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whodoesnothavestandardEnglishskills.Moretimemightbeprovidedoranothertest,lessreliantonEnglishcompetence,mightbeused.

TreatmentofStudents

Disabledstudentsatfederallyfundedcollegesmustbetreatedequallywithnondisabledstudents.Programsmustbeconductedinanintegratedsetting.Separatefacilitiesfordisabledstudentsarenotpermitted.

4Recipientinstitutionsmustalsoensurethatotherprogramsinwhichitsdisabledstudentsparticipatedonotdiscriminate.Examplesofotherprogramsareinternships,clinicalplacementprograms,studentteachingassignments,orcourseworkatotherschoolsinaconsortium.Therecipientinstitutionmaynotcontinueitsrelationshipswithanyprogramthatinanywaydiscriminatesagainstitsdisabledstudents.5

Collegesanduniversitiesmustmakeadjustmentstothoserequirementsthatdiscriminateagainstadisabledstudent.6Forexample,adeafstudentshouldbeallowedtosubstituteamusichistoryorartappreciationcourseforarequiredcourseinmusicappreciation.Acollegemightpermitaqualifieddeafstudentseeking

teachercertificationtodoaninternshipteachingaclassofdeafstudentsinordertomeetdegree

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requirements.Theindividualcapabilitiesandneedsofeachstudentmustbeconsideredandacademicadjustmentsmadeasappropriate.SincetheDavisdecision,however,acollegeisnotrequiredtomakesubstantialmodificationsinitsprograminordertoaccommodatehandicappedstudents.Norisacollegerequiredtochangethoseacademicrequirementsthatthecollegecanproveareessentialeithertotheprogramofinstructionorforaparticulardegree.

7

AuxiliaryAids

Postsecondaryinstitutionsmustensurethatahandicappedstudenthasanyauxiliaryaidsthatarenecessaryforhimorhertofullyparticipateintheeducationalprogram.8ExamplesofauxiliaryaidsintheEDregulationaretapedtexts,interpreters,readersinlibraries,andclassroomequipmentadaptedforusebystudentswithmanualimpairments.Forhearing-impairedstudents,auxiliaryaidsincludeanyeffectivemeansofmakingorally-deliveredmaterialavailabletothem.Inadditiontoqualifiedinterpreters,theseaidsmightincludenotetakersorfundsforcopyingthenotesofaclassmate,sincethedeafstudentmustconstantlywatchtheinterpreterandinstructorandcannotwriteatthesametime.Auxiliaryaidsmightalsoincludetranscriptsorinterpretationsoftape-recordedorfilmedinformationandinterpretationorcaptioningoffilmsandvideotapes.

Apostsecondaryeducationalinstitutioncanreferastudenttoanothersourceforprovisionofauxiliaryaidsortrytoobtainthenecessaryauxiliaryaidsfromsuchoutsidesourcesasthelocalvocationalrehabilitationofficeorcharitablegroups.However,theschoolremainsresponsibleforseeingthattheaidsarereceivedandthattheyinfactenablethedeafstudenttoparticipateintheeducationprogram.The

schoolhasultimateresponsibilitytofindandpayforinterpretersandotherauxiliaryaids.

TwofederaldistrictcourtshavedecidedsinceDavisthat,fordeafcollegestudentswhoarevocationalrehabilitation(VR)clients,theVRagencymustpayfortheir

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interpreters.ANewJerseydistrictjudgefoundthatitisaVRagency'slegaldutytopayforinterpretersbasedonTitleIoftheRehabilitationAct.AnIllinoisdistrictcourtjudgeheldthatwhenastudentisaVRclient,thestateVRagencyhasprimaryresponsibilityunderSection504topayforinterpreterservicesforthestudent'sclasses.

TheTwoCases

RuthAnnSchornsteinisadeafVRclientwhoattendsKeanCollegeinNewJersey.Herplanistoearnacollegedegreeinsocialwork/psychology.TheNewJerseyDivisionofVocationalRehabilitationServicesacceptedMs.SchornsteinasaneligibleVRclientanddevelopedanindividualrehabilitationplantomeethervocationalgoal.Althoughthestateagencyprovidedtuitionandbooks,theyrefusedtoprovideinterpreterservices.Allgroupsinvolvedagreedsheneedsaninterpretertoparticipateeffectivelyinherclasses.Thecourtlaterfoundthatwithouttheinterpretertheseotherbenefitswillbeuseless.

TheNationalAssociationoftheDeafLegalDefenseFund(NADLDF)filedalawsuitagainstboththestateagencyandKeanCollege.Thefederalcourtheldthatthe

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stateagency'spolicydenyinginterpreterservicestoeverydeafcollegestudentviolatesTitleIoftheRehabilitationAct.TitleIrequiresstateVRagenciestoprovidecertainrehabilitationservices,includinginterpreters,toacceptedVRclients.Thefederalcourtruledthatthestateagencypolicy"completelycontradictstheAct'srequirementswhichensureindividualizationofprogramsforhandicappedindividuals."Thedistrictcourtopinionwasaffirmedbyanappellatecourt.

9

Thestateagencyarguedthatitcoulddecidewhatservicestoprovide.Thecourtwasnotpersuaded.ItfoundthattheRehabilitationActspecificallyrequiresVRagenciesto(1)serveseverelyhandicappedindividuals,includingdeafpeople,first;and(2)providethoseserviceslistedintheRehabilitationActwhicharenecessarytoassistthehandicappedpersontoachievehisorhervocationalgoal.

BecausethestateagencyacceptedSchornsteinasaclientandalsoagreedthatsherequiresinterpreterservicestomeethervocationalgoals,thecourtconcludedthattheagencyislegallyobligatedtoprovidethoseservices.SincethecourtdecidedthecasesolelyonthebasisofTitleI,itdidnotfinditnecessarytoruleontheobligationtoprovideinterpretersundereitherSection504ortheU.S.Constitution.

ThecasehelpsclarifytheresponsibilityofVRagenciestoprovideinterpreterstodeafVRclientswhoareattendingcollege.

IntheIllinoiscase,adeafstudentmajoringinmechanicalengineeringattheIllinoisInstituteofTechnology(IIT)inChicago,Illinois,neededaninterpreterinordertounderstandandparticipateinhisclasses,whichbeganinAugust1979.AlthoughhewasaneligibleVRclientreceivingtuition,roomandboard,andbooksfromtheIllinois

DepartmentofRehabilitationServicestheVRagencyrefusedtoprovidehimwithinterpreters.Hewasalsorefusedtheseinterpreterservicesbythecollege.

ThecourtstatedthatwhenastudentisaVRclient,thestateVRagencyhasprimaryresponsibilityunderSection504topayforinterpreterservicesforthestudent'sclasses.

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ThecourtwentontosaythatifthestudentisnotaVRclient,andnoothersourcesareavailable,thenthecollegehastheultimateresponsibilitytopayforinterpreterservices.

TheIllinoisVRagencytriedunsuccessfullytopersuadethecourtthatitwasprohibitedfromprovidinginterpreterstothestudentunderTitleI,ifother"similarbenefit"programsorcommunityresourceswereavailabletopayfortheseservices.TheVRagencyclaimedthatthecollegehadalegalobligationunderSection504toprovideinterpreterstodeafstudents.Asa"similarbenefit"programorcommunityresource,thecollege,saidtheVRagency,shouldhavetopayforinterpreters.ThecourtfoundthatonlyotherrehabilitationserviceswereintendedbyCongresstobe"similarbenefit"programs.Afederalappealscourtaffirmedthedistrictcourtdecision.

10

OtherLegalPrecedents

TheDepartmentofEducationand,beforeit,theDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfarehaveissuedfindingsofviolationagainstseveralcollegesanduniversitiesfornotprovidinginterpreterservicesfordeafstudents.11

Courtshavealsofoundillegaltherefusalofcollegesanduniversitiestoprovideinterpreters.12InacasebroughtbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJusticeagainsttheUniversityofAlabama,theEleventhCircuitCourtofAppealsheldthattheuniversitymustprovidequalifiedinterpretersfordeafstudents,evenifthestudentsdonothavefinancialneed,andevenifthestudentsareinpart-timeorotherspecialnoncreditcategories.13ThecourtheldthatCongressintendedcollegesanduniversitiestoprovidefreeauxiliaryaidsforstudentsbecausewithoutthisassistance,adeafstudentisdeniedmeaningful

accesstoanopportunitytolearn.

InCamenischv.UniversityofTexas,theFifthCircuitCourtofAppealsupheldadistrictcourt'spreliminaryinjunctionrequiringtheUniversityofTexastoprovidean

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interpretertoadeafgraduatestudent.

14ThecourtalsoruledthatdisabledpeoplehavearighttosueinfederalcourttoenforcetheirSection504rights.Furthermore,saidthecourt,adisabledpersondidnotfirsthavetoexhaustadministrativeremediesbeforebringingalawsuit.

TheuniversityappealedtotheSupremeCourt.Afteracceptingthecase,theCourtrefusedtodecidetheSection504issuesraisedbytheuniversity.15Instead,itsentthecasebacktothedistrictcourttodecidewhethertheuniversityorCamenischhadtopayfortheinterpreter.TheCourtheldthattheuniversityhadonlyappealedapreliminaryinjunctionorderandhadnotwaitedforatrialonthemerits.TheCourtfoundthecasemoot,becausethetermsofthepreliminaryinjunctionhadbeenfulfilledwithCamenischbeingprovidedaninterpreterandhavingalreadygraduated.

TheSupremeCourt'sfirstrulingonthemeritsofacasebroughtunderSection504wastheDaviscase.TheissuewaswhetherSection504"forbidsprofessionalschoolsfromimposingphysicalqualificationsforadmissiontotheirclinicaltrainingprograms."16Initsdecision,thecourtalsosoughttoclarifythemeaningof"qualifiedhandicappedindividual"inpostsecondaryeducationandtheextentofaffirmativereliefrequiredbySection504.

FrancesDavis,alicensedpracticalnursewithahearingimpairment,soughttoenrollinanursingschoolprogramtobecomearegisterednurse.Despiteevidencethatshecouldperformwellinthisprogram,SoutheasternCommunityCollegerejectedDavis'sapplicationbecauseofherhearingloss.

Thedistrictcourtupheldthecollege'sdecision,notingthatinsettingssuchasanoperatingroom,intensivecareunit,orpostnatalcareunit,

thewearingofsurgicalmaskswouldpreventDavisfromreadinglipstounderstandwhatwashappening.ThedistrictcourtconcludedthatDavis's"handicapactuallypreventsherfromsafelyperforminginbothhertrainingprogramandherproposedprofession."17

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TheCourtofAppealsfortheFourthCircuitreversedthedecision.InlightoftheHEWSection504regulation(issuedafterthedistrictcourt'sdecision),theappealscourtruledthatthecollegehadtoreconsiderDavis'sapplicationwithoutregardtoherhearingdisability.

18TheappealscourtconcludedthatthedistrictcourterredinconsideringthenatureofDavis'sdisabilitytodeterminewhethershewas''otherwisequalified"fortheprogramratherthanlimitingitsinquirytoher"academicandtechnicalqualifications,"whichistherequirementoftheregulation.BecausethecollegesaidthatitwasnotpreparedtomodifyitsnursingprogramtoaccommodateDavis'shearingdisability,theappealscourtsentthecasebacktothedistrictcourtforittoconsiderwhatmodificationsrequiredbytheHEWregulationmightaccommodateDavis.

SupremeCourtDecision

TheSupremeCourtagreedtoreviewthecaseandfoundunanimouslythatthecollegehadnotviolatedSection504.TheCourtheldthat:

Nothinginthelanguageorhistoryof§504reflectstheintentiontolimitthefreedomofaneducationalinstitutiontorequirereasonablephysicalqualificationsforadmissiontoaclinicaltrainingprogram.NorhastherebeenanyshowinginthiscasethatanyactionshortofasubstantialchangeinSoutheastern'sprogramwouldrenderunreasonablethequalificationsitimposed.19

WritingfortheCourt,JusticeLewisPowellfoundthatSection504doesnotcompelschoolstodisregardanapplicant'sdisabilities"ortomakesubstantialmodificationsintheirprogramstoallowdisabledpersonstoparticipate"(ouremphasis).20Instead,theCourtinterpretedSection504tomeanthatmerepossessionofahandicapisnotapermissiblegroundforassuminganinabilitytofunctioninaparticularcontext.21

TheCourtalsofoundthat,underSection504,an"other-

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wisehandicappedperson"is"onewhoisabletomeetallofaprogram'srequirementsinspiteofhishandicap."

22Daviswasconsideredunabletomeetthoserequirementssince"theabilitytounderstandspeechwithoutrelianceonlipreadingisnecessaryforpatientsafetyduringtheclinicalphaseoftheprogram.23TheCourtstatedthat,onthebasisofmeagerevidencecontainedinthetrialrecord,itwasunlikelythatDaviscouldsuccessfullyparticipateintheclinicalprogramwithanyoftheaccommodationstheregulationrequires.TheCourtconcludedthateithercloseindividualsupervisionorchangingthecurriculumtolimitherparticipationtoacademicclassesexceededthe"modification"requiredbytheregulation.

TheCourtnoted,however,thatcontinuingsomerequirementsmaywronglyexcludequalifieddisabledpeoplefromparticipatinginprograms:

Thussituationsmayarisewherearefusaltomodifyanexistingprogrammightbecomeunreasonableanddiscriminatory.IdentificationoftheseinstanceswherearefusaltoaccommodatetheneedsofadisabledpersonamountstodiscriminationagainstthehandicappedcontinuestobeanimportantresponsibilityofHEW.24

Section504Upheld

AsignificantstepforwardistheSupremeCourt's1985opinioninAlexanderv.Choate.

25ThiscasemakesclearthatSection504isamajorcivilrightsstatutewithteethandnotahollowpromise.

InChoate,theSupremeCourtdecidedthatSection504requiresrecipientsoffederalfundingtomakereasonableaccommodation"toassuremeaningfulaccess"totheirprograms.Supportforitsviewwasfoundinthefederalregulationsrequiringreasonableaccommodationinemployment,buildings,andcollegesanduniversities.

Significantly,theCourtalsoruledthatfederalrecipientsmaybeguiltyofdiscriminationwhentheiractionshaveadiscriminatoryeffect,evenifthereisnoprooftheyactuallyintendedtodiscriminate.JusticeMarshall,writingfortheCourt,statedthatCongressoftensawdiscriminationagainsthandicappedpeopleasaresultof"thoughtlessnessandindifference."TheCourtpointedoutthatitwouldbedifficult,ifnotimpossible,tostopdiscriminationifdisabledpersonshadtoprovethatsomeoneactuallyintendedtodiscriminateagainstthem.

TheCourt'srulingthatSection504doesnotrequiresubstantialprogrammodificationhasledsomestatesandschoolstoopposeanymodificationsongroundsofunduecosts.TheCourt'sdecisionwaslimitedtoprofessionalclinicalprograms,butsomerecipientinstitutionsareusingitasanexcusenottoprovideinterpretersinpurelyacademicprograms.

Therulingalsoposesadangerthatschoolswillsetphysicalqualificationsallowingonlyable-bodiedstudents,ordisabledstudentsnotinneedofanyaccommodation,tobeadmitted;schoolsmightarguethatthesearelegitimate"technical"requirementsforadmission.FutureDepart-

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mentofEducationandcourtdecisionswilladdressissuesofwhetherproposedmodificationsare"substantial"andwhetherphysicalqualificationsare"reasonable"and"necessary."

Notes

1.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84.42

2.SoutheasternCommunityCollegev.Davis,442U.S.397at414(1979)

3.45C.F.R.§84.42(b)(3)

4.45C.F.R.§84.43(d)

5.45C.F.R.§84.43(b)

6.45C.F.R.§84.44(a)

7.42FederalRegister22,692(1977)

8.45C.F.R.§84.44(d)

9.Schornsteinv.TheNewJerseyDivisionofVocationalRehabilitationServices,519FederalSupplement773(D.N.J.1981),affirmed688F.2d824(3dCir.1982)(mem.)

10.Jonesv;IllinoisDepartmentofRehabilitationServices,504F.Supp.1244(N.D.Ill.1981),affirmed689F.2d724(7thCir.1982)

11.Manleyv.PattersonCollege,DocketNo.79-0001NE(RegionII);Warsov.SouthernFloridaUniversity,DocketNo.0419780109(RegionIV);andArnoldv.UniversityofAlabamaatBirmingham,DocketNo.04107902090(RegionIV)

12.Crawfordv.UniversityofNorthCarolina,440F.Supp.1047(M.D.N.C.1977);Herboldv.TrusteesoftheCaliforniaStateUniversitiesandColleges,C-78-1358-RHS(N.D.Cal.1978);and

Barnesv.ConverseCollege,436F.Supp.635(D.S.C.1977)

13.UnitedStatesv.BoardofTrusteesfortheUniversityofAlabama,908F.2d740(11thCir.1990)

14.616F.2d127(5thCir.1980)

15.Camenischv.UniversityofTexas,451U.S.390(1981)

16.SoutheasternCommunityCollegev.Davis,442U.S.397at400(1979)

17.424F.Supp.1341at1345

18.574F.2d1158(4thCir.,1978)

19.442U.S.397at414

20.442U.S.397at405

21.Ibid.

22.442U.S.397at406

23.442U.S.397at407

24.442U.S.397at412-413

25.105S.Ct.712(1985)

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HealthCareandSocialServicesMostcommunitieshaveacomplicatednetworkofpublicandprivateagenciesthatprovideimportantsocialandhealthservices.ManyoftheseagenciesreceivesignificantfederalassistanceandmustthereforecomplywithSection504ofthe1973RehabilitationAct.Theyarenotallowedtodiscriminateagainstdisabledpeople.

Thisdoesnotmeanthatdeafpeoplefinditeasytogettheservicestowhichtheyareentitled.Theyaresometimesturnedawayfromaprogramsimplybecausenooneonthestaffcancommunicatewiththemorunderstandwhattheyneed.Deafpeopleoftengetlittleornoserviceinsituationswherehearingpeoplereceivegoodservice.Ahearingpersonmaygetanswerstoquestionsaboutfoodstampeligibility,forexample,oradviceonhowtocompleteanapplicationorinformationonthedetailsofaprogram.Butthedeafpersonmaybehandedastandardwrittenformwithcursoryexplanationsofofficeandprogramprocedures.Heorshemaymisunderstandtheformsandlosebenefitsasaconsequence.Straighteningouttheresultingredtapemaybeimpossibleforadeafperson.Fewserviceagencies,healthcenters,hospitals,orpubliclibrarieshaveeitherTDDsorstaffwhoknowsignlanguage,andveryfewemployqualifiedsignlanguageinterpreters.

ApplicationsofSection504

Ifadeafpersonseeksservicefromanyfederallyfundedagencyandisturnedawayorotherwisediscouragedbe-

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causeofcommunicationbarriers,thatagencyhasviolatedSection504.

1Ifajobtrainingprogramtakesadeafperson'sapplicationbut,becauseofthedeafness,doesnotactivelyseektoplacethatperson,ithasviolatedthelaw.IfanagencyprovidesinformationorservicesbytelephonebutdoesnothaveaTDDoraccesstoaTDDrelayservice,ithasviolatedSection504.2

Health,welfare,andsocialserviceagencieswithfifteenormoreemployeesmustprovideappropriate"auxiliaryaids"topeoplewithimpairedsensory,manual,orspeakingskillswhennecessarytoaffordsuchpeopleanequalopportunitytobenefitfromtheserviceinquestion.3Auxiliaryaidsarespecificallydefinedtoincludebraille,tapedmaterial,interpreters,andotheraids.4Smalleragenciesmayalsoberequiredtoprovideauxiliaryaidswhendoingsowouldnotimpairtheagency'sabilitytoprovideitsnormalbenefitsorservices.5Interpreterscanbehiredforareasonablehourlyfeeforoccasionaldeafclients.ManyTDDscanbeacquiredforaone-timeinvestmentofafewhundreddollars.Theseexpensesarenotundulyburdensomeformostagencies.

Thesectionobligatingsocialserviceagenciestoensureadequatecommunicationwithdeafpeopleappliestomanypublicandnonprofitagencies.Forexample,foodstampofficesmustprovideaninterpretertoassistinexplainingtheapplicationprocedure,eligibilitycriteria,andavailablebenefitstodeafapplicants.Inaddition,suchofficesmusthaveaTDDsothatdeafpeoplecantelephoneforinformation,scheduleappointments,orconsultwithcaseworkers.NewJerseyprovidedTDDsinallvocationalrehabilitationofficesthatservedeafclients.

Whilesuchanagencyisnotrequiredtohaveaninterpreteronstaffatalltimes,deafpeopleshouldbeabletorequestaninterpreterifneededandtoscheduleanappointmentwhenaninterpreterisavailable.Thisappointmentprocedureisareasonablemethodofprovidingequivalentservices,evenifapplicationsareordinarilyhandledonafirst-come,first-servedbasis.Theagencyshouldalso

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postanoticeclearlyexplainingthatinterpretersareavailableandhowtoarrangeaninterpretedappointment.

AgencyResponsibilities

Deafpeopleshouldbeawarethatmanyserviceagenciesattempttoevadetheirlegalresponsibilities.Smallagenciesmaytrytodosobyclaimingthatprovisionofauxiliaryaidsisbeyondtheirfinancialmeans.Theymay,onthebasisoftheirsmallsizeandbudget,seekawaiveroftherequirementthattheyprovideaids.Butsomeaidsarecriticalfordeafpeople,andmostoftheessentialaidsarenotexcessiveincost.Deafclientsareentitledbylawtoaidstheyneed.Theyshouldbeprovidedfreeofchargetothedeafclient.Thecostistheresponsibilityoftheagencyreceivingandmakinguseofthefederalmoney.

Therearemanywaysanagency,healthcenter,orhospitalcanmakeitsservicesavailableandusefultodeafpeople.TheSocialSecurityAdministration(SSA),forexample,hasannouncedapolicyofprovidinginterpreter

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servicesinallSSAproceedingsandactivities.*TheSSAuseseitheranemployeewhoisproficientinsignlanguageoraprofessionalsignlanguageinterpreter.Nohearing-impairedpersonisrequiredtouseaninterpreterwithwhomheorsheisunabletocommunicate;theultimatejudgeofaninterpreter'scompetenceisthedeafclient.

TheSSAhasalsoinstalledanationwidetoll-freeTDD.OperatorsatthisnumberwillrelaycallstolocalSSAofficesifnecessary.TheSSAalsohasinstalledTDDunitsinsomelocalandregionaloffices.Thedecisiontoprovideauxiliaryaidsshowswisdomandprudence.Inthelongruntheaidswillsavemoneyandstafftimebecausecommunicationwillbeeffectiveandpaperworkwillbedonecorrectlythefirsttime.

AgencyRulesandStateLaws

InadditiontotherequirementsofSection504,mostagencieshavespecificrulesthatprohibitdiscriminationagainsthandicappedpeopleinservicestheysupport.

6Somestateshaveadoptedlawsthatprohibitdiscriminationagainsthandicappedpeoplebygovernmentandprivatesocialserviceagencies.Othershavelawsspecificallyrequiringcertainservicesfordeafpeople.ANewMexicolawrequiresstatehealth,welfare,andeducationalagenciestoprovideinterpreterswheneveradeafpersonseeksservicesorneedstocommunicatewithagencypersonnel.Virginiahasestablishedaspecialagency,theVirginiaCouncilfortheDeaf,toprovideinterpreterstostatedepartmentsandagencies,localgovernments,andanyotherorganizationorindividualneedingthem.Thegovernmentagenciesarerequiredtopayfortheinterpreters.AfewstateshavelawsthatrequireinstallationofTDDsinhospitalsandpublicagenciessuchaspolicestations.7

Moststateshavecivilrightslawsprohibitingdiscriminationbyfacilitiesopentothepublic.Traditionally,these

*SeeAppendixCforaSocialSecurityAdministrationmemorandumoutliningprocedurestobeusedbySSApersonnelinsecuringinterpreterservices.

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lawshavedealtonlywithracialorreligiousdiscrimination;morerecently,someofthemhavebeenamendedtoprohibitdiscriminationbasedonhandicapaswell.Inadditiontocommercialenterprisessuchasrestaurants,hotels,andstores,theselawsapplytoserviceagenciesthatareopentothepublic.

8Afewstateshaveadopteddetailedlawsmandatingaccessandserviceforhandicappedpeople.TheMichiganHandicapper'sCivilRightsAct,forexample,guaranteesahandicappedpersonfullandequalutilizationofpublicaccommodationsandservices.

HospitalCommunicationBarriers

BeforeHEW'sSection504regulationsbecameeffectivein1977,hearing-impairedpeoplehadvirtuallynorighttoeffectivecommunicationinhospitalcare.Whendeafpeopleenteredahospital,theyhadtotakewhatwasofferedthem,sometimessettlingforineffectivehealthcarebecausetheydidnotunderstandwhatwasbeingsaidtothem.Complicatedmedicaltermswereusedwiththehopethatthedeafpatientwouldunderstandthem.Drugswereprescribedwithoutanyexplanationofhowtotakethem.Sometimesdeafpeopletookthesedrugswithothermedicines,notknowingthepossiblereactions.Hospitaladmissionsprocedureswererarelyexplainedtothem.Iftheywantedassistancefromthenursingstaff,theycouldnotusetheintercomtorequestspecifickindsofservices.Ifapregnantwomanwentintothelaborroom,shecouldnotbringaninterpreterwithher.Shecouldnotunderstandwhatherdoctorwantedhertodo,becausethedoctor'ssurgicalmaskmadelipreadingimpossible.

Averyimportantingredientofhealthcareiscommunication.Withoutcommunication,thepatientcannotexplainthesymptomsofhisorher

illnesstothemedicalstaff.Withoutcommunication,thepatientcannotcomprehendtheroutinesofpreventivemedicine.Ifallmedicalpatientsweretreatedlikethis,thegeneralpopulationwouldbeoutraged.Yethearing-impairedpeoplefacethesecircumstancesdaily.

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Forthedeafpersonwhohasbeendeafsincebirth(prelinguallydeaf),theEnglishlanguageisascomprehensibleasaforeignlanguagewouldbetoanEnglish-speakingperson.Thedeafperson,havingneverheardEnglish,hasdifficultyunderstanding.

Thepostlinguallydeafperson(deafenedaftertheacquisitionoflanguage)hasdevelopedlanguage,butheorshemustcompensateforthathearinglossbyeithermatchingwordstolipmovementsorusingsignlanguage.Sincelipreadingisgenerallyonly30percentunderstandable,othermeansofcommunicationmustcompensatefortheremaining70percent.Thepostlinguallydeafpersonusuallycanmakeuseofsigns,guesswork,ornotestograsptheremaining70percent.

CompoundingtheStress

Whenapersonisinamedicalsituation,heorsheissometimesapprehensive,nervous,confused,andinpain.Whenthosefeelingsarecompoundedbythestressoftryingtounderstandwhatamedicalpersonissaying,theexperiencecanbetraumatic.

Inthepast,manyhospitalshavegenerallyreliedontheexchangeofwrittennotes,lipreading,orotherlessthansatisfactorymeanstocommunicatewiththeirdeafpatients.ForadeafpersonwithlimitedEnglishskills,writtenEnglishcanbebothineffectiveandfrustrating.Understandingisfurtherhamperedbyunfamiliarmedicaltermsandtheneedforfast,efficientcommunicationduringamedicalemergency.Somehospitalsattempttogetbywithastaffmemberwhohassomeknowledgeofsignlanguage,insteadofbringinginaskilledinterpreterfromoutsidethehospital.Thiswouldbeacceptableifthestaffmemberwerequalified,butthisisrarelythecase.Moreoftenthestaffmember'slimitedunderstandingofsignlanguagecreatesseriousmisunderstandings,leadingtoineffectivetreatmentandevenmisdiagnosis.

Communicationthatis''effective"andaidsthatare"appropriate"twotermsusedinfederalregulationsare

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bestdeterminedbythedeafpatient.AseriesofcomplaintsfiledwithHHS,however,demonstrateshowhospitalpersonneloftenassumethattheyarebetterablethanthedeafpatienttodecidehowtocommunicate.Inonecaseahospitalinsistedthat,sincetheycouldunderstandthedeafpatient'svoice,thepatientcouldthereforeunderstandthem,despitethepatient'srepeatedrequestsforaninterpreter.Inanothercase,ahospitalstatedthatcommunicationbymeansofpenandpaperwasadequateandthatthedecisiontoutilizeaninterpreterwasuptothedoctor.Inathirdcase,ahospitalarbitrarilystatedthatitwoulduseatypewriterinsteadofaninterpretertocommunicatewithapatient.Inanothercaseinvolvingmedicalcareforfourteenelderlydeafpatients,ahospitalclaimedtohaveaninterpreteronitsstaff.Infact,theinterpreterhadstudiedsignlanguageforonlyonesemesterandcouldnotreadmanyofthedeafpatients'signs.

Theimportanceofusingaqualifiedsignlanguageinterpretercannotbeoveremphasized.Aqualifiedinterpreterhasboththeexpressiveandreceptiveskillstocommunicateeffectivelywithadeafperson.

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ClarifyingtheRegulations

In1979theNationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf(NCLD)filedcomplaintswiththeOfficeforCivilRights(OCR)inChicago.ThecomplaintsconcernedinterpretationofSection504regulationsthenineffectatHEW(seeboxonp.109).Investigationsofeightmajorhospitalswereconducted.Theinvestigationspointedouttheneedforfurtherclarificationoftheregulations.Apolicyontheprovisionofauxiliaryaidsforhearing-impairedpatientsininpatient,outpatient,andemergencytreatmentsettingswasreleasedbyOCRtoitsregionalofficesinMay1980.Thepolicystates:

TheDepartment'sSection504Regulationrequiresthathealthcareprovidersbepreparedtoofferafullvarietyofcommunicationoptions(auxiliaryaids)inordertomakesurethathearing-impairedpersonsareprovidedeffectivehealthcareservices.Thosecommunicationoptionsarerequiredtohavebeenselectedwithconsultationby"handicappedpersonsororganizationsrepresentinghandicappedpersons"inaself-evaluationwhichisdonebythehealthprovider.Thisvarietyofoptions,whichmustbeprovidedatnocosttothehearing-impairedpatient,mustinclude:

· formalarrangementswithinterpreterswhocanaccuratelyandfluentlyexpressandreceiveinsignlanguage;

· supplementalhearingdevicessuchasamplifiedtelephoneandloopsystemsformeetings;

· writtencommunication;

· flashcardsandstafftraininginbasicsignlanguageexpressionsrelatedtoemergencytreatment.

Thenames,addresses,phonenumbers,andhoursofavailabilityofinterpretersmustbeavailabletothehealthprovider'semployees.Healthcareprovidershavearesponsibilitytomakesurethathearing-impairedpersonsseekingtreatmentaregivenadvancenoticeofthevariouscommunicationoptions.Familymembersmaybeusedonlyiftheyare

specifi-

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TheHHSSection504regulationsandguidelinesseektoaddresstheuniqueproblemsfacingdeafhealthcarepatients.Theregulationsstate:

A.General.Inprovidinghealth,welfare,orothersocialservicesorbenefits,arecipientmaynot,onthebasisofhandicap;

1.Denyaqualifiedhandicappedpersonthesebenefitsorservices;

2.Affordaqualifiedhandicappedpersonanopportunitytoreceivebenefitsorservicesthatarenotequaltothatofferednonhandicappedpersons;

3.Provideaqualifiedhandicappedpersonwithbenefitsorservicesthatarenotaseffective(asdefinedin§84.4[b])asthoseprovidedtoothers;

4.Providebenefitsorservicesinamannerthatlimitsorhastheeffectoflimitingtheparticipationofqualifiedhandicappedpersons;or

5.Providedifferentorseparatebenefitsorservicestohandicappedpersonsexceptwherenecessarytoprovidequalifiedhandicappedpersonswithbenefitsandservicesthatareaseffectiveasthoseprovidedtoothers.

B.Notice.Arecipientthatprovidesnoticeconcerningbenefitsorservicesorwrittenmaterialconcerningwaiversofrightsorconsenttotreatmentshalltakesuchstepsasarenecessarytoensurethatqualifiedhandicappedpersons,includingthosewithimpairedsensoryorspeakingskills,arenotdeniedeffectivenotice.

C.Emergencytreatmentofthehearing-impaired.Arecipienthospitalthatprovideshealthservicesorbenefitsshallestablishaprocedureforeffectivecommunicationwithpersonswithimpairedhearingforthepurposeofprovidingemergencyhealthcare.

D.Auxiliaryaids.

1.Arecipienttowhichthissub-partappliesthatemploysfifteenormorepersonsshallprovideappropriateauxiliaryaidstopersonswithimpairedsensory,manual,orspeakingskills,wherenecessarytoaffordsuchpersonsanequalopportunitytobenefitfromtheserviceinquestion.

2.TheDirectormayrequirerecipientswithfewerthanfifteenemployeestoprovideauxiliaryaidswheretheprovisionofaidswouldnotsignificantlyimpairtheabilityoftherecipienttoprovideitsbenefitsorservices.

3.Forthepurposeofthisparagraph,auxiliaryaidsmayincludebrailledandtapedmaterials,interpreters,andotheraids.

9

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callyrequestedbythehearing-impairedperson.Inaddition,healthcareprovidersmusthaveatleastoneteletypewriter(TDD/TTY)oranarrangementtoshareaTTYlinewithotherhealthfacilities.

Inmostcircumstances,thedeafpersonisinthebestpositiontojudgewhichmeansofcommunicationwillgivehim/herequalopportunityinhealthservice.Thepatient'sjudgmentinchoosingeffectivecommunicationmustbeconsideredofutmostimportance.Ifthereisanydisagreementbetweenthehealthcareproviderandthehearing-impairedpersonregardingcommunicationneeds,theusualpracticeistorespectthehearing-impairedperson'sjudgment.Therisksaregreaterwhenthereisinaccurateorincompletecommunicationthanwhenthehealthcarestaffhavelittleornoinformationonthepatient'smedicalhistoryorspecifichealthcareneeds.Wrongdiagnosiscanbemade,wrongmedicinecanbegiven,oranoperationcanbeperformedforthewrongreasonsifinaccurateorincompleteinformationisgiven.

But,inemergencyhealthcare,itmaynotalwaysbepossibletoprovideaspecifickindofcommunicationforahearing-impairedperson.Healthcarefacilitiesmust,however,providethemosteffectivecommunicationinviewofthelimitsoftimeintheemergencysituation.

10

EmergencyCare

Theemergencyhealthcareregulationsareespeciallyimportant.Hospitalsarerequiredtoestablishaspecialemergencyhealthcareprocedurefor"effectivecommunication"withdeafandhearing-impairedpeopleinemergencyrooms.11Thehospitalsshouldbeabletolocatequalifiedsignlanguageinterpretersonveryshortnotice.TheyshouldalsohaveTDD-equippedtelephones,sothatadeafpersoncanalertthehospitalthatadeafpatientiscominginandwillneedaninterpreterorotherspecialservices.TheTDDequipmentalsowillpermitthehospitalizeddeafpersontomakecallstofamilyor

medicalpersonnel.Emergencyroomstaffcanbetrainedtouseand

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recognizebasicsignlanguagenecessaryforemergencycare.Inadditiontheyshouldbetrainedtorecognizequicklythatapersonishearingimpairedandtoknowhowtofindappropriateauxiliaryaids.

HospitalCompliance

Thefollowingexamplesshowhowahospitalorhealthcentermayaccommodatedeafpatientsandcomplywithothersectionsoftheregulations.Ahospitalthatordinarilyallowsonlyonepersontoaccompanyawomanthroughnaturalchildbirthmayhavetoalteritsdeliveryroomrulestoallowboththehusbandandaninterpretertobepresentduringthedelivery.AhospitalthatprohibitsadmissionofdeafpeopletoitspsychiatricunitunlesstheyreadlipswillhavetochangeitspolicytocomplywithSection504regulations.Servicesmustbeequivalent.

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Whenapatientisinahospitalroom,therearemanydevicesthatheorshecandependontomakethehospitalstayeasier.Forthedeafpatient,manyofthesedevicesareuselessandmightjustaswellnotexist.Forexample,ifadeafpatientpressestheintercombutton,thenurseatthestationwillanswerbuttheycannotcommunicate.Afterrepeatedattemptstocontacteachother,thenurseandthedeafpatientmaybecomeexasperatedwitheachother.Thedeafpatientassumesthenurseknowsthatheorsheisdeaf,notrealizingthatthenursejustcameondutyand"forgot"therewasadeafpatientinRoom121.Thenursemaythinkthatthepatientishittingthebuttonbyaccidentanddecidetoignorethebuzzingintercom.Thistypicalproblemcanbepreventedby"flagging"deafpatients'chartsandintercombuttonssothatallpertinenthospitalpersonnelareawareofthespecialsituation.

Hospitalsmustalsoprovideongoingstafftrainingtosensitizepersonneltootherspecialneedsofhearing-impairedpeople:adequate,glare-freelighting;controlofbackgroundnoiseforallhearing-aidwearers;modificationstoauditoryfirealarmsystems;changesinoralevaluationprocedures;andfreeingapatient'shandsandarmsforsigningandgesturing.

Healthcarefacilitiesshouldtakespecialstepstomakesurethatdeafandblindpeopleknowaboutservicesthehospitalnormallyoffersandaboutanyspecialservicestowhichtheymaybeentitledbecauseoftheirdisabilities.Forexample,manyhospitalsprovidenewpatientssomekindoforientationtothehospitalanditspersonnelandservices.AllsuchinformationshouldbeavailableinwritingatanEnglishlevelthatmostpeoplecanunderstand.Itshouldincludeaneasy-to-readnoticeabouttheavailabilityofsignlanguageinterpreters,portableTDDs,andotherspecialservicesfordisabledpeople.

Ifafacilitygivesinformationaboutitsservicesbytelephone,itshouldensurethatdeafpeoplecangetthesameinformationusingaTDD-

equippedtelephone.Hospitalsalsoshouldhaveeasy-to-readnoticespostedintheemergencyroom,outpatientclinic,andalladmittingareas

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toinformdeafpeopleofsignlanguageinterpreterservicesorotherassistanceandhowtogetthem.Fewdeafpeoplerealizethatsuchservicesareavailableorknowhowtorequestthem.Itisthehospital'sresponsibilitytoprovidethisinformation.

Hospitalsoftenaskpatientstosignawrittenconsenttotreatmentorlegalwaiversofrightsbeforetheywilltreatthem.Section504requireshospitalstotakeanynecessarystepssothatdeafandblindpeopleunderstandtheserights.Adeafpatientshouldaskthehospitaltohavetheconsentpapersexplainedinsignlanguage.Theconsentandwaiverpapersalsoshouldbewritteninlanguagethatiseasyforthedeafpatienttounderstand.

GuidelinesForHospitals

ThefollowingguidelineswerewrittenbyNCLDtohelphospitaladministratorsdevelopproceduresforservingtheneedsoftheirdeafpatientsandcomplywithSection504regulations:

· Acentralofficeshouldbedesignatedtosuperviseservicestodeafpatients.Thisofficeshouldestablishasystemtoobtainqualifiedsignlanguageandoralinterpretersonshortnoticetwenty-fourhoursaday.

· Theunittowhichadeafpatientisadmittedshouldimmediatelynotifythedesignatedofficewhenadeafpatientisadmitted.

· Aninterpreter,ifavailablewithinthehospital,shouldbesenttothepatientimmediatelytoconsultwiththepatientastotheappropriatemethodofcommunication,whichmayinclude:

Useofaqualifiedsignlanguageand/ororalinterpreter;

Lipreading;

Handwrittennotes;

Supplementalhearingdevices,oranycombinationoftheabove.

Theinterpretershouldgivethepatientnoticeoftherighttoaqualifiedsignlanguageand/ororalinterpretertobeprovidedbythehospitalwithout

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chargetothepatient.Ifnointerpreterisavailablewithinthehospital,thepatientshouldbegivenwrittennoticeoftheserights.

· Theinterpreterassistsincommunicationbetweenthepatientandthestaffinallsituationswhereeffectivecommunicationisnecessarytoensurethatthedeafpatientisreceivingequalservicesandequalopportunitytoparticipateinandtobenefitfromhospitalservices.Thesesituationsincludebutarenotlimitedto:

Obtainingthepatient'smedicalhistory;

Obtaininginformedconsentorpermissionfortreatment;

Diagnosisoftheailmentorinjury;

Explanationsofmedicalprocedurestobeused;

Treatmentorsurgeryifthepatientisconscious,ortodetermineifthepatientisconscious;

Thosetimesthepatientisinintensivecareorintherecoveryroomaftersurgery;

Emergencysituationsthatarise;

Explanationsofthemedicationsprescribed,howandwhentheyaretobetaken,andpossiblesideeffects;

Assistingattherequestofthedoctororotherhospitalstaff;and

Dischargeofthepatient.

Friendsorrelativesofadeafpatientshouldnotbeusedasinterpretersunlessthedeafpatientspecificallyrequeststhattheyinterpret.Deafpatients,theirfriends,andtheirfamiliesshouldbetoldthataprofessionalinterpreterwillbeengagedwhereneededforeffectivecommunication.

· Thedeafpatientshouldbeinformedthatanotherinterpreterwillbeobtainedifthepatientisunabletocommunicatewithaparticularinterpreter.

· Anywrittennoticesofrightsorservicesandwrittenconsentformsshouldbewrittenatnohigherthanafifth-gradereadinglevel.Aninterpretershouldbeprovidedifthedeafpatientisunabletounderstandsuchwrittennotices.

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· Atelecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf(TDD)shouldbeobtainedandusedformakingappointments,givingoutinformation,andassistinginemergencysituations.PortableTDDsshouldbeavailableonrequestfordeafinpatients.Telephoneamplifiersshouldbeprovidedforhearing-impairedpatients.Alltelephonesshouldbecompatiblewithhearingaidsequippedwithatelephoneswitch.

· Alternativemethodstoauditoryintercomsystems,pagingsystems,andalarmsystemsshouldbeprovidedforallhearing-impairedpatients.

· Ongoingeffortsshouldbemadebythehospitaltosensitizestafftothevariousspecialneedsofdeafpatients.

· Contactwithlocaldeafpeople,organizationsforandofthedeaf,andthecommunityagenciesservingdeafpeopleshouldbemaintainedforassistanceindrawingupalistofqualifiedinterpretersandindevelopingaprogramofhospitalservicesthatisresponsivetotheneedsofdeafpatients.

DirectCareStaff

Hospitalstaffcandomanythingstoenablecommunicationwithadeafpatient,tomakethepatientmorecomfortablewiththehospitalenvironment,andtherebytoservethepatientbetter.Commonsenseandbasicinformationaboutdeafnesswillhelphospitalstafftoprovidegoodhealthcare.

Thedeafpatientisthebestresourceregardingthepreferredmodeofcommunicationandshouldbeconsultedaboutthisandaboutanyproblemsthatarise.Theisolationofdeafpeoplecanbeovercometoagreatextentbyexplainingwhatishappeningandansweringanyquestionsthepatientmighthave.

Theimportanceofusingaqualifiedinterpretertoensureeffective

communicationcannotbeoveremphasized.However,theremaybemanyroutinesituationssuchas

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bringingdinnerortakingtemperaturewhereaninterpreterisnotnecessary.Thefollowingguidelinesonworkingwithdeafpatientswillhelpcompensatefortheabsenceofaninterpreter.Theseguidelines,ifimplemented,willalsoimprovethequalityofcareprovided.

A.Makeaddedeffortsincommunicationtoensurethatthepatientunderstandswhatishappening.

1.Allowmoretimeforeverycommunication,notrushingthroughwhatissaid.Tomakesurethepatientunderstands,somethoughtsshouldberepeatedusingdifferentphrases.

2.Lipmovementsshouldnotbeexaggerated.Speakatanormalrateofspeedandseparatewords.

3.Patient'sarmsshouldnotberestricted;theyshouldbefreetowriteandsign.

4.Makecardsorpostersofusualquestionsandresponsesthatcanbepointedtoquickly.

5.Keeppaperandpenhandy,butbesensitivetothepatient'slevelofEnglishlanguagefluencyandwritingskills.

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B.Besensitivetothevisualenvironmentofdeafpatientsbyadjustinglightingandusingvisualratherthanauditorycuesandreassurances.

1.Usecharts,pictures,and/orthree-dimensionalmodelswhenexplaininginformationandprocedurestodeafpatients.

2.Donotremoveadeafpatient'sglassesorleaveadeafpatientintotaldarkness.

3.Removeanybrightlightsinfrontofthedeafpersonwhencommunicating;glaremakesitdifficulttoreadsignsorlips.

4.Facethepatientwhenspeaking,withoutcoveringyourfaceormouth.

5.Keepfacialexpressionspleasantandunworriedsoasnottoalarmthepatient.

C.Alertallstafftothepresenceandneedsofthedeafpatientandbesensitivetothoseneeds.

1.''Flag"theintercombuttonsothatworkerswillknowthepatientisdeafandrequiresapersonalvisitratherthanaresponseovertheintercom.

2."Flag"thepatient'scharts,room,andbedtoalertstafftouseappropriatemeansofcommunication.

D.Informhospitalpersonnelofthespecialneedsofpeoplewithhearingaids.

1.Allowthepatienttowearthehearingaid.

2.Don'tshoutatthepatient.

3.Besurethatthepatienthasfullyunderstoodwhatissaid.

TrainingModels

Manyhealthcareproviderswonderwhatkindoftrainingwillbestpreparetheirstaffstomeettheneedsofhearing-impairedpeople.Specializedtrainingisbothveryimportantandveryhardtofind.Notenoughattentionhasbeenpaidtotheneedsofhearing-impairedpeople,letalonetowaysofmeetingthoseneeds.Deafnessandhearingim-

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pairmentarelargelyinvisibleandthereforeoftenneglectedhandicaps.TheyarethemostcommondisabilitiesintheUnitedStatestoday,andtheyarethemostmisunderstood.Tohelpovercomethismisunderstanding,twokindsoftrainingforhealthcareprovidersarenowbeingconducted.

Thefirstisamodeltrainingconcept.TheNationalAcademyatGallaudetUniversityhasdevelopedatrainingpacketfornursesonhowtocarefordeafpatients.Thepackethasbeengiventoavarietyofhospitalsacrossthecountryandfeaturestrainingfilms,slides,andlectures.Thenurseslearnhowtoapproachtheirdeafpatientsandhowtounderstandtheindividualityofeachpatient.Thisone-sessiontrainingseminarisamodelprojectdesignedtoinitiatecontinuousseminars.Nursesareencouragedtokeepuptheirtraining,andtheirhospitalsareencouragedtokeepintouchwiththeNationalAcademyforfurthertrainingmaterialsandinstructions.

12

Thesecondkindoftrainingislocalefforttoeducatehealthcareprovidersandthedeafcommunity.Atwo-wayeducationalprocessinmaternalandchildhealthcareisbeingundertakenatthecommunitylevelbyDeafprideofWashington,D.C.Theprojectwasestablishedafterthemotherofayoungdeafchildsawtheproblemsdeafmothershadingettingmedicalcare.Theprojectpreparesdeafwomenfordeliveryandmaternalcarebyholdinggroupsessions.Itconductsworkshopsforbothhealthcareprovidersandthehearing-impairedpatient.TheprojecthasTDDsattwocommunityhealthclinicsplusongoingservicesatHowardUniversityHospitalintheDistrictofColumbiaandPrinceGeorge'sGeneralHospitalinnearbyMaryland.13

Theseeducationalprogramshaveproducedagrowingawareness

amongbothmedicalprovidersandhearing-impairedconsumersabouttheimportanceofongoingeducationaboutSection504.

Fordeafpeopletoreceiveeffectivehospitalcare,hospitaladministratorsmustbeinformedoftheirSection504obligations.Hospitalpersonnelneedtobeeducatedand

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trainedtomeetthespecialneedsofdeafpatients.Thegeneralcommunityneedstounderstandhowimportantitistoprovidequalitymedicalcareforthedeafcommunity.Andthedeafpatientneedstounderstandhisorherrights.

Notes

1.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84.52(a)

2.45C.F.R.§84.21(f)

3.45C.FR.§84.52(d)(1)

4.45C.F.R.§84.52(d)(3)

5.45C.F.R.§84.52(d)(2)

6.IntheHHSSection504regulation,theserulesareinSubpartF,45C.F.R.§84.51etseq.TheOfficeofRevenueSharingpursuanttoSection122(a)oftheStateandLocalAssistanceActof1972,asamendedin31UnitedStatesCode§1242(a)hasinvokedtheHHSSection504regulationforrecipientstateandlocalgovernments.

7.E.g.,seeWashingtonRev.Code§70-54

8.MarylandHumanRelationsCodeAnn.§498;MaineRev.Stat.Tit.5§4591

9.45C.F.R.§84.52

10."PositionontheProvisionofAuxiliaryAidsforHearing-ImpairedPatientsinInpatient,Outpatient,andEmergencyTreatmentSettings,"memorandumfromRomaJ.Stewart(Director,OfficeforCivilRights,DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare)toregionaldirectors,April21,1980.

11.45C.FR.§84.52(c)

12.TheNationalAcademy,GallaudetUniversity,800FloridaAve.NE,Washington,DC20002

13.Deafpride,Inc.,2010RhodeIslandAve.NE,Washington,DC20018

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ChapterSevenMentalHealthAnattendantstandsinthemiddleofthementalhealthunitshoutingatapatient.Forthirty-fiveyearsthehospitalattendantshavetriedtocommunicatebyyellingathim.Theystilldonotknowthatheisdeaf.

Thismanandhissituationarereal.Heislikemanydeafpeopleinmentalhealthfacilitieswhosufferfrommisdiagnosisormaltreatment.Atthesametime,theneedsofmanyotherdeafpeopleformentalhealthcaregounmet.

Approximately43,000or10percentoftheprevocationallydeafpopulationneedmentalhealthservices,butfewerthan2percentreceivethem.

1ProgressiveprogramsexistinsomestatesandtheDistrictofColumbia,buttherearefewmentalhealthfacilitiesfunctioningspecificallyfordeafpatients.Also,fewregularfacilitiesareevenmodestlystaffedandequippedtohelpdeafpatients,inspiteoftherelativeeaseandminimalexpensewithwhichthepatientscanbeaided.

Theprimaryproblemisthelackofcompetentmentalhealthprofessionalswhohaveskillincommunicatingwithandunderstandingdeafpeople.Evenwithaninterpreterpresent,thementalhealthprofessionalmustbeempathetictodeafpeopleandtheircultureiftherapyistobeeffective.

Thedirectandfrequentresultofmiscommunicationismisinterpretationofthepatient'sdeafnessandspeechless-

ThischapterisadaptedfromS.DuBow,"LegalStrategiestoImproveMentalHealthCareforDeafPeople."InL.K.Stein,E.D.Mindel,andT.J.Jabaley,eds.,DeafnessandMentalHealth(NewYork:Grune&Stratton,1981),pp.195210.Usedbypermissionofthepublisher.

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nessaspsychopathologyorretardation.Amisdiagnosisusuallyresultsinimproperplacement,misguidedtreatmentandcasemanagement,unjustifiedexclusionofthepatientfromhospitalprogramsandactivities,andinappropriateaftercare.Thesadresultisthepatient'sisolation,bewilderment,andevenrage,allofwhichruncountertothepurposesofthefacilityanditsstaff.

AsurveyofNewYorkstatepsychiatrichospitalsrevealedthatmorethanone-fourthoftheirdeafpatientshadbeendiagnosedasmentallydeficient,ascontrastedwithonly3.7percentofthenondeaf.

2McCayVernon,apsychologistnotedforhisworkwithdeafpeople,observes:

IthasbeenestablishedthatIQisessentiallynormallydistributedinthedeafpopulation.Obviouslygrosserrorhadbeenmadeinthefundamentalbutrelativelyeasy-to-makediagnosisofmentalretardation.3

AstudyofIllinoisstatementalhospitalsfoundthatstaffinthree-quartersofthefacilitieshadnoconceptofwhichpatientsweredeaf.Onehospitalwithapproximately4,000patientsprovidedthenamesof200patientsconsideredtobedeaf;onlyoneofthemwasactuallydeaf.Ontheotherhand,fivedeafpatients,noneofwhosenameswasonthelist,werefoundinjustoneunit.Manyofthedeafpatientsthoughttheyweretheonlydeafpeopleinthehospital.Theauthorsofthestudynoted:

Obviously,ifthedeafpatientswerenotevenidentifiedasdeaf,norealeffortwasmadetotreatthem.Nostaffmembersorotherpatientscouldcommunicatewiththeminthelanguageofsigns.Thus,theyweretotalisolates.Infact,inthissense,theirhospitalizationwasactuallyanti-therapeutic.4

Misdiagnosiscanresultinthedeafpatientbeinginappropriately

assignedandconfinedtoaninstitutionformanyyearsbeforethemistakeisdiscovered.Therearenumerousaccountsofmisdiagnosissimilartothatwhichopenedthischapter.Vernon,forexample,reportedthecaseofapatientwhospentthirty-fiveyearsatIdaho's

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stateschoolandhospitalforthementallyretardedwhendeafnesswasthepatient'sprimarydisability.

TwoCases

DonaldLang

Acelebratedandoften-citedcriminalcaseillustrateshowmisdiagnosisandanabsenceofappropriateservicescanaffectadeafperson'slife.

DonaldLangofChicagoisunabletohear,speak,read,orwrite.Hehasbeenaccusedoftwogruesomerape-murdersand,formorethanfifteenyears,hasbeenconfinedtomentalhospitalsandjails.Forequallylong,Illinoiscourts,lawyers,andmentalhealthofficialshavestruggledtodecidewhattodowithhim.

WhenLangwasfirstaccusedofmurderin1966,hewasfoundtobementallyandphysicallyincompetenttostandtrial,andhewascommittedtoamentalhospitalforlife.Langappealed,andthestatesupremecourtruledthatLangshouldbegivenatrialtodeterminehisguiltand,iffoundnotguilty,released.

5Bythetimeofthetrial,however,oneofthestate'sprincipalwitnesseshaddied.Thechargewasdropped,andLangwasreleasedin1970.

In1972,hewasagainchargedwithasimilarrape-murder.CitingtheIllinoisSupremeCourt'sdecisioninhisfirstcase,Langchosetostandtrialandwasconvicted.Thestatesupremecourtreversedtheconviction,rulingthatthetrialwasconstitutionallyimpermissiblebecauseithadbeenconductedwithoutaidsthatwouldhaveallowedLangtounderstandthenatureandobjectoftheproceedingsagainsthim,consultwithhisattorney,andassistinpreparinghisdefense.6

TheIllinoisAppellateCourtruledinJune1978that,becauseLangwasneithermentallyillnorretarded,thedepartmentofmentalhealthdidnothavetodevelopatrainingprogramtomakeLangfitfortrial.7Atthesametime,itcriticizedthestate'sattorney'soffice,themental

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healthdepartment,andtheIllinoislegislaturebecauseofthedesperateneedforrehabilitationcapabilityandforchangeinIllinois'lawandpractice.

InIllinois,contrarytothelawsofsomeotherstates,thecourtsdonothavethepowertotakedefendantsunfittostandtrialandcommitthemtomentalhealthdepartmentsforpropertreatment.WithoutsuchchangesinIllinois,Langcannotgettreatmentuntilheisexonerated,buthecannotbeexonerateduntilhegetstreatment.

TheonJackson

AcasesimilartoDonaldLang'swasdecidedbytheU.S.SupremeCourt.

8TheonJackson,anilliterate,mentallyretardeddeafpersonwithnobasiccommunicationskills,wasaccusedofpursesnatching.AnIndianacourtcommittedJacksontoamentalinstitutionduetohisinabilitytounderstandthenatureofthechargesagainsthim.Hiscommitmentwastocontinueuntilhissanitycouldbecertifiedtothecourt.

TheSupremeCourtreversedthestatecourtdecision,declaringthatJackson'sconstitutionalrightswerevio-

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latedsincehewascondemnedtopermanentinstitutionalizationwithoutthenecessaryshowingrequiredforcommitmentunderthestatestatute.Ifitcouldnotjustifycontinuedconfinementaftersixmonths,thestatewasorderedtoproceedtotrialordismissthecase.

Bothofthesecasesraisetheissuesofadeafperson'sfitnesstostandtrialforacriminaloffenseandtheapplicablestandardforcommitment.BothLangandJacksonwerefoundincompetenttostandtrial.Thetraditionaltestforcompetenceiswhetherthedefendantunderstandstheproceedingsandchargesandwhetherheorshecanconsultwithalawyerandassistactivelyinpresentingthedefense.

9

LangandJacksonwerefoundincompetenttostandtrial,butthisstemmedfromaninabilitytocommunicate,notfrommentalillness.Afindingofincompetenceusuallyresultsincommitmenttoamentalhealthfacilityuntilsuchtimeastheindividualbecomescompetent.YetrestorationofcompetenceforLangandJacksonwashighlyunlikely.IntheJacksoncase,theSupremeCourtrealizedthattheresultofthisprocedurepermanentinstitutionalizationviolatestheconstitutionalrightsofthedefendant.

Toremedythisinequity,theSupremeCourtheldthatanyincompetencycommitmentmustbetemporaryandreasonablylikelytobeeffectiveinrestoringthedefendanttocompetency.Ifthereisnosubstantialprobabilitythatthedefendant'sconditionistreatable,commitmenteitherisnotallowedormustbeterminatedifithasalreadytakenplace.TheCourtthusattackedtherigidinterpretationofcompetencyandcommitmentstandardsappliedbythestatethatresultedinthedeprivationofJackson'sconstitutionalrights.

Presumably,thelawthathasdevelopedasaresultofthesetwocases

wouldpreventdeafpeopleaccusedofcrimesfrombeinginstitutionalizedwithoutpropertreatmentandwithouthopeofbeingtriedforthecrimecharged.Yet,practicalproblemsremainintheimplementationofthesetwojudicialdecisions.TheLangcasedem-

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onstratestheproblemsindevelopingprogramstotrain"incompetent"individualstoimprovetheircommunicationskillsandparticipateintheircriminaldefense.Whoisresponsiblefordevelopingtheseprogramsandwhattheywillconsistofremainunansweredquestions.AndalthoughtheIndianacourtspokeofcommittingJacksonforareasonabletimeuntilcompetencyisrestored,noguidelineswereprovidedastohowlongareasonableperiodoftimeis.

ThesepracticalproblemsseriouslyimpairanyprotectionsguaranteedbythecasesofLangandJackson.Untiljudicialdecisionsorlegislationfurtherclarifytheseissuesandfindsolutionsfortheseproblems,deafdefendants,adjudgedincompetenttostandtrial,willcontinuetosufferthelossoftheirconstitutionalrights.

ProgramsForDeafPeople

Anotherdismayingproblemthataffectsdeafanddeaf-blindpatientsistheabusesometimesinflictedonthem.Unabletosummonhelportoidentifyattackers,theyandtheirfoodandpropertyareeasytargetsformoreaggressivepatients.Eveninwell-managedfacilities,wheretheseabusesarerare,thedeafpersonmayfindtheveryprocessofinstitutionalizationbrutaltothepsyche,becauseheorshecanunderstandlittleornothingofwhatishappeningintheplace.

Respondingtotheproblems,somehospitalsandmentalhealthadministrationsinthestatesandtheDistrictofColumbiahavebeguntodevelopspecificprogramsfordeafpeople.

10ExamplesareSt.ElizabethsHospitalinWashington,D.C.,andnewprogramsinMichiganandMaryland.

Deafpeople,theirhearingadvocates,andthestategovernmentcombinedeffortsinMichigantoestablishaCenterforDeafTreatment

Services(CDTS).Underthestatedepartmentofmentalhealth,thepilotprogramincludesatwenty-bedinpatientunittoservehearing-

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impairedpatientsovertheageofseventeen.Thephilosophybehindthetreatmentapproachisthatthepsychologicalconsequencesofdeafnessareprimarilyresponsiblefortheproblemsinthesepatients'personalitydevelopment.Theapproachisakeythatopensnewpossibilitiesforinterventionandtreatment.Patientsinthedeafunitaretaughtsignlanguage,whichisusedinallindividualandgrouptherapy.

Inadditiontoinpatientservices,CDTSstaffisavailabletoprovideeducation,consultation,diagnostic,andevaluationservicestootherinstitutionsandcommunitymentalhealthprograms.Thecenterplanstosetupseveraloutpatientclinicsthroughoutthestate.

Somestatesfunddeafunitsthroughtheirdepartmentsofmentalhealth;otherstateschannelsuchfundingtodepartmentsofvocationalrehabilitation.Somedeafunitshaveamixoffederalandstategrantstopursuetheirwork;becausesuchgrantsaretemporary,though,newonesmustbesoughtconstantly.

Whennoleadershipexistsinastatementalhealthsystemorvocationalrehabilitationdepartment,orwhenthelegislatureisindifferent,thenalternatepointsofinitiatingchangemustbefound.Courtsareincreasinglyrecognizingthatmentalpatientshavelegalrights,solegalactionmayservetoimprovementalhealthservicesfordeafpatients.

LegalAction

Legalactioncanbeonbehalfofanindividualoraclassofpeople.Inthefirst,asinglepersonseeksrelieffromasituation.Inthesecond,apersonwhoclaimstorepresentallpeoplesimilarlysituatedbringsasuitontheirbehalf.Eachmethodhasbeenusedtoachievesomeimpressivevictories.

Therearetwokindsofindividualaction:acivildamagesuitandawritofhabeascorpus.Acivildamagesuitisusedwhenapatientsuesphysicianswhoneglecthisor

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hercare.AfamouscaseofthistypeinvolvedKennethDonaldson,whowascommittedtoaFloridastatementalhospitalforfifteenyearswithoutreceivingtreatment.Inthelandmarkcase,O'Connorv.Donaldson,theU.S.SupremeCourtheldthatitisunconstitutionaltoconfineagainsttheirwillsnondangerouspeoplewhoarecapableoflivingoutsidetheinstitutionandwhoarenotreceivingtreatment.

11

Thesecondkindofindividualactionisthewritofhabeascorpus,atraditionaltoolforchallengingconditionsofconfinement,whetherinjailorsomeotherinstitution.Itisthemostappropriatelegalmethodforpatientswhohavebeenmisdiagnosedorcommittedbecauseproperplacementswerenotavailable.Itcanbeusedtochallengeoverlyrestrictiveconditionsorinappropriatetreatmentandtoobtainservicesorplacementsthataremorefitting.

HabeascorpuswassuccessfullyusedintheDistrictofColumbiatochallengeplacementofpatientsinexcessivelyrestrictivetreatmentsettings.AccordingtoDistrictofColumbiastatutes,thepurposeofinvoluntarycommitmentistreatment;confinementmaylegallyrestrictlibertyonlyinsofarasitisnecessarytotreatthepatient.Forexample,apatientwithamilddisordercannotbelockedinamaximumsecuritywardusedtohousethecriminallyinsane.Patientshavearighttotheformoftreatmentwhichisleastrestrictive.12Somecourtshaveevenheldthatahospitalhasanobligationtoexplorealternativeplacementsforeachofitspatientsandtoselectthatplacementwhichisleastrestrictive.13

Oneproblemwithhabeascorpusisthestandardusedinjudgingwhetherthehospitalhasactedimproperly.Thecourtdoesnotrequirethatthehospitalmakethebestchoiceoftreatmentsbutonlythatitmakeapermissibleandreasonablechoiceinlightoftherelevant

informationitpossesses.14Itisdifficult,therefore,forthepatienttoprovethatthehospitalhasactedunreasonablyorimproperlyinchoosingtreatment.Thehabeascorpusprocessisalsoexpensiveandtime-consuming.Casesareoftendifficultbecausetheyarelitigatedindividually.Also,while

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thecaseisinprogress,thehospitalcanreassignthepatientorchangethetermsofconfinement.Thecourtcanthendismissthepatient'sclaimofinadequatetreatmentbecausethepatient'sstatus,evenifnotimproved,haschanged.

ClassActionSuits

Becauseofthedifficultyinbringingindividualsuitsandthelimitationoftheremedyonlytothepatientwhobroughtthesuit,classactionhasprovedtobeamoreeffectivemeansofachievinginstitutionalchange.Aclassactionsuitisfiledbyapatientwhoclaimstorepresentallpeoplesimilarlysituated.Becausetheremedyresultingfromtheactionappliestoallsuchpeople,classactionlitigationoftenresultsinthedefinitionandarticulationofrightsofmentalpatients,minimumstandardsforcareandtreatment,andresponsibilitiesandliabilitiesofthetreatingstaff.

Afamousclassactionsuit,Wyattv.Stickney,latercalledWyattv.Aderholt,resultedintherecognitionandestablishmentofamentalpatient'sconstitutionalrighttobetreatedandnotmerelyheldincustodialcare.

15

Thecourtissuedafar-reachingandeffectivedecision,rulingspecificallythatpatientsinvoluntarilycommittedthroughnoncriminalprocedurestoastatementalhospitalhaveaconstitutionalrighttoreceivesuchindividualtreatmentaswillgivethemanopportunitytoimprovetheirmentalconditionorbecured.Thecourtdecreedminimalconstitutionalstandardsforadequatetreatment,includinganindividualtreatmentplanthatprovidesastatementoftheleastrestrictivetreatmentconditionsnecessarytoachievethepurposesofcommitment.Otherrightswerespecificallyrecognized:therightstoa

humanepsychologicalandphysicalenvironment,privacy,dignity,andfreedomfromisolation.Thecourtalsoestablishedahumanrightscommitteetoinvestigateviolationsofpatients'rightsandtooverseeimplementationoftheplan.Italsoorderedaminimumnumberoftreatmentpersonnel

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per250patientsandotherchangestoensuremorehumanelivingconditions.

Theeffectsofthisdecisionfordeafpeoplearepotentiallygreat,becausecurrentlawsdonotensurethatadeafpersonwillreceiveanythingmorethananinterpreteranaccommodationthatmostprofessionalsprovidingmentalhealthcaretodeafpeopleagreeisinsufficient.Theone-to-onerelationshipbetweenthetherapistandthepatientiscriticalintherapy.However,undertheWyattdecision,anindividualizedtreatmentplanforadeafpersonwouldprobablyincludeprogramssuchasMichigan'sCenterforDeafTreatmentServices(describedearlier).Byincludingtraininginsignlanguage,theprogramwouldallowthepatienttoparticipatefullyintherapyandtointeractwithstaffandotherdeafpatients,whothemselveswouldknoworbelearningsignlanguage.Theemphasisoncommunicationskillswouldbeacentralaspectoftherapyandrehabilitation,allowingthepatienttheopportunityforsocialadjustmentandeventualintegrationintosociety.

Anothereffectivelegalstrategybasedonconstitutionallawisuseofthe''protectionfromharm"theory.Theprinciplehereisthatconfinementbythestateshouldnot

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causeaperson'sconditiontodeteriorate.ThisprinciplewassuccessfullyinvokedtocorrectovercrowdedconditionsinNewYork'sWillowbrookStateSchool.

16ThecourtruledthatpatientsofastateinstitutionhavearighttoprotectionfromsuchinhumanetreatmentaswouldconstitutecruelandunusualpunishmentundertheEighthAmendment.Therulingstatedthattreatmentisimpermissiblyharmfulnotonlywhenthereisphysicalharmordeteriorationbutalsowhenconditionsthatexistfrustratethefulldevelopmentofone'scapabilities.

StateStatutes

Statelawisoftenaneffectivebasisforsuit.Manystatesnowhavestatutesguaranteeingarighttotreatmentintheirinstitutions,atrendthatbeganbecauseofahighlyinfluentiallegaldecisionintheDistrictofColumbia,Rousev.Cameron.17Filingapetitionforhabeascorpus,thepatientreliedonaDistrictlawtocontendthathehadarighttobetreated,notmerelyconfined.Thelawstates:

Apersonhospitalizedinapublichospitalforamentalillnessshall,duringhishospitalization,beentitledtomedicalandpsychiatriccareandtreatment.Theadministratorofeachpublichospitalshallkeeprecordsdetailingallmedicalandpsychiatriccareandtreatmentreceivedbyapersonhospitalizedforamentalillness....18

Thecourtconstruedthisstatuteasgrantingthepatient'scontention,andotherstatecourtshaveruledsimilarlyininterpretingtheirlaws.Oneadvantageofthisapproachisthatjudgesinstatecourtswillprobablybemoreinclinedtoenforcestatelawsthantodeclarenewconstitutionalrights.

Inthelasttwentyyearstherehasbeensubstantialmovementawayfromtreatmentinlargeinstitutionsandtowardtreatmentinthe

community.Statereformsoftheircommitmentproceduresandpolicies,recentcourtdecisionssettingminimumstandardsforpatientcare,anewfederalemphasisoncommunity-basedcare,andthede-

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mandforappropriatetreatmenthaveallacceleratedthemovementtowardprovisionofmentalhealthservicesinthecommunity.

19By1975threeoutofeveryfourpeoplereceivingmentalhealthcaredidsoasoutpatients,primarilyincommunity-basedsettings.20

AnotherinfluentialrulingisDixonv.Weinberger.21AfederalcourtfortheDistrictofColumbiaheldthatpatientsinSt.ElizabethsHospitalafederallyadministeredmentalhospitalandcommunitymentalhealthcenterinWashington,D.C.havearighttotreatmentthatspecificallyincludestherighttobeplacedinfacilitiesoutsidetheinstitutiononcetheinstitutiondeterminesthatsuchaplacementisappropriate.ThecourtruledthattheUnitedStatesandDistrictofColumbiaviolatedtheDistrict's1964HospitalizationoftheMentallyIllActwhentheyfailedtoplaceinalternative,lessrestrictivefacilitiesthoseSt.Elizabethsinpatientsdeterminedtobesuitableforcommunityplacement.Lessrestrictivealternativesincludednursinghomes,fosterhomes,personalcarehomes,andhalfwayhouses.

RighttoHabilitation

AnotherimportantcaseinvolvedthestateofMaine.22AfederaldistrictcourtinMaineapprovedaconsentdecreethatestablisheddetailedstandardsforthecareandtreatmentofmentallyretardedpeoplewhoareplacedincommunitysettings.Intheconsentdecree,Mainerecognizedthat,regardlessoftheirageanddegreeofretardationorotherdisability,peoplereleasedfrominstitutionsintothecommunityhavetherighttoreceive"habilitation."Habilitationspecificallyincludestherighttoanindividualizedplanofcare,education,andtrainingandtoservicesincludingphysicaltherapy,psychotherapy,speechtherapy,andmedicalanddentalattention.

Theconsentagreementwasthefirstonethatobligatedastateto

considerspecificallywhatwasrequiredinorderfordeafpeopletobenefitfromstateservices.Theserequirementsincludedthefollowing:(1)hearing-impaired

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outpatientswhocouldnotacquirespeechwouldbetaughtsignlanguage;(2)thestatewouldprovidesignlanguagetrainingtostaffandothersworkingwithdeafcitizens;(3)screeningsforhearingabilitywouldbeconductedwitheachpatient;(4)treatmentand/orfurtherevaluationwouldbeprovidedbyqualifiedspeechandhearingprofessionals;and(5)hearingaids,whenneeded,wouldbeprovidedandmaintainedingoodworkingorder.Thecourtappointedamastertomonitorimplementationoftheconsentagreement.

Therightsofmentallyretardedpersonsweremorenarrowlydefined,however,ina1981U.S.SupremeCourtdecision.InthecaseofPennhurstv.Halderman,

23theCourtheldthattheDevelopmentallyDisabledAssistanceandBillofRightsAct24doesnotnecessarilyrequirestatestoprovidetreatmentincommunitysettingstomentallyretardedpersons.Theact'sbillofrightsstatesthatmentallyretardedindividualshavethe"righttoappropriatetreatment,services,andhabilitation"ina"settingthatisleastrestrictiveof..personalliberty."25TheCourtheldthatCongressdidnotintendbythislanguagetoimposemassivefinancialobligationsonstates.

TheCourtstatedthatCongressmustmakecleartothestatesanyobligationstobeimposeduponthemthroughthereceiptoffederalfinancialassistance.ThisrulingreversedalowercourtdecisionwhichheldthattherightsofmentallyretardedresidentsofPennhurstStateSchoolandHospitalwereviolatedbecauseofunsanitary,inhumane,anddangerouslivingconditions.

ConsciousnessRaising

Anyfuturejudicialconstructionofarighttocommunitytreatmentformentalillnesswillhavefar-reachinginfluenceonimprovingthe

noninstitutionalcareofdeafpeople.Butatpresent,communicationandattitudinalbarriers,andthelackofqualified,capablestaff,preventmostexistingcommunityfacilitiesfromsatisfactorilymeetingthementalhealthneedsoftheirdeafclients.Fordeaf

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peopletobereleasedfrominstitutionswheretheyreceivemerelycustodialcareisnosolutionifalltheycanlookforwardtoisinaccessiblecommunityservices.

Intermsofchangingthewaythingsaredone,theinvolvementofthementalhealthprofessionwillbemoreimportantthanevenfuturelitigation.Theprofessionmustproducespecificandpracticalsolutionstotheproblemsofpeopleputintoitscare,andthisincludesdeafpeople.Moreandbettertrainingopportunitiesindeafpsychology,research,informationdissemination,andculturalawarenessareneededwithintheprofessionTheraisingofconsciousnessshouldoccurateverylevel.

StateLegislation

Fromthepointofviewofincreasingthenumberandqualityofgoodlawsandachievingeffectivelevelsofresourceallocation,workwiththestatelegislaturesisabsolutelynecessary.*Goodlawshaveasfar-reachinganimpactaslegalvictories.Concernedpeopleandorganizationsmentalhealthprofessionals,statementalhealthandvocationalrehabilitationadministrators,legislators,jurists,anddisabledadvocatesandactivists-oughttobenaturalalliesintheefforttoproducesolutionsthatareeffective,sensible,andnotmerelycosmetic.

Severalstateshavesetthepace.Oklahomahasanewlawestablishingacomprehensivementalhealthcareprogramfordeafpeople,includinginpatientandoutpatientmentalhealthservicesandcounselingtofamilymembersofdeafpatients.

26Thelawrequirescooperationwithotherstatehealthprogramsandagencies.Theprofessionalstaffofthisstatewideprogramarerequiredtohaveexperienceinworkingwiththementalhealthproblemsofhearing-impairedindividualsandtheirfamilies.

Georgia,Illinois,Massachusetts,Michigan,andPenn-

*Seechapterthirteenformoreinformationonstatelegislaturesandstatecommissions.Thedetailsofhowonestatelegislaturewaspersuadedtoestablishanoutpatientmentalhealthprogramfordeafpeopleisrecountedinthatchapter.

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sylvaniahaverecentlychangedtheirmentalhealthlawstorequireindividualizedtreatmentplans.

TheGeorgialegislatureamendeditsmentalhealthlawinordertoelaboratetherightsofpatientsinstatementalhealthfacilities.

27Theseincludetherighttorefusetreatment,therighttotheleastrestrictivealternativeforeverypatient,therighttoplacementinnoninstitutionalcommunityfacilitiesandprogramsasappropriate,andrecoursetoanestablishedcomplaintprocedure.

A1977amendmenttotheIllinoisMentalHealthCodespecificallymandatedindividualtreatmentplansanduseofsignlanguagewithanyhearing-impairedpatientforwhomsignlanguageisaprimarymodeofcommunication.Unfortunately,thisamendmentwasexcludedfromacomprehensivereformofIllinois'mentalhealthlawin1978;itremainsagoodmodel,though,forstatestoguaranteeaccessibilityofmentalhealthservicestodeafpeople.28

TheOklahomastatuteisagoodmodelforalegislativeprogramthatdirectlyaddressestheneedsofthedeafcommunity.Deafpeopleshouldbeabletoreceivetheentirerangeofhousingandtreatmentenvironments:communitymentalhealthcenters,nursinghomes,personalcarehomes,fosterhomes,andhalfwayhouses.

AdvocacyAgencies

Theenactmentofprogressivelawsandthecreationofspecialprogramsaremilestonesintheefforttoassureaccessibleandeffectivementalhealthcarefordeafpeople.Togetotherstatestochangetheirlawsandtofundnecessaryserviceswillrequireperseverance,coordination,andfollow-throughfromlegislativeactivists.Instatesthathavenotaddressedtheneedsoftheirdeafcitizens,federalstatutesareabouttheonlyeffectivewaytoachieveeventhebare

minimumofaccommodation-themeanstocommunicate.

Itismostimportant,forexample,thatstatesenactlawsprovidingindependentadvocacyagenciestoprotectthe

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civilrightsofmentalpatients.CongresshasrequiredthecreationoftheseagenciesinstatesthatreceiveformulagrantsundertheDevelopmentallyDisabledAssistanceandBillofRightsAct.Specifically,theagencieshaveauthorityto"pursuelegal,administrative,andotherappropriateremedies"intheprotectionofandadvocacyfortherightsofpeoplereceivingthestateservice.Theagenciesarerequiredtobeindependentofthestateentitiesthatprovidetreatment,service,orhabilitationtopeoplewithdevelopmentaldisabilities.

FederalRegulations

Section504ofthe1973RehabilitationActisanotherstatutewithsignificantimpactonthestates.ThefederalregulationstothislawrequirementalhealthfacilitiesreceivingDepartmentofHealthandHumanServices'fundingtoprovideeffectivebenefitsorservicesinamannerthatdoesnotlimitorhavetheeffectoflimitingtheparticipationofqualifiedhandicappedpeopleintheprogram.Arecipientmentalhealthagencyorfacility

thatemploysfifteenormorepersonsshallprovideappropriateauxiliaryaidstopersonswithimpaired

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sensory,manual,orspeakingskills,wherenecessarytoaffordsuchpersonsanequalopportunitytobenefitfromtheserviceinquestion...Forthepurposeofthisparagraph,auxiliaryaidsmayincludebrailledandtapedmaterial,interpreters,andotheraidsforpersonswithimpairedhearingorvision.

29

Mentalhealthserviceprovidersthusbeartheresponsibilityofprovidinginterpreterstodeafpatients.FacilitiesthatrefusetoprovidethemriskawithholdingorcuttingoffoftheirHHSfundsoraprivatelawsuitagainstthem.Severalsuccessfullawsuitshavebeenbroughtagainstuniversities,socialserviceagencies,andhospitalsrequiringthemtopayforandotherwiseprovideinterpreterservices.30

Thedifficultiesineffectingchangethroughlitigationcannotbeignored.Thelegislativeprocessisusuallylessexpensiveandtime-consuming.Ineithercase,linksofcommunicationandunderstandingmustbeestablishedbetweenallwhohaverolestoplayinmentalhealthservicesfordeafpeople:legislators,jurists,mentalhealthworkers,concernedcitizens,anddeafpeoplethemselves.Theymustworktogethertofindgoodsolutions.

SuccessfulLawsuits

Deafindividualshaveachievedvictoriesinseveralrecentlawsuits.

AdeafwomancommittedtoaMarylandmentalhospitalreceivednotreatmentformorethantwentyyears.InDoev.Wilzack,31broughtonherbehalfbytheNationalAssociationoftheDeafLegalDefenseFund,shewonindividualreliefandthestateofMarylandagreedtoestablishaninpatienttreatmentunitforherandotherdeafinpatientsinstatefacilities.

InasimilarcaseinMinnesotabroughtbytheLegalAdvocacyProject

forHearingImpairedPersons,thestateagreedtoestablishcomprehensivetreatmentprogramsfordeafmentalhealthpatients.Adetailedsettlementagreementaddressesservicesforthefournamedplaintiffsas

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wellasstaffing,programservices,andobligationtosecurefundinginstatefacilitiesfordeafpatients.

32

Inathirdcase,adeafchildwon$1,500,000whenheprovedthatitwasmedicalmalpracticetodiagnosehimasmentallyretardedwhenhewasanormal,bright,deafchild.33

Notes

1.RehabilitationServicesAdministration,ThirdAnnualConferenceonDeafness,RSARegionIII,OceanCity,Md.(Washington,D.C.:U.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,1977).

2.J.D.Rainer,K.A.Altshuler,F.J.Kallmann,andW.E.Demming,FamilyandMentalHealthProblemsinaDeafPopulation(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity,NewYorkStatePsychiatricInstitute,DepartmentofMedicalGenetics,1963),p.201.

3.M.Vernon,"TechniquesofScreeningforMentalIllnessAmongDeafClients,"JournalofRehabilitationoftheDeaf2(1969):24.

4.R.R.Grinker,PsychiatricDiagnosis,Therapy,andResearchonthePsychoticDeaf(Washington,D.C.:U.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,SocialandRehabilitationService,1969),p.24.

5.Peopleex.relMeyersv.Briggs,46Ill.2d281,263N.E.2d109(1970)

6.Peoplev.Lang,26Ill.App.3d648(1975),325N.E.2d305(1975)

7.Peoplev.Lang,62Ill.App.3d688(1978),378N.E.2d1106(1978)

8.Jacksonv.Indiana,406U.S.715(1972)

9.Duskyv.UnitedStates,362U.S.402(1960)

10.L.Robinson,"GroupPsychotherapyUsingManualCommunication,"MentalHospitals16(1965):172-174;andL.Robinson,"AProgramforDeafMentalPatients,"HospitalandCommunityPsychiatry24(1973):40-42.

11.O'Connorv.Donaldson,442U.S.563(1975)

12.Covingtonv.Harris,419FederalSupplement617(D.C.Cir.1969)at623

13.InreHenryJones,338F.Supp.428(D.D.C.1972)at429

14.Covingtonv.Harris

15.Wyattv.Stickney,325F.Supp.781(M.D.Ala.1970),344F.Supp.373(1972);aff'd.sub.nom.Wyattv.Aderholt,503F.2d1305(5thCir.1974)

16.NewYorkStateAssociationforRetardedChildren,Inc.v.Carey,393F.Supp.715(E.D.N.Y.1975)at718

17.373F.2d451(D.C.Cir.1967)

18.D.C.Code§21-562(1966)

19.CommunityMentalHealthCentersConstructionAct,42UnitedStatesCode§2689

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20.PreliminaryReport(Washington,D.C.:President'sCommissiononMentalHealth,1977),p.8.

21.405F.Supp.974(D.D.C.1975)

22.Wouriv.Zitnay,No.75-80-SD(S.D.Maine,July14,1978)

23.PennhurstStateSchoolandHospitalv.Halderman,101S.Ct.1531(1981)

24.42U.S.C.§6000

25.42U.S.C.§6010

26.43AOkla.Stat.902,"OklahomaComprehensiveMentalHealthServicesfortheDeafandHearingImpairedAct."

27.GeorgiaS.B.449,Act1359(1978)

28.IllinoisMentalHealthCodeS.B.250,252,253,255;theamendmentpassedtheIllinoislegislatureasH.B.1612,Sept.21,1977.

29.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84.52(d)

30.E.g.,Camenischv.UniversityofTexas,616F.2d127(5thCir.1980),vacatedasmoot451U.S.390(1981);Crawfordv.UniversityofNorthCarolina,440F.Supp.1047(M.D.N.C.1977);Herboldv.TheTrusteesofCaliforniaStateUniversitiesandColleges,C-78-1358RHS(N.D.Cal.1978);Rikerv.HolyCrossHospital,78-1437(D.Md.1978);andWilliamsv.Quern,78-C-656(N.D.Ill.1978).

31.U.S.D.C.Md.,Civ.No.HAR83-2409(StipulatedJudgmentOrder,Feb.26,1986)

32.Handeletal.v.Levineetal.,RamseyCountyDistrictCourtFile468475

33.Snowv.State,469N.Y.S.2d959(A.D.2Dept1983),aff'd485N.Y.S.2d987(1984)

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EmploymentUntilrecentlytherightsofdisabledpeopletoemploymentwerelargelyunprotected.ASenatereportaccompanyingtheRehabilitationActAmendmentsof1974notedthatdisabledpeopleare''barredfromemployment"and"underemployedbecauseofarchaicstatutesandlaws."

1

Thisdeplorableconditionisevidentintheeconomicstatusofthedeafpopulation.2Anumberofstudiesindicatethatdeafpeoplesufferunderemploymentandlowerincomesbecauseoftheirdisability.3Theyquicklyreachaplateau,andtheretheyremain,"AllenSussmanandLarryStewartstate.

Everywherewefinddeafmenandwomenofnormalorabove-averageabilitiesoperatingautomaticmachines,performingsimpleassemblylineoperations,orotherwiseoccupiedinunchallengingroutines.Thisstereotypingillustratesthediscriminatoryattitudestowardthedeafjobapplicantsthatareinevitableamongslightlyinformedprofessionals.4

Automationposessomeveryspecialproblemsforthedisabledpersoninthelaborforce.Disabledworkers,particularlydeafpeople,tendtobemoreheavilyconcentratedinoccupationswhereautomationismakingitsgreatestinroads.Nearly50percentofalldeafemployeesareinmanufacturing.5

Employerattitudescreatethelargestsinglebarriertoemploymentopportunities.Employersoftenhavestereotypedassumptionsthatunderestimatethecapabilitiesofadisabledperson.Onestudyindicatedthatdisabledpeoplemustgenerallybemorequalifiedorcompetentthannondisabledpeopleinordertoovercomenegative

attitudes

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andassumptions.

6Employersoftenrefusetohiredisabledpeoplebecauseofunjustifiedfearsthatadisabledpersoncannotperformthejobsafely.Studiesofthesafetyofbothmentallyandphysicallydisabledpeopleintheemploymentsettingindicatethatthesefearsaregroundless.7

Employersusecommunicationbarriersasthereasonforlimitingjobopportunitiesfordeafapplicantsandemployees.Butcommunicationdifficulties"areoftenexaggerated,andfairlyeffectivesubstitutesfororalcommunicationaredisregarded."8Inabilitytousethetelephoneisoftengivenasareasonnottoconsideradeafapplicant,evenwhenuseofaphoneisnotanessentialpartofthejob.Injobsrequiringonlyoccasionaltelephonecommunication,minorchangesinassignmentofjobresponsibiliitescanaccommodatethedeafworker.Forexample,adeafworkerassumessomeofahearingco-worker'sresponsibilitieswhilethehearingpersonanswersthephones.

Ifajobrequiressignificanttelephonecontactwithoneotherofficeareasonableaccommodationmaybetoinstallatelecommunicationsdeviceinbothoffices,thusallowingthedeafemployeetoperformalljobdutiesincludingthoserequiringtelephonecommunication.Insupervisorypositions,asecretaryorinterpretercananswerthetelephoneandfacilitatetheconversationeitherthroughlipreading,notes,orsignlanguage,whicheveristhepreferredmethodofthedeafperson.

Therequirementofattendanceatvariousmeetingsorconferencesisalsousedasareasonnottoconsiderdeafapplicants.Butreasonableaccommodations,suchasinterpreters,canenabledeafworkerstoparticipatefullyingroupmeetingsandtrainingsessions.

TitleVRemedies

Today,thereareavarietyoffederalstatutoryremediesavailabletocombatemploymentdiscrimination.ThoseremediesarefoundprimarilyinSections501,503,and504ofTitleVoftheRehabilitationActof1973.While

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theyaresimilarinmanyrespects,eachofthesethreesectionsofthelawdifferssomewhatinapplication,scope,andquality.Eachappliestodifferenttypesofemployers:Section501tothefederalgovernment,Section503tocompaniesthatdobusinesswiththefederalgovernment(federalcontractors),andSection504torecipientsoffederalfinancialassistance.Eachimposesvaryinglevelsofresponsibilityuponemployers.Sections501and503requireaffirmativeaction,whileSection504imposesonlyadutyofnondiscrimination.Section504allowsanaggrievedindividualtogodirectlytofederalcourttoenforcehisorherstatutoryrights,whileSections501and503requiretheindividualtofirstfileanadministrativecomplaint.Theyalsodifferintheprocedurestobefollowedinfilinganadministrativecomplaint.Whenfacedwithemploymentdiscriminationbasedonhandicap,onemustdeterminewhichofthethreesectionsapplies.

"Qualified"DisabledPerson

TheRehabilitationActdoesnotguaranteejobsforallhandicappedpeople.Instead,itprohibitsdiscriminationinemploymentagainsthandicappedpeoplewhoare"qualified"forajob.Thedefinitionofaqualifiedpersondiffersslightlyunderthethreepartsoftheact:

·TheSection501regulationforfederalemployeesdescribesaqualifiedhandicappedpersonasahandicappedpersonwho,withorwithoutreasonableaccommodation,canperformtheessentialfunctionsofthepositioninquestionwithoutendangeringthehealthandsafetyoftheindividualorothers.

9

· TheSection503regulationforfederalcontractorsreferstoa

qualifiedhandicappedindividualasonewhois"capableofperformingaparticularjob,withreasonableaccommodationtohisorherhandicap."10

· TheSection504regulationdefinesaqualifiedhandicappedpersonasonewho"withreasonableaccommodation,canperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejobinquestion."11

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Inallofthesedefinitions,thetwocentralquestionsindeterminingwhetherahandicappedpersonisqualifiedforaspecificpositionare(1)Whataretheessentialfunctionsofthejob?and(2)Aretherereasonableaccommodationsthatwillmakeitpossibleforahandicappedpersontoperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejob?

EssentialFunctions

TheregulationsforSections501,503,and504donotdefinewhatismeantby"essentialfunctions."Theconceptiscritical,though,inmakingcertainthatemployersdonotdisqualifyhandicappedpeoplejustbecausethesepeoplehavedifficultywithataskthatisonlymarginallyrelatedtothejob.Forexample,adeafpersonconsideredforatypingpositionshouldnotbedisqualifiedbecauseheorshehastroubleusingthetelephone.Theessentialfunctionistyping.

Inpractice,essentialfunctionsforajobmustbedeterminedonacase-by-casebasis.Thisanalysisiscomplicatedbytheemployer'sdutytorestructurethejob,includingrewritingjobdescriptions,ifnecessary,toeliminatenonessentialtasksthatarebarriersforhandicappedworkers.Thisispartoftheemployer'sdutytomake"reasonableaccommodation"totheneedsofhandicappedworkers.Injudicialoradministrativeproceedings,theburdenofshowingwhatisessentialisontherecipientoffederalassistance.

AsnowwrittentheSection503regulationdoesnotusetheterm"essentialfunctions"butinsteadconsiderspeoplequalifiediftheyareabletodoa"particularjob"withreasonableaccommodation.Thismaybeamorerestrictivedefinitionsinceitimpliesthathandicappedpeoplemustperformallfunctionsofthejob,includingthosethatarenonessentialtasks.ButSections501,503,and504allrequireemployerstomakereasonableaccommodationsforhandicappedemployees,includingjobrestructuring,sothedifferenceinthedefinitionof"qualified"maybeillusory.Amendmentshavebeen

proposedtobringSection503'slanguageintoconformitywiththatofSection504.

12

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ReasonableAccommodations

TheregulationsforSections501,503,and504alllistthefollowingaspossiblereasonableaccommodationsinemployment:

·Makingfacilitiesusedbyemployeesworkbenches,parkinglots,telephones,lavatories,andentrances,forexamplereadilyaccessibletoandusablebyhandicappedpeople;

·Restructuringjobsinordertoreassignnonessentialtasks;

·Arrangingpart-timeormodifiedworkschedules;

·Acquiringormodifyingequipmentormachinery;

·Providingreadersforblindemployeesandinterpretersfordeafemployees.

13

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Reasonableaccommodationsfordeafpeoplemightincludetelecommunicationsdevices,oscilloscopestoallowthemtocommunicatetelephonicallywithacomputer,interpreters,andtelephoneamplifiers.Thislistisnotall-inclusivebutmerelyaguide.Theappropriateaccommodationdependsontheneedsoftheparticulardisabledworkerandtheparticularjobheorsheisperforming.Withadvancesinmoderntechnologyandmanagementscience,relativelyinexpensivedevicesandtechniquesforaccommodatinghandicappedworkersareincreasinglyavailable.

Reasonableaccommodationsareoftenamatterofcommonsense.Forexample,adeafwelderworkedinanoutdooryardwheretrucksdeliveredfruitbins.Hissupervisorfiredhimbecausehebelievedthemancouldnotworktheresafely.Laterthesupervisorrealizedthatthedeafemployeecouldbestationedtoseeanydangerfromthetrucksenteringtheyard.Withthisaccommodation,andwithfellowemployeesinformedofhisdeafness,themancouldsafelyperformhisjobinafullysatisfactorymanner.

Anothercaseinvolvedahearing-impairedwomanwhohaddifficultyworkinginonepartofherofficebecausebackgroundnoiseinterferedwithherhearingaid.Whenshewasreassignedtoaquieterpartoftheoffice,herdifficultywasreducedandherproductivityincreased.

Sometimesemployersdonotwishtohiredeafworkersbecausetheyclaimthatdeafworkerswillnotbeabletohearfirealarmsandwarningdevicesonmachinery.Theseemployerscanmakeasimpleaccommodationbyinstallingalightthatflasheswhenthealarmorbuzzersounds.

Inthefederalworkplace,theCivilServiceReformActof1978andtheFederalPersonnelManualalsoprovidereasonableaccommodationsfordeaffederalemployeesbyspecificallyauthorizingagencyheadstoemployorassigninterpreterstodeaf

employees.

14AfederalemployeewonalawsuitwhenthejudgefoundthathissupervisorshadnotconsideredOfficeofPersonnelManagementguidelinesaboutreasonablemodifications.15

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EmployerExemptions

UnderSections501and504,arecipientemployerdoesnothavetoprovideareasonableaccommodationifitwouldcause"unduehardship"ontheprogram'soperation.Thefactorsthatdetermineifthereisanunduehardshipare

· Theoverallsizeoftherecipient'sprogramwithrespecttonumberofemployees,numberandtypeoffacilities,andsizeofbudget;

· Thenatureoftherecipient'soperation,includingthecompositionandstructureoftherecipient'sworkforce;and

·Thetypeandcostoftheaccommodationneeded.

16

The"AnalysistotheSection504Regulation"givessomeexamplesoffactorstobeweighedindeterminingifanaccommodationcausesunduehardship:

Asmallday-carecentermightnotberequiredtoexpendmorethananominalsum,suchasthatnecessarytoequipatelephoneforusebyasecretarywithimpairedhearing,butalargeschooldistrictmightberequiredtomakeavailableateacher'saidtoablindapplicantforateachingjob.Further,itmightbeconsideredreasonabletorequireastatewelfareagencytoaccommodateadeafemployeebyprovidinganinterpreter,whileitwouldconstituteanunduehardshiptoimposethatrequirementonaprovideroffosterhomecareservices.17

Section503hasasimilardefenseforemployersbutusestheterm"businessnecessity"insteadof"unduehardship."Thesamefactorsapplyindeterminingeitherabusinessnecessityoranunduehardship.Eitherone,ifproven,excusesanemployerfromprovidingareasonableaccommodation.

MedicalExaminations

Deafpeoplearesometimesdeniedparticularjobsonthebasisofmedicalcriteriathatdisqualifyanypersonwithahearingloss.Deafpeoplehavebeenmedicallydisqualified

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asbusmechanicsorgeologistssolelyonthebasisoftheirhearingloss.Theseblanketmedicalexclusionscanbechallengediftheyarenotjobrelated.Inaddition,underSection504regulationsanemployermaymakeoffersofemploymenttohandicappedpeopledependentupontheresultsofmedicalexaminationsonlyifsuchexaminationsareadministeredinanondiscriminatorymannertoallemployeesandtheresultsaretreatedonaconfidentialbasis.

18

JobTrainingPrograms

Sometimesdeafpeoplearerefusedinterpretersfortrainingprogramsthatareaprerequisiteforemploymentorareessentialforretainingoradvancingintheirjobs.ThisviolatesSections501,503,and504.TheOfficeofPersonnelManagementwillprovideinterpretersforalldeaffederalemployeesparticipatinginitstrainingprograms.ThecomptrollergeneralfortheUnitedStatesalsohasdecidedthatspecialexpenseswillbeprovidedforsignlanguageinterpreterswhennecessaryfordeafemployeestoparticipateingovernmenttrainingcourses.

Employerswithfederalcontractsfrequentlycontractouttoindependentgroupstoconducttraining.Iftheindependentgroupdoesnotprovideinterpreters,thecontractcanbechallenged.Arecipientoffederalassistancecannotparticipatecontractuallyorinotherrelationshipswithgroupsthatdiscriminateagainstqualifieddisabledpeople.19

Someemployershiredeafpeopleonlyforcertainjobssuchasworkingwithloudmachines.TheU.S.PostalServicehasencouragedthishiringpractice.Section503,however,prohibitsdesignatingcertainjobsfordeafemployees.Deafworkerscannotbe"ghettoized"

inonejobcategory.20

Furthermore,Sections501and503requireemployerstomakespecialrecruitmenteffortstocomplywiththeiraffirmativeactionresponsibilities.Fordeafpeople,thisincludesadvertisinginnewspapersdirectedtowarddeaf

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audiences,recruitingatschoolsforthedeaf,andadvertisingwithdeafclubsandorganizations.

21

Section503alsorequirescompaniestointernallydisseminatetheirpolicyofaffirmativelyrecruitingandpromotingqualifiedhandicappedworkers.Thenotificationmustbewrittenatalanguageleveltheaveragedeafpersoncanunderstand.22

AffirmativeAction

ThemajorsubstantivedifferencebetweenthethreeemploymentsectionsoftheRehabilitationActisthatSections501and503requirethefederalgovernmentandfederalcontractorstotakeaffirmativeactiontohire,promote,orretainqualifiedhandicappedpersons.Section504,however,doesnotrequireaffirmativeaction;itsimplyrequiresnondiscrimination.

Thedifferencebetweenaffirmativeactionandnondiscriminationisafineone.Affirmativeactioncharacteristicallymeansspecialprogramstoactivelyrecruit,hire,train,accommodate,andpromotequalifieddisabledpeople.UnderSections501and503,thefederalgovernmentandfederalcontractorsmustestablishandimplementsuchprograms.Nondiscrimination,ontheotherhand,usuallymeansamorepassiveobligationtotreatdisabledemployeesinthesamemannerasotheremployees.

Inmanysituations,however,identicaltreatmentmayitselfbediscriminatory.Anemployerwhoholdsastaffmeetingforallemployeeshaseffectivelyexcludedadeafemployeefromparticipatingifnointerpreterisprovided.Thesameistrueofanemployerwhohiresapersoninawheelchairbutdoesnothaverampsinthebuildingtoallowtheemployeetogettowork.Bytreatingthe

disabledemployeethesameasthenondisabledemployee,theemployerhasactedunfairly.Inallsituationsinwhichidenticaltreatmentconstitutesdiscriminationagainstdisabledemployees,Section504requiresrecipientsoffederalfinancialassistancetotakespecificstepstoprovideequalopportunityandequallyeffectivemeansoftakingadvantageofthatopportunity.

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FederalObligations

ThefederalgovernmenthasestablishedseveralpoliciesandprogramsdesignedtofulfillitsaffirmativeactionobligationsunderSection501.Forexample,thegovernmentwillmakespecialarrangementsforapplicantstakingtheCivilServiceexaminationwhentheapplicant'sdisabilitypreventshimorherfromcompetingequally.Theseincludeprovisionofreadersforblindapplicantsandinterpretersfordeafapplicants,waiverofcertainverbaltestsfordeafapplicants,provisionofenlargedanswerblocksforapplicantswithpoormanualdexterityormotor

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coordination,provisionoftapedand/orbrailledtests,andextensionoftimelimitsfortakingthetests.

Thegovernmentalsohasspecialhiringprogramsdesignedtofacilitatetheappointmentofdisabledemployees.Onehiringprogramisthetemporarytrialappointment,whichgivesthedisabledemployeeanopportunitytoknowwhatheorshecandoandovercometheemployer'sanxietiesabouttheperson'scapabilities.Underthisprogram,physicallyandmentallydisabledpeoplecanbehiredforafour-monthperiodwithoutgoingthroughthenormalcompetitivehiringprocedures.Assoonastheemployeehasdemonstratedhisorherabilitytodothejob,theappointmentcanbemadepermanent,althoughnoguaranteesaregiven.

Anotherprogramusedtohiredisabledindividualsisknownasthe''excepted"or"ScheduleA"appointment.Itisavailabletobothseverelyphysicallydisabledandmentallyretardedapplicants.Undertheexceptedappointmentprogram,disabledpeoplecanbehiredforpermanentjobsbyfederalagencieswithouthavingtotaketheCivilServiceexamination.Thepurposeoftheprogramistoavoidthediscriminatoryeffectsoftheexamination.

Thereisonebasicproblemwiththeexceptedappointmentprogram:Anexceptedappointeelacksthesameemploymentbenefitsandjobsecurityasanemployeehiredundertheregularmerit-systemprocedures.Althoughanexceptedappointee'sjobis"permanent,"heorshecanbefired,demoted,orsuspendedwithoutahearingorotherdueprocessprotections.Exceptedappointeesarealsodeniedequaltransferrights,equalopportunitytocompeteforpromotions,andequalprotectionintheeventofageneraljoblayoff(e.g.,reduction-in-force).

LegalChallenges

Severallawsuitshavechallengedthisbasicinequityintheexceptedappintmentprogram.Forexample,onJanuary8,1982,theDistrictofColumbiafederalCourtofAppealsheldthatthefederalgovernmentviolatedSection501by

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denyingequalemploymentrightstoanexceptedserviceemployeeattheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA).

23ThecasewasfiledbytheNationalAssociationoftheDeafLegalDefenseFund(NADLDF)onbehalfofEdwardShirey,adeafexceptedserviceemployeewhowasterminatedinareduction-in-forcebyNASAinJanuary1978.Solelybecauseofhishandicapped,excepted-servicestatus,ShireywasnotgiventhesamerightsascompetitiveserviceemployeestofindanotherjobwithNASAorthefederalgovernment.Theappealscourtruledthatitisdisciminatorytodenyequalrightstohandicappedindividualswhentheyareequallyqualifiedandperformingthesameworkascompetitiveserviceemployees.

Therulesapplyingtohandicappedexceptedserviceemployeeshavechangedinthelastfewyears,butonechangecametoolatetohelpShirey.InMarch1979,PresidentCartersignedExecutiveOrder12125,whichauthorizedhandicappedexceptedserviceemployeestoconverttothecompetitiveserviceaftertwoyearsofsatisfactoryperformanceintheirjobs.ButthisnewruledidnotapplytoMr.Shirey,whowasterminatedinJanuary1978.Despitethefactthathehadworkedformorethanfouryearsinthesamejobashiscompetitiveserviceco-workersandhadreceivedsatisfactoryratings,hewasstilldeniedequalrights.SuchapolicyviolatesSection501,saidtheappealscourt.ItsdecisionreversedafederaldistrictcourtrulingthatfoundnoviolationofSection501.

FollowingitsobligationunderSection501andtheCivilServiceReformActof1978,thefederalgovernmenthasauthorizedseveralmethodsofhiringinterpretersfordeafemployeesinvariousworksituations.Eachfederalagencyhastheoptionofeither(1)hiringfull-timeinterpreters,(2)usingotheremployeeswhocaninterpret

fluently,or(3)contractingoutwithindividualinterpretersorinterpreterreferralagenciesonanas-neededbasis.Thebestmethoddependsontheworksituationinvolved.Ifaparticulardeafemployee'sjobrequiresfrequentuseofaninterpreter,orifthereareseveraldeafemployeesinoneagencywhose

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combinedneedsrequirefrequentservice,thenafull-timeinterpreteronstaffwouldbethebestsolution.Ifaninterpreterisneededforanoccasionalorregularofficemeeting,itmightbebesttocontractforservicesofaprivateinterpreter.

FurtherAssistance

Moredetailedinformationontheproceduresfortakingadvantageofallthesespecialfederalprogramsandservicescanbeobtainedbycontactingfederaljobinformationcentersthroughoutthecountry.Also,thepersonnelofficeofeachfederalagencyhasaselectiveplacementcoordinatorwhoisresponsibleforimplementingtheseprograms.

Thesefederalselectiveplacementcoordinatorswant

Thefederalgovernmenthassuggestedwaysthatrehabilitationcounselorscantaketheinitiativetoensurethataffirmativeactionisimplemented:

24

·Surveyfederalagenciestodeterminewhattypesofjobsarelikelytobeavailableandwhichofthesearelikelytobeindemandbydisabledindividuals.

·Workwithothercounselorsandorganizationstoestablishreferralsystems.

·Providefollow-upassistancetoagencysupervisorsafteradisabledpersonhasbeenhired.

·Arrangeforselectiveplacementcoordinators,managers,andsupervisorstotourrehabilitationandindependentlivingcentersandtoattendworkshopsandconsciousness-raisingprograms.

·Giverecognitionawardsandpublicitytoagenciesthatactivelyparticipateinemploymentprogramsfordisabledindividuals.

·Shareinformationaboutfederaljobvacanciesandpersonnelneedswith

·Shareinformationaboutfederaljobvacanciesandpersonnelneedswithrehabilitationcounselorsinthearea.

·Andinvolveselectiveplacementcoordinatorsintheactivitiesofrehabilitationagencies.

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adviceandneedassistancefromvocationalrehabilitationcounselorsonallissuesandproblemsinvolvingrecruitment,hiring,andaccommodationsfordisabledemployees.Rehabilitationcounselorsshoulddevelopcontactswithfederalpersonneloffices;theyshouldbethoroughlyfamiliarwithfederalhiringpracticesandjobapplicationprocedures.Continuinginteractionamongcounselors,selectiveplacementcoordinators,managers,andsupervisorsisessential.

EnforcementProcedures

Section501:FederalGovernment

Adisabledfederalemployeeorapplicantforfederalemploymentwhobelievesheorshehasbeendiscriminatedagainstbyafederalagencycanfileanadministrativecomplaintwiththatagency.Therearestricttimelimitsimposedforeachstepoftheprocedure.Whilewaiverofthetimelimitsissometimesallowedforgoodcause,acomplaintcanberejectedforfailuretomeetthedeadline.Thedisabledpersonhastherighttoberepresentedbyanattorneyatallstagesofthecomplaintprocess.Ifadeafcomplainantneedsaninterpreteratanystageoftheproceedings,theagencymustprovideandpayforone.

Thestep-by-stepadministrativecomplaintprocessisasfollows:

25

A.InformalPrecomplaintCounseling

1.Anemployeeorapplicantforemploymentmustcontacttheagency'sequalemploymentopportunity(EEO)officewithinthirtydaysofthediscriminatoryact.Thecontactmaybemadeinpersonorbyletter.Noformisrequired.

2.TheEEOofficewillassignanEEOcounselortothecase.The

personbringingthecomplaint(complainant)mustprovidealltheinformationaboutthediscriminatorypolicyoractiontotheEEOcounselor.

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3.TheroleoftheEEOcounseloristo:

a.makeaninquiryintothecomplaintanddiscussitwithallthepeopleinvolved;

b.attemptaninformalresolutionwithintwenty-onedays;

c.notdiscouragethecomplainantfromfilingaformalcomplaint;and

d.notrevealtheidentityofthecomplainantunlessauthorizedtodoso.

4.Ifinformalresolutioncannotbeachieved,theEEOcounselorwillsendthecomplainanta"NoticeofFinalInterview"informinghimorheroftherighttofileaformalcomplaint.

5.Thecomplainanthastherighttofileaformalcomplaintanytimeaftertwenty-onedaysfromthedatetheEEOcounselorwasfirstcontacted.Thecomplainantneednotwaitfora"NoticeofFinal

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Interview"letterbeforefilingtheformalcomplaint.

6.TheEEOcounselor,inmostcases,hasnoauthoritytoforcemanagementtosettlethecomplaint.Thecounselorcanonlytrytohelpnegotiateasettlement.Unlessitappearsthatthisprecomplaintcounselingmayproduceasettlement,thecomplainantshouldfilehisorherformalcomplaintimmediatelyuponexpirationofthetwenty-one-daysettlementperiod.

B.FormalComplaint

1.Acomplainantcanfileaformalcomplaintanytimeafterthetwenty-one-daysettlementperiodhaselapsed,butnotlaterthanfifteendaysafterreceiptofthe"NoticeofFinalInterview"letterfromtheEEOcounselor.

2.Contentofformalcomplaint

a.Theformalcomplaintiswrittenonaformprovidedbytheagency'sEEOofficeandisfiledwiththatoffice.

b.Thewrittencomplaintshoulddiscussindetailallofthefactsinvolvedandshouldincludecopiesoflettersandotherdocumentssubstantiatingthosefacts.

c.Ifthereisacontinuingpatternorpolicyofdiscrimination,thecomplainantshoulddescribethediscriminatoryactivityas"continuing"inordertoavoidanytime-deadlineproblems.

3.Rejectionofcomplaint

a.Theagencymayrejecttheentirecomplaintorsomeoftheissuesraisedif:

i.itisnotfiledontime,

ii.thecomplaintraisesmattersidenticaltoanothercomplaint

oftheemployee,

iii.thecomplainantisnotanemployeeorapplicantoftheagency,or

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iv.thecomplaintisnotbasedondisabilitydiscrimination.

b.Iftheagencyrejectsthecomplaint,thecomplainantmustbenotifiedinwriting.TheemployeemaythenappealtotheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)withinfifteendaysorfilesuitinfederaldistrictcourtwithinthirtydaysofreceiptoftherejectionletter.

4.Investigationofcomplaint

a.Iftheagencyacceptsthecomplaint,itmustproperlyinvestigate.TheagencywillappointanEEOinvestigator,apersonotherthantheEEOcounselor.

b.Theinvestigatorwillconductanin-depthinquiry,takeswornaffidavitsfromthepeopleinvolved,andgatherdocumentsandstatistics.

c.Ifthecomplainantbelievesthatimportantwitnesseshavenotbeeninterviewedorthatimportantevidencehasnotbeenexplored,thenheorsheshouldnotifytheinvestigatorinwriting.

5.Adjustmentofcomplaint

Whentheinvestigationiscompleted,theinvestigatorwritesareport.TheEEOofficesendscopiesofthereporttoboththecomplainantandtheemployerandprovidesthemanopportunitytoinformallyadjust(settle)thematteronthebasisoftheresultsoftheinvestigation.Ifthecomplaintisinformallyadjusted,thetermsoftheadjustmentmustbeinwriting.

6.Proposeddisposition

a.Ifthecomplaintcannotbeadjusted,thentheagencywillissueaproposeddisposition(decision).

b.Ifthecomplainantissatisfiedwiththeproposeddisposition,

theagencymustthenimplementthetermsofthedisposition.

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c.Ifthecomplainantisdissatisfiedwiththeproposeddisposition,heorshemayrequestahearingbeforetheEEOCinwritingwithinfifteendaysorfilesuitinfederaldistrictcourtwithinthirtydaysofreceiptoftheproposeddisposition.

7.EEOChearing

a.Atthehearing,asatallotherstagesintheprocess,thecomplainanthastherighttoberepresentedbyanattorneyandtohaveaqualifiedinterpreter.

b.Onthebasisofevidencesubmittedatthehearing,theexaminer(judge)willissuearecommendeddecisionthattheagencycanreverse.

c.Ifthecomplainantisdissatisfiedwiththedecision,heorshemayappealwithinfifteendaystotheEEOCOfficeofReviewandAppealsorfilesuitinfederalcourtwithinthirtydaysofreceiptofthedecision.

d.Ifthedecisionisthattheagencyhasdiscriminated,i.e.,ifthecomplainantwins,heorshemaybeawardedbackpayandattorney'sfees.

C.RighttoSueinFederalCourt

1.Thecomplainantcanfilesuitinfederaldistrictcourtatanytimeafter180daysfromthedatetheformalEEOcomplaintwasfiled,iftheagencyhasnotyetissuedafinaldecision.

2.Inaddition,asnotedabove,thecomplainantcanfilesuitwithinthirtydaysaftercompletionofotherstagesoftheadministrativeprocess(e.g.,afterreceiptofthenoticeofproposeddispositionorafterreceiptoffinalagencyaction).

Section503:FederalContractors

Section503oftheRehabilitationActrequiresemployerswhohavecontractswiththefederalgovernmentformore

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than$2,500totakeaffirmativeactiontohireandpromotequalifieddisabledpeople.About300,000privatebusinessesaresubjecttoSection503.Theworkperformedunderthesecontractsincludesconstructionofgovernmentbuildings,repairoffederalhighways,andleasingofgovernmentbuildings,tonameafew.Inadditiontoprimarycontractors,Section503coverscompaniesthathavesubcontractedformorethan$2,500offederalbusinessfromaprimarycontractor.

TheadministrativecomplaintprocedureunderSection503differssignificantlyfromthatdescribedunderSection501.Section503isenforcedbytheU.S.DepartmentofLabor'sOfficeofFederalContractCompliancePrograms(OFCCP).AnapplicantoremployeewhobelievesheorshehasbeendiscriminatedagainstbyafederalcontractorcanfileawrittencomplaintwiththeregionalOFCCPofficewithin180daysofthedateoftheallegedviolation.TheregionalOFCCPissupposedtoinvestigatepromptlyandattempttoresolvethecomplaint.IftheregionalOFCCPfindsnoviolationofSection503,thenthecomplainantmayappealtothenationalOFCCPofficeinWashington,D.C.,withinthirtydays.IftheregionalOFCCPfindsthattheemployerhasinfactviolatedSection503,thenanattemptismadetoresolvethematterinformallyandprovidetheappropriaterelieftothecomplainant.

Iftheemployerrefusestoprovidetheappropriaterelief,OFCCPcanthenemploymoreformalenforcementmechanisms.Theseincludebringingsuitinfederalcourt,withholdingpaymentsdueonexistingfederalcontracts,terminationofexistingfederalcontracts,and/orbarringthecontractorfromreceivingfuturefederalcontracts.IfOFCCPbeginsanyoftheseenforcementmethods,theemployercanrequestaformaladministrativehearing.Whilethecomplainantcanparticipateintheadministrativehearing,itisprimarilyadisputebetweenOFCCPandtheemployer.LiketheSection501EEO

complaintprocedure,theOFCCPprocessislongandtime-consuming.

Anindividual'srighttogodirectlytocourtandenforceaSection503claimisnotspelledoutintheSection503

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regulationsandhasnotyetbeenfirmlyestablishedbythecourts.However,stronglegalargumentscanbemadebyanalogytoSection504,wheretherighttosuehasbeenestablished.Courtsthathaveaddressedthisissueinrecentyearshavebeendivided.

26

Section504:FederalFinancialRecipients

TheproceduresforenforcingSection504arediscussedinchapterthree.Asnotedthere,Section504appliestoallrecipientsoffederalfinancialassistance."Federalfinancialassistance"underSection504differsfroma"federalcontract"underSection503.Itcanmeangrantsandloansoffederalmoney,servicesoffederalpersonnel,ortheleaseoffederalbuildingsforlessthanfairmarketvalue.Becauseofwidespreaddependenceonfederalmoney,recipientsoffederalfinancialassistancearemanyandvaried.

Beforereceivingsuchassistance,allrecipientsmustsignan"assuranceofcompliance"formagreeingtoobeySection504.

TheU.S.governmentaswellasadvocacygroupsfordisabledpeoplehavealwaystakenthepositionthatSection504prohibitsemploymentdiscriminationbyallrecipientsoffederalaid,regardlessofthepurposeforwhichtheirfederalfundsaretobeused.Inotherwords,ifahospitalreceivedfederalfundstobuymedicalequipment,Section504coversthathospital'semploymentpractices.

In1984,aunanimousSupremeCourtagreedthatSection504coversemploymentdiscriminationinallprogramsreceivingfederalfinancialassistance,regardlessofthepurposeofthefunding.TheCourtconcluded:"...applicationofSection504toallprogramsreceivingfederalfinancialassistancefitstheremedialpurposeoftheRehabilitationActtopromoteandexpandemploymentopportunities

forthehandicapped."27

StateStatutes

StatelawssometimesprovidearemedyforemploymentdiscriminationwhentheRehabilitationActdoesnot

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apply.Anumberofstateshaverecentlyactedtoaddsomecategorysuchas''physicalormentalhandicap"tothelistofclassesprotectedbytraditionalhumanrightsandemploymentdiscriminationlaws.Formerlytheselawscoveredonlyrace,sex,andreligion.Theselawsareusefulbecausetheyoftenapplytoallpublicandprivateemployers,therebyprohibitingdiscriminationevenbyemployerswhodonothavefederalcontractsorgrants.

Thereisnouniformityinstatehumanrightslaws.Someprotectphysicallydisabledworkersbutnotmentallydisabledones.Somerequirereasonableaccommodationstodisabledworkers,butmostdonot.Someallowprivatecausesofactiontherightofindividualstosueinstatecourt;othersarelimitedtoadministrativeenforcementbyunderfundedpublicagencies.Inmoststatestheagencychargedwithenforcementisthestatecivilrightscommissionorstateemploymentagency.Enforcementproceduresandremediesvarywidely,asdothedefinitionsofprotecteddisabilitiesandofcoveredemployers.

28

VocationalRehabilitationServices

Becauseofthechronicunderemploymentproblemsofdeafpeople,vocationalservicesarewidelyneededandheavilyused.TheRehabilitationActistheprinciplefederallawprovidingrehabilitationservicesfordisabledpeople.TheRehabilitationServicesAdministration(RSA),partoftheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,istheprimaryagencyforimplementingthesectionoftheactthatdealswithdisabledpeople.

TitleIoftheactprovidesfederalgrantstostatesformeetingthevocationalneedsoftheirdisabledcitizens.29Tobeeligible,astatevocationalrehabilitationagencysubmitsastateserviceplanfor

approvalbyRSA.TheplanmustcomplywithTitleIprovisionsandRSAregulations.30Toreceivethegrants,thestatevocationalrehabilitation(VR)agenciesmustagreetoprescribeandwriteanindividualrehabilitationplanforeachpersoneligibleundertheactfortheservice.Fordeafpeople,VRservicesinclude

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vocationalcounseling,educationandtraining,medicalservices,jobplacement,jobsupport,andprovisionofinterpretersandtelecommunicationdevices.

AmendmentstotheRehabilitationActin1978broadenedtheservicesavailabletodeafpeople.

31TheRSAOfficeofHandicappedIndividualswasgivenauthoritytofundtwelveprogramsforinterpretertraining.32Thesecretaryofeducationwasauthorizedtosetminimumstandardsforinterpretercertification,andtheprogramswerealsopermittedtotrainteachersofdeafstudents.Congressappropriated$900,000forthefirstyearofthisprogram.Tenprogramshavebeenfunded.

TheamendmentsalsoprovidedforuseofdiscretionaryfundsfromtheRSAcommissionertosetupinformationandinterpreterreferralcentersineachstate.Thecentersmayberunbypublicagenciesornonprofitorganizationsthatprovideservicestodeafpeople.Thecentersmustservethewholestateandbecentrallylocated.

Anypublicagencyservingdeafpeoplecanusetheinterpreterreferralservices.Thefundsofthesereferralcentersmayalsobeusedforthepurchaseorrentaloftelecommunicationsdevices.Whentheprogramneedsoutsidehelpforitsoperation,itisrequiredtoseekitfromprivate,nonprofitorganizationseithercomprisedprimarilyofhearing-impairedpeopleorhavingtheprimarypurposeofprovidingservicestohearing-impairedpeople.

Comprehensiverehabilitationcenterswerealsoauthorized.Theirpurposeistoprovideabroadrangeofservicestodisabledpeople:informationandreferral,counseling,jobplacement,health,education,andsocialandrecreationalservices.33Informationandtechnicalassistance,includinginterpreterservices,aretobeprovidedbythese

centerstootherpublicandnonprofitorganizationsoragenciesintheareatohelpthemfulfilltheirresponsibilitiesunderSection504oftheRehabilitationAct.

Theseamendmentsexpandtherehabilitationservicesavailabletodeafpeopleandincreasethenumberofpublicagenciesexistingtoservetheirneeds.

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Notes

1.S.Rep.No.1297,93dCong.,2dSess.43(1974);reprintedinCongressionalandAdministrativeNews(1974):6400.

2.SeeS.Fisher,AnAssessmentoftheOccupationalStatusandTrainingofFormerModelPost-SecondaryDeafStudents,unpublishedthesis(Washington,D.C.:GallaudetCollege,1974);A.Crammatte,TheFormidablePeak:AStudyofDeafPeopleinProfessionalEmployment(Washington,D.C.:GallaudetCollege,1965);andE.Boatner,E.Stuckless,andD.Moores,OccupationalStatusoftheYoungDeafAdultofNewEnglandandtheNeedandDemandforaRegionalTechnicalVocationalTrainingCenter(WestHartford,Conn.:AmericanSchoolfortheDeaf,1964).

3.A1978studyshowedasignificanteconomicdeclinefordeafpeoplebetween1972and1977.JeromeSchein,DirectoroftheDeafnessResearchandTrainingCenteratNewYorkUniversity,notedthatthepercentageofdeafpeoplewhowereworkingdroppedfrom65.5percentin1972to61.3percentin1977.Thesedeclinesrancountertonationaltrends;forthesameperiod,thenationalpercentagesofbothmenandwomenwhowereinthelaborforceincreased.Unemploymentfordeafpeopleincreasedfrom9.6percentin1972to10.9percentin1977.Personalincomeofdeafpeopleasaproportionofthenationalpercapitaaveragedeclinedsubstantiallyfrom1971to1976.In1971theaveragedeafperson'spersonalincomewas74.6percentofthenationalpercapitaaverage;by1976thisaveragehaddroppedto64.2percent.ThisdataisfromJ.Schein,EconomicStatusofDeafAdults(unpublishedstudy,1978).

4.A.SussmanandL.Stewart,"SocialandPsychologicalProblemsofDeafPeople,"inCounselingofDeafPeople,SussmanandStewart,eds.(NewYork:NewYorkUniversitySchoolofEducation,1971),p.

25.

5.ScheinandDelk,DeafPopulation,p.81.

6.Richard,Triandis,andPatterson,"IndicesofEmployerPrejudiceTowardDisabledApplicants,"JournalofAppliedPsychology45(1953):52.

7.SeeWolfe,"DisabilityIsNoHandicapforDupont,"TheAllianceReview(Winter,1973-74):13;andKalenick,"MythsAboutHiringthePhysicallyHandicapped,"JobSafetyandHealth2(1974):9,11.

8.Crammatte,TheFormidablePeak,p.118.

9.29CodeofFederalRegulations§1613.702(f)

10.29C.F.R.§32.3

11.45C.F.R.§84.3(k)(1)

12.45FederalRegister86,208,December30,1980

13.45C.F.R.§84.12(b)(2);29C.F.R.§1613.704(b)

14.5U.S.C.§5331

15.Cranev.Dole,617F.Supp.156(1985)

16.45C.F.R.§84.12(c)

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17.42Fed.Reg.22,688,May4,1977

18.45C.F.R.§84.14(c,d)

19.45C.F.R.§84.11(a)(4)

20.41C.FR.§60-741.5(i)(2);seealsoA.HermannandL.Walker,HandbookofEmploymentRightsfortheHandicapped:Sections503and504oftheRehabilitationActof1973(Washington,D.C.:GeorgeWashingtonUniversity,1978).

21.41C.F.R.§60-741.5(f)

22.41C.F.R.§60-741

23.Shireyv.Devine,670F.2d1188(D.C.Cir.1982)

24.SeeOfficeofPersonnelManagement,"HandbookofSelectivePlacementofPersonswithPhysicalandMentalHandicaps,"OPMDoc.125-11-3(March1979).

25.Formoredetailedinformation,see29C.F.R.§1613.201through1613.806.

26.ForcourtrulingsthatthereisnoprivaterighttosueunderSection503,seeRogersv.Frito-Lay,611F.2d1074(5thCir.1980);Simpsonv.ReynoldsMetalCo.,629F.2d1226(7thCir.1980);Simonv.St.LouisCounty,656F.2d316(8thCir.1981);andDavisv.UnitedAirLines,No.81-7093(2ndCir.1981).ForcourtrulingsthatanindividualmaybringsuitunderSection503,seeHartv.CountyofAlameda,485F.Supp.66(N.D.Cal.1979);andChaplinv.ConsolidatedEdisonofNewYork,482FSupp.1165(S.D.N.Y.1980).

27.ConsolidatedRailCorp.v.Darrone,465U.S.624(1984)

28.Amicus3(1978):39.

29.29U.S.C.§720etseq.

30.45C.FR.§1361.1etseq.

31.Rehabilitation,ComprehensiveServices,andDevelopmentalDisabilitiesAmendments,PublicLaw95-602(1978),29U.S.C.§701etseq.

32.29U.S.C.§777(e)

33.29U.S.C.§775(a)(1)

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Page167

ChapterNineArchitecturalBarriersCongresspassedSection502oftheRehabilitationActof1973tomakesurethatfederallyfundedbuildingsareaccessibletodisabledpeople.

1Specifically,Section502createdanindependentfederalagency,theArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoard(ATBCB),toenforcetheArchitecturalBarriersActof1968.The1968lawrequiresmostbuildingsandfacilitiesdesigned,constructed,altered,orleasedwithfederalmoneyafter1968tobeaccessibletodisabledpeople.

Thismeansthatbuildingscannothavebarrierstopeoplewhoareinwheelchairsoroncrutchesorwhoareblindordeaf.Everyonemustbeabletoenterandusethesebuildings.Thepotentialimpactofthislawisgreat.Asof1980,therewere400,000federallyownedand50,000federallyleasedfacilitiesintheUnitedStates.

BuildingscoveredbytheArchitecturalBarriersActmustmeettheminimumstandardsforaccessibilityestablishedbytheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI).2Thesestandardshavealsobeenadoptedbythefederalgovernment'sGeneralServicesAdministration(GSA).

Ifapersonknowsofafederalbuildingthatviolatestheseaccessibilitystandards,heorshemayfileawrittencomplaintwithATBCB,whichhastheauthoritytoconductinvestigationsandtoattempttoachievevoluntarycompliance.Ifthisisnotpossible,theboard'sgeneralcounselcanfileacitationagainstthefederalagencyaccusedof

violatingthestandards.Ahearingisheldbeforeanadministrativelawjudgetodetermineiftherehasbeenaviolationofthebarriersact.Thejudgecanordertheviolatingagencytoobeytheactorwithholdorsus-

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penditsfunding.Thejudge'sorderisfinalandbindingonanyfederaldepartmentoragency.

TheATBCB

AmendmentstoSection502changedthesizeandcompositionoftheATBCBboardfromonlyninefederalagencymemberstotenfederalagencymembersandelevenpublicmembers,fiveofwhommustbedisabled.

3Theboardwasalsogivenauthoritytoinvestigatecommunicationbarriers,includingtheabsenceoftelecommunicationdevices;toprovidetechnicalassistancetomakebuildingsandtransportationvehiclesaccessible;andtoadoptitsownaccessibilitystandardstoreplacetheANSIstandards.

WhileATBCBhasachievedvoluntarycomplianceinmostofitscases,anumberofallegedviolationshavegonethroughthecitationprocess.InJune1978theboardorderedtheDepartmentoftheInteriorandtheDepartmentofTransportationtore-installtwoelevatorsinWashington,D.C.'sUnionStation/NationalVisitorsCentertomakeitaccessibletodisabledpeople.

CasesinvolvingpedestrianoverpassesandunderpassesweresuccessfullysettledinSt.Louis,Missouri,andOmaha,Nebraska.TheSt.Louiscasemarkedthefirsttimethatfederalfundswerewithheldfromtheconstructionofafacilityuntilthequestionofaccessibilitywasresolved.TheOmahasettlementwasthefirsttimeanagencyenteredintoanagreementtogobeyondtherequirementsoftheArchitecturalBarriersActandcorrectexistingproblemsonanagency-widebasis.

Inanothercase,theDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare

andtheGeneralServicesAdministrationwereorderedbyanadministrativelawjudgetomakeAlabama'slargestofficebuildingaccessibletodisabledpersons.TherestroomsandelevatorsintheBirminghambuildingviolatedGSA'sownANSIaccessibilitystandards.Inhisorder,thejudgestatedthatcostwasnodefensefornoncompliance.ThesecasesrepresentthebeginningofATBCB'scapacitytoensureaccessibility.

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AmbiguousStandards

Theinadequacyofthetwenty-year-oldANSIstandardsisaseriousproblem.AlthoughpresentANSIstandardsrequireaccessibleandusablepublictelephonesforhearing-impairedindividuals,itisnotclearwhetherthisentailssuchspecificsolutionsasamplifiers,telecommunicationsdevices,adaptedpaytelephones,oradaptedtelephonesinbusinessoffices.Therequirementofvisualwarningsignalsisalsounclear.Whereshouldtheybe?Areflashingexitsignssufficient?

TheATBCBboardandGSAarenowconsideringarevisedsetofaccessibilitystandardsthatshouldaddresstheproblemsofdeafpeoplemorespecifically.Untilnewstandardsareadopted,however,theseagencieswillcontinuetousetheANSIstandards.

TheambiguityoftheANSIstandardslessenstheeffectivenessofSection502fordeafpeople.However,complaintstotheATBCBboardcanbeusedtocompeltheinstallationoftelecommunicationdevices.AdministrativecomplaintsledtoanorderthatTDDsbeinstalledinpost

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officebuildingsinseverallocations.Section502canalsobeusedtorequiretheinstallationofdoorbellswithflashing-lightrelays,visualwarningsystemssuchasfirealarms,andsecuritysytemsthatarenotwhollydependentonoperationofanauditoryintercom.

Thelawmayalsoapplytootherarchitecturalbarrierstocommunication.Forexample,thislawmightbeusedtocompelbuildersofauditoriumsandmeetingsroomstoinstallappropriatespotlightingforinterpretersandaudio"loops"toassistpersonswithhearingaids.

Complaintsaboutarchitectural,transportation,andcommunicationsbarrierscanbesentto:

ArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoardSwitzerBuilding,Room1010330CStreetSWWashington,DC20201(202)245-1801(VoiceorTTY)

Inyourletterofcomplaint,identifyyourself,thebarriertowhichyouobject,thefederalagencythatisresponsibleforthebuilding,andtheownerandoccupantofthebuilding.

Section504Compliance

InadditiontoSection502,Section504canbeinvokedtoremovearchitecturalbarriersinstructuresusedbyrecipientsoffederalfinancialassistance.Section504regulationsattheDepartmentsofHealthandHumanServicesandofEducationrequireeachnewfacilityornewpartofafacilitytobedesignedandconstructedtobereadilyaccessibletoandusablebydisabledpeople.

4AlterationsandnewconstructionwillcomplywithSection504iftheymeettheANSIstandardsdiscussedabove.

OtherfederalagencieshaveadoptedtheANSIstandardsbyreferringtothemintheirownSection504regulations.Ifabuildingisconstructed,altered,orleasedbythefederalgovernment,complaintsaboutarchitecturalbarri-

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erscouldbefiledwitheithertheparticularfederalagencyinvolvedunderSection504orwiththeATBCBboardunderSection502.Ifthefederalfinancialassistancewasgiventoaprogramforsomepurposeotherthanconstruction,alteration,orlease,then,underSection504,complaintsaboutarchitecturalbarrierscanonlybefiledwiththeparticularagencyprovidingtheassistance.

BecausetheANSIstandardsdonotspecificallyaddressmanyofthecommunicationbarriersconfrontedbydeafpeople,apersonwithacomplaintaboutanarchitecturalorcommunicationbarriermayhavetorelyonthegeneralnondiscriminationandprogramaccessibilityprovisionsofSection504discussedinchapterthree.

StateLaws

Statearchitecturalbarrierlawscanbeusedtoremoveobstructions.SomeoftheselawsarebroaderinapplicationthantheRehabilitationActbecausetheyarenotlimitedtobuildingsthatreceivefederalfunding.Forexample,astateorlocallawmayrequireallnewlyconstructedplacesofpublicaccommodationtobeaccessible.Ifso,thiswouldincluderestaurantsandstoresaswellasstatestructures.

Otherstatelawsspecificallydealwiththeproblemsofdeafpeople.Somestatesrequireapartmentbuildingstoinstallbothauditoryandvisualsmokedetectorsandalarms.Ifastatedoesnothavesuchalaw,deafpeoplemightwanttolobbyforone.

Notes

1.29UnitedStatesCode§792

2.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84.23(c)

3.SeePublicLaw95-602:TheRehabilitation,ComprehensiveServices,andDevelopmentalDisabilitiesAmendmentsof1978;29

U.S.C.§701etseq.

4.45C.F.R.§84.23(a)

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ChapterTenTheLegalSystemDeafpeopleexperiencenumerousdifficultieswiththelegalsystembecauseofcommunicationbarriers.Theymaybeunjustlycommittedtomentalinstitutionsbecausetheyaremisdiagnosedbypeoplewhodonotknowhowtoworkandcommunicatewiththem.Theyoftencannotaffordalawyer;iftheycan,theyoftenareunabletofindonewhoisabletocommunicatewiththemandunderstandtheirneeds.Iftheyhavetogotocourt,theyoftendonotunderstandtheproceedingsandcannotadequatelyexplaintheirsideofthestory.Morethanfiftyyearsago,ajudgewrote:

[I]ntheabsenceofaninterpreter,itwouldbeaphysicalimpossibilityfortheaccused,adeaf[defendant],toknoworunderstandthenatureandcauseoftheaccusationagainsthimand...hecouldonlystandbyhelplessly...withoutknowingorunderstand[ing],andallthisintheteethofthemandatoryconstitutionalrightswhichapply.Mereconfrontationwouldbeuseless.

1

Today'scourtsstilldenyequalaccessanddueprocesstohearing-impairedpeople.Mostofthestateinterpreterlawsareinadequate.Theyfailtoensurethatdeafdefendantsunderstandfullythechargesagainstthemandparticipateeffectivelyintheirowndefense.Anumberofstateinterpreterlawsfailtoprovideinterpretersforarrestandcivilandadministrativeproceedings.Theselawsalsopermitjudgestoassessthecostofinterpretersas''courtcosts."

Inrecentyears,however,considerableprogresshasbeenmadeatbothfederalandstatelevelstomakecourtsmoreaccessibletodeafpeople.

TheAmericanswithDisabilitiesActrequiresallstateandlocalcourtstobeaccessibleto

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deafindividuals,andrequirestheprovisionofinterpreters,transcription,orotherappropriateauxiliaryaidsfordeafpersonsincourt.

2Thecostoftheseservicescannotbeassessedagainstdeaflitigants.3Statelawsoninterpreterservicesandqualificationsforjurydutyarebeingrewrittentoensurenecessaryaccess.

SignsofProgress

In1979CongressenactedtheBilingual,Hearing,andSpeech-ImpairedCourtInterpreterAct.4Thislawrequiresthat,inanycriminalorcivilactioninitiatedbythefederalgovernment,thecourtmustappointaqualifiedinterpreter.ThedirectoroftheAdministrativeOfficeoftheU.S.Courtsdeterminesthequalificationsrequiredofcourt-appointedinterpreters.Eachdistrictcourtmustmaintainonfileintheofficeoftheclerkofthecourtalistofcertifiedinterpreters,bothoralandmanual,fordeafpeople.Thehistoryofthelegislationshowsthatthedirectorofcourtadministrationmustconsultorganizationsofandfordeafpeopleinpreparingsuchlists.TheseorganizationsincludetheNationalAssociationoftheDeaf(NAD)andtheRegistryofInterpretersfortheDeaf(RID).

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Ifanyinterpreterisunabletocommunicateeffectivelywiththedefendant,party,orwitness,thecourt'spresidingofficermustdismissthatinterpreterandobtaintheservicesofanother.Theserviceispaidforbythegovernment,whetherornotthepersonneedingtheserviceisindigent.Inhisorherdiscretion,however,ajudgecanapportiontheinterpreterfeesamongthepartiesortaxtheircoststothelosingparty.

Theshortcomingofthislawisthataninterpreterisnotprovidedforadeafpersonwhoinitiatesanaction,forexample,tochallengeadenialoffederalrights.Onlycriminalandcivilcasesinitiatedbythefederalgovernmentrequireappointmentofinterpreters.

Manystateswillprovideaninterpretertoadeafdefendantinacriminalproceeding,butveryfewprovideoneatthetimeofarrest,eventhoughitisduringpretrialproceedingsthatadeafpersonismostoftendeniedhisorherconstitutionalrights.Fewstatesprovideinterpretersincivilcases.

However,theDepartmentofJustice'sanalysisofitsSection504regulationspecificallyrequirestheappointmentofinterpretersincivilandcriminalproceedings:

CourtsystemsreceivingFederalfinancialassistanceshallprovidefortheavailabilityofqualifiedinterpretersforcivilandcriminalcourtproceedingsinvolvingpersonswithhearingorspeakingimpairments....Wherearecipienthasanobligationtoprovidequalifiedinterpretersunderthissubpart,therecipienthasthecorrespondingresponsibilitytopayfortheservicesoftheinterpreters.

5

Interpretersforindigentdeafdefendantsarealsospecificallyprovided:

[Incaseswherethecourtsappointcounselforindigents,they]arealso

requiredtoassignqualifiedinterpreters(certified,wherepossible,byrecognizedcertificationagencies)incasesinvolvingindigentdefendantswithhearingorspeakingimpairmentsto

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aidthecommunicationbetweenclientandattorney.Theavailabilityofinterpretingservicestotheindigentdefendantwouldberequiredforallphasesofthepreparationandpresentationofthedefendant'scase.

6

MirandaAdviceofRights

InthelandmarkdecisionMirandav.Arizona,theSupremeCourtrecognizedthatquestioningbypoliceinthestationhouseorjailisinherentlycoerciveandunderminestheprivilegeagainstself-incrimination.7Asaresultofthisdecision,policearenowrequiredto"effectivelyinform"theaccusedpersonofhisorherconstitutionalrightsbeforeanyquestioningcantakeplace.Withoutuseofaqualifiedinterpreter,mostdeafpeoplewouldnotbeabletounderstandtheirrightsfully,andanywaiveroftheirrightswouldnotmeettheSupremeCourt'sstandardofbeingvoluntary,knowing,andintelligent.

Dependinguponwhichreading-levelformulaisused,thestandardwrittenadviceofrightsformgiventosuspectsbeforequestioningrequiresasixth-to-eighth-gradereadingcomprehensionlevel.Theabilityofthehearingpersontounderstandtherightssetforthinthisformisnotseriouslyimpairedbyareadingdeficiency,becausetheycanbetoldoutloudwhatiswrittenontheform.Thelisteningcomprehensionlevelofpeoplewithnormalhearingandofpeoplewithreadingproblemsusuallyexceedstheirreadingcomprehensionlevel.8However,thereadinglevelrequiredbytheMirandawarningsandadviceofrightsformsremainsfarabovethecomprehensionofmostprelinguallydeafpeople.Thesepeoplerequireacarefulexplanationoftherightsbyaqualifiedsignlanguageinterpreter.

TheconceptualandlinguisticdifficultiesposedbytheMirandaadviceofrightscannotbeovercomebyadirecttranslationintosign

language.Signlanguageuseseverydayratherthanformalconcepts.Criticalconceptsthatareunfamiliartomanydeafpeopleinclude"right"and"Constitution."Somedeafpeoplewouldnotunderstandtheterm"lawyer"inthefullsenseofunderstandingalawyer's

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MaryFurey,aneducator,observedthatthestandardadviceofrightsformposesseriousproblemsfortheaveragedeafperson.

Agreatnumberofdeafadultswouldfindthelanguageofthis[Mirandawarningstrangeandincomprehensiblebecauseofthemanyidiomsusedinit.True,eachwordinandofitselfissimple,butwhentwoormoreareputtogetherinaspecialsense,theycanbetotallyunintelligibletoadeafindividualbecausemanydeafadultsgiveeachwordnarroworliteralmeaning....Theidiom"canbeusedagainst"wouldalsobedifficulttounderstand.Eventheword"rights"couldbeperplexing.

Infinitives,verbsusedinthepassivevoice,gerunds,andotherverbalssuchas..."withoutalawyerpresent,"etc.,wouldnotbereadilycomprehendedbytheusualdeafadult.Themeaningof''if"atthebeginningofaclauseusuallyisnotunderstood....

Ifindthat...thewarningitself...aspresentlywritten,wouldbedifficultfortheusualdeafadulttoreadwithunderstandingandindeedcouldbemisunderstoodornotcomprehendedatall.

9

function.Therearenotmanysignstoexpresslegalterms.Thesignfor"Constitution"isnewlycreated;mostAmericanSignLanguageuserswouldbeunfamiliarwitheitherthesignortheEnglishword,letalonetheconceptbehindit.

Fingerspellingofimportantlegaltermswouldnotnecessarilyincreaseunderstanding,especiallyiftheaccuseddeafpersonhasalowreadinglevel.10Tobeunderstood,thetermsandtheirmeaningsmustbecarefullyexplainedinclearconcepts.Aqualifiedinterpreterisfundamentalatthispoint.Actingoutandotherdemonstrativeapproachesmightbeneeded.

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Moreover,deafpeopleareaccustomedtoquestionsthataredirectandconcrete.SeveraloftherightsdescribedintheMirandawarningarementionedasifimpliedtoexist.Theword"if"isfrequentlyused.

ExamplesoftheProblem

Inarecentcase,aMarylandcircuitcourtaddressedtheproblemofcommunicatingtheMirandaadviceofrightstoadeafdefendant.DavidBarker,acongenitallydeafmanwithareadingcomprehensionlevelofgrade2.8,waschargedwithmurderin1975.Thechargesweredropped,butin1976,whileBarkerwasincustodyforunrelatedcharges,policequestionedhimextensivelyaboutthemurderbymeansofwrittennotes.Theydidsowithoutprovidinghimeitherasignlanguageinterpreteroradviceofcounsel.Afterseveralhoursofbeingquestioned,BarkersignedtheMirandawaiverofrightsandthenaconfession.

WhenBarkerwasinterrogatedamonthlaterwithaninterpreter,heshowedconfusioninansweringquestions.AskedifhehadunderstoodtheMirandaadviceofrights,herepliedinsignlanguage,"alittlebit."Healsoreferredtopromisesallegedlymadebythepoliceguaranteeinghospitalization.

Thecourtsuppressedthefirstconfessionasbeinginvoluntaryandsuppressedasecondconfessiononthegroundsthattheoriginalpromiseofhospitalizationcontinuedtoinfluencehim,makingthesecondconfessioninvoluntary.Thecourtwrote:

Therewasadditionallyofferedtestimonybyexpertsinthefieldofsignlanguageforthedeafthattheexpression"ConstitutionalRights,"beinganabstractidea,isextremelydifficulttoconveytothedeaf,especially,asinthiscase,whentheeducationalleveloftheindividualissocurtailed.Therewastestimonythatthewarning,"Doyouunderstandthatyouhavetherighttohaveanattorneypresentatalltimesduringthequestioning?,"maywellhavebeensignalled,andunderstoodas"Doyouunderstanditisall

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righttohaveanattorneypresent?,"whichobviouslyisfarfromtheactualportentofthewarning.

11

ExtraJailTime

Withouttheassistanceofaninterpreteratthetimeoftheirarrest,deafpeopleoftenspendexcessivetimeinjail,unawareoftheirrighttocounselandtopostbail;sometimestheyareunawareevenofthechargesagainstthem.

Oklahomastatelawrequiresthatinterpretersbeprovidedtodeafdefendantsuponarrest.Inoneinstance,however,adeafmanarrestedforamisdemeanorwasinjailfortwodayswithoutbeinggivenaninterpreter.Inthiscase,theOklahomaSupremeCourtfoundthatthestatelawappliestocitypolicedepartmentsandthat,becausethedeafmancouldnotunderstandhisrightsorcommunicatewiththosewhocouldhelphim,hewasforcedtostayinjaillongerthanahearingpersonwouldhave.12

Inanothercase,adeafmanremainedinaSt.Louis,Missouri,jailforfivedaysafterarrestwithoutbeingprovidedaninterpreter.TheSt.Louispolicedepartmenthadnowrittenpolicyonthematter.TheNationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf(NCLD)filedacomplaintagainstthepolicedepartmentwiththeU.S.DepartmentofTreasuryOfficeofRevenueSharing(ORS).TheORShadproposedSection504regulationsrequiringthatagenciesreceivingrevenuesharingfunds"provideappropriateaidstoindividualswithimpairedsensory,manual,orspeakingskills,wherenecessarytoaffordsuchindividualsequalopportunitytoobtainthesameresultortogainthesamelevelofachievementasthatprovidedtoothers."13

AfteraninvestigationbyORS,thepolicedepartmentissuedawritten

policystatingthatthearrestingofficershoulddecidewhenaninterpreterwouldbeprovided.Becausepoliceofficersdealingwithdeafpeoplefrequentlytrytogetbywithnotewriting,ORSfoundthispolicyinadequateanddirectedtheSt.Louispolicedepartmenttoprovideaqualifiedinterpretertoanydeafpersonuponarrestandpriortointerrogatingortakingastatement.

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Accordingtothedirective,theinterpretershouldbeappointedtoservethroughoutthearrestprocedureinordertomakecertainthatthedeafpersonisfullyawareofthecharges.Thepolicedepartmentmustalsomakeknownthispolicytoitsofficersbyincludingawrittendirectiveinthedepartment'sprocedurebook.St.Louis'spolicedepartmentwasrequiredtotakethesestepsorfaceapossiblesuspensionoffederalrevenuesharingfunds.

QualifiedInterpreters

TheDepartmentofJustice'sSection504regulationisspecificintherequirementsitmakesofpolicedepartmentsreceivingfinancialassistance:

Arecipientthatemploysfifteenormorepersonsshallprovideappropriateauxiliaryaidstoqualifiedhandicappedpersonswithimpairedsensory,manual,orspeakingskillswherearefusaltomakesuchprovisionwoulddiscriminatorilyimpairorexcludetheparticipationofsuchpersonsinaprogramreceivingFederalfinancialassistance.Suchauxiliaryaidsmayinclude...qualifiedinterpreters....Departmentofficialsmayrequirerecipientsemployingfewerthanfifteenpersonstoprovideauxiliaryaidswhenthiswouldnotsignificantlyimpairtheabilityoftherecipienttoprovideitsbenefitsorservices.

14

TheJusticeDepartment'sanalysisoftheregulationexplainsthisrequirementinmoredetail:

Lawenforcementagenciesshouldprovidefortheavailabilityofqualifiedinterpreters(certified,where-possible,byarecognizedcertificationagency)toassisttheagencieswhendealingwithhearingimpairedpersons.WherethehearingimpairedpersonusesAmericanSignLanguageforcommunication,theterm"qualifiedinterpreter"wouldmeananinterpreterskilledincommunicatinginAmericanSignLanguage.Itistheresponsibilityofthelawenforcementagencytodeterminewhetherthe

hearingimpairedpersonusesAmericanSignLanguageorSignedEnglishtocommunicate.

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Ifahearing-impairedpersonisarrested,thearrestingofficer'sMirandawarningshouldbecommunicatedtothearresteeonaprintedformapprovedforsuchusebythelawenforcementagencywherethereisnoqualifiedinterpreterimmediatelyavailableandcommunicationisotherwiseinadequate.TheformshouldalsoadvisethearresteethatthelawenforcementagencyhasanobligationunderFederallawtoofferaninterpretertothearresteewithoutcostandthattheagencywilldeferinterrogationpendingtheappearanceofaninterpreter(ouremphasis).

15

Neithertheregulationnoritsanalysislimitstheprovisionofinterpreterstoarrestedhearing-impairedpeople.Victimsandcomplainantsarealsoentitledtothem.Inaddition,hearing-impairedpeoplewhoattendprogramsandfunctionssponsoredbyalawenforcementagency,suchasinformationalworkshopsandeducationalprograms,mustbeprovidedqualifiedinterpretersuponrequest.

Theanalysisstressesthecriticalimportanceoftheinterpreter'squalifications.QualitycanbeensuredbycontactingthelocalorstatechapteroftheRegistryofInterpretersfortheDeaf(RID)foralistofcertifiedandqualifiedinterpreters.Iftheinterpreterisinadequateasjudgedbyeitherthehearing-impairedperson,theinterpreter,oralawenforcementorcourtofficialanotherinterpretermustbesecured.Theanalysisplacesspecificresponsibilityontherecipientagencytoascertainwhatkindofsignlanguagethedeafpersonfeelsmostcomfortablewithandthentosecureaninterpreterwhoiscompetentinthatlanguage.

CompetenceIsCritical

Makingtheefforttosecureacompetentinterpreteriscritical.Theexistenceofafederalorstatelawprovidinginterpretersisinitselfnoguaranteethattheyareactuallyprovidedandthattheyfunction

appropriately.

InVirginia,wherestatelawrequirestheappointmentofqualifiedinterpreters,anunskilledanduncertified

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interpreterwasprovidedtoadeafrapevictim.Althoughtheinterpretertoldthecourtthathewasnotskilledatreadingsignlanguage,thejudgeproceededwiththetrial.Whentheprosecutoraskedthevictimwhathadhappened,shegavethesignfor"forcedintercourse."Theinterpretersaidthatherreplywas"madelove,"thesignforwhichiscompletelydifferent.Thelegaleffectoftheinterpreter'smistakewasdevastatingbecause,inrape,forceistheessentialelement.Later,whensheanswered,"blouse,"totheprosecutor'squestionofwhatshewaswearing,theinterpretertoldthecourt,''shortblouse,"creatingtheimpressionthatshehaddressedprovocatively.

16

Effectiveenforcementoftherighttoaqualifiedinterpreterisextremelyimportant.Itwillrequireacontinuingefforttoraisetheawarenessofjudicialandadministrativejudgesandcourtclerksaboutrelevantlawsandthecommunicationpatternsofdeafpeople.

Theobligationoflawenforcementagenciestoprovideinterpretersisfoundednotonlyinregulationandstatutebutinconstitutionallawaswell.Courtshavesuppressedevidenceobtainedfromhearing-impaireddefendantswhenitwasfoundthattheMirandaadviceofrightswasnotadequatelycommunicated.17Ineachcaseinwhichtheconfessionwassuppressed,theMirandawarningwasconveyedinsignlanguagebeyondthedefendant'slevelofcomprehension.

SecuringaninterpreterwithanRIDlegalskillscertificateforatimelyexplanationofrights,accompaniedbyacarefulexplanationofeverylegaltermandsign,isonewaypolicedepartmentscanbothpreventobjectionstotheadequacyofthecommunicationandcomplywiththeDepartmentofJustice'sSection504regulations.Presentationofaprintedadviceofrightsformwithoutprovidinginterpretationwill

seldomifeverbesufficient.Somepolicedepartmentsvideotapeallcommunicationswithhearing-impaireddefendantsinordertoverifyforthecourtthattherightswarningwaseffectivelycommunicatedandthattheinterpreteractedproperly.

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Pre-TrialPreparation

Theperiodbetweenarrest,arraignment,andsubsequenttrialiscriticalforthedefendant.Adefenseisformulatedatthisstage.UnderthesixthamendmenttotheConstitution,everyaccusedpersonhastherighttohaveanattorneyandtobeeffectivelyrepresented.InDeRochev.UnitedStates,theCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuitheldthateffectiveassistanceofcounselmeansadequateopportunityfortheaccusedandhisorherattorneytoconsultandprepareforarraignmentandtrial.

18Noattorneycaneffectivelyrepresentaclientwithoutafullunderstandingoftheclient'scase.TheJusticeDepartment'sSection504regulationrequiresthatinterpretersbeprovidedtoindigentdeafdefendantsforallphasesofcasepreparation.19Interpretersalsoshouldbeprovidedwhen,inpreparationofpresentenceorprobationreports,itisnecessarytointerviewaconvicteddeafperson.AFloridastatejudgeusedtheauthorityoftheRevenueSharingActandSection504oftheRehabilitationActtoconvinceaprobationofficertoprovideaninterpretertoadeafdefendant.

DueProcessandAccessinPrison

Onceinjailtoservetheirterms,deafpeoplearefrequentlydeniedbasicdueprocessrightsandaccessto

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rehabilitationprogramssimplybecauseprisonstaffcannotcommunicatewiththem.AdeafandblindprisonerinastateprisoninArizonacouldnotcommunicateeffectivelywithprisonguardsandotherprisonpersonnel.Hecouldnottalktoprisoncounselorsormedicalstaffwhenhewasill.Hewaschargedwithbreakingaprisonrule,buthecouldnotunderstandthetestimonyagainsthimatthedisciplinaryhearingorexplainhisversionofwhathadhappened.Whenhesuedthestateprisonsystem,thecasewasdismissedbythetrialjudge.ButthefederalCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuitheldthathecouldbringhiscomplaintincourtunderSection504ortheFourteenthAmendmentoftheU.S.Constitution.ThecourtupheldtheregulationsoftheU.S.DepartmentofJustice,whichrequireprisonsystemstoprovideauxiliaryaidsfordeafindividualstogivethemequalaccesstoprisonprogramsandactivities.

20

AdeafinmateofMaryland'sprisonsystemwasdeniedaninterpreteratadisciplinaryhearingandwasthereforeunabletopresentadefense.Thedisciplinaryboardtookaway"goodtime"daysthatwouldhaveledtoearlierrelease,andittransferredhimforpsychologicalevaluationfromaminimum-securitycamptoamaximum-securityhouseofcorrections.Thestatepsychologisttherecouldnotcommunicatewithhimand,therefore,couldnotcompetentlyevaluatehim.

ThedeafmanfiledalawsuitinfederaldistrictcourtinBaltimorerequestingacourtorderrequiringthestateofMarylandtoprovideaninterpretertoanydeafinmatewhofacesadministrativecharges.Thesuitarguedthat,withoutaqualifiedinterpreter,adeafinmatewhodependsonsignlanguagecannottestifyorquestionwitnessesandistherebydeniedhisorherconstitutionalrighttoafairhearing.

Thefederaljudgeapprovedaconsentdecreethatprovidedinterpretersfordeafprisonersinmanysituationsofprisonlife:atadjustmentteamhearings;whenofficialsgivenoticethatadisciplinaryreportisbeingwritten;wheneveradeafinmateisprovidedcounselingorpsychi-

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atric,psychological,ormedicalcare;andinanyon-the-joborvocationaltrainingoranyeducationalprogram.Thisconsentagreementisamodelofhowtoprovidedeafprisonerstheirbasicdueprocessrightsandaccesstoneededcounseling,medicalservices,andrehabilitationprograms.

21

TheDepartmentofJustice'sSection504regulationanalysisspecificallystatesthatprisons

Shouldprovidefortheavailabilityofqualifiedinterpreters(certified,wherepossible,byarecognizedcertificationagency)toenablehearing-impairedinmatestoparticipateonanequalbasiswithnonhandicappedinmatesintherehabilitationprogramsofferedbythecorrectionalagencies(e.g.,educationalprograms).22

StateCivilandAdministrativeProceedings

Incriminalproceedings,theconstitutionalrightstonotice,confrontation,andeffectiveassistanceofcounselhavecompelledtherighttoaninterpreter.Traditionallytheserightshavenotbeenrecognizedasfundamentalincivilproceedings,andmanystateslackstatutesprovidinginterpreterstodeafpeopleinsuchsettings.

However,theU.S.SupremeCourtincreasinglyhasrequiredtheobservanceofconstitutionaldueprocessrightsincertaincivilproceedingsandadministrativehearings.Theseincludejuvenilehearings,23paroleandprobationrevocationhearings,24prisondisciplinaryproceedings,25andpassportreviews.26

Inaddition,theDepartmentofJustice'sanalysisofitsSection504regulation(quotedonpages175-176)specificallyrequirestheappointmentofinterpretersincivilproceedingswhenthecourtsystemreceivesfederalfinancialassistance.Section504canprovidea

remedyifthestateorlocalgovernmentreceivesfederalfinancialassistancefromtheDepartmentofTreasury'sOfficeofRevenueSharingorotherfederalagencies.

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Fewstateshavelawsprovidinginterpretersfordeafpeopleinadministrativeproceedingsthatdealwithmatterssuchasworker'scompensation,welfare,immigration,tax,licensing,schoolplacement,employmentdisputes,andzoninghearings.Thesehearingsaffectmanyareasofourlives,anddeafcitizensshouldneitherbepreventedfromparticipatinginthemnorfailtogetjusticesimplybecauseastaterefusestoprovideinterpreters.

InterpreterPrivilege

Stateshavebeguntorecognizethatinterpretersinaconfidentialattorney-clientsituationarecoveredbytheattorney-clientprivilege.Theprivilegemeansthatinterpreterscannotbeforcedtorevealanyinformationbasedonthatconfidentialinterview.Theprivilegeexiststoensurethatclientswillfreelydiscusstheirproblemswiththeirlawyerwithoutfearofdisclosure.Kentucky,NewHampshire,Tennessee,andVirginiahavelawsexplicitlyapplyingthisprivilegetosignlanguageinterpreters.

27Inotherstates,lawsandprecedentspertainingtothestatusoftranslatorsshouldbeappliedalsotosignlanguageinterpreters.

AMarylandcircuitcourtruledthatinterpreterscouldnotbeorderedtodisclosestatementsthatadeafsuspectmadetohisattorney.Aninterpreterwithlegal-specialistcertificationwassubpoenaedtotestifybeforeagrandjuryaboutajailhouseinterviewbetweenadeafdefendant,hisattorney,andthedefendant'srelatives.Thejudgestated:"Whenbothattorneyandclientdependontheuseofaninterpreterforcommunicatingtooneanother,theinterpreterservesasavitallinkinthebondoftheattorney-clientrelationship."28Thejudgealsostatedthatthepresenceofcloserelativesatsuchinterviewsmaybehelpfulinaidingtheaccuracyofthecommunication,thereby"enablingthe

attorneytoprovidemeaningfulassistancetohisclient."

Thecasewasappealed.TheMarylandCourtofSpecialAppealsdidnotdealwiththequestionofwhetherthecommunicationwasconfidential.Itreversedthedecision

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sayingthatthelowercourtlackedthejurisdictiontoissuethedecree.

29

TelephoneAccess

Section504regulationsofeachofthefederalexecutivedepartmentsandtheOfficeofRevenueSharingrequireinstallationoftelecommunicationdevicesfordeafpeople(TDDs)inallfederallyassistedagencieswithwhichthepublichastelephonecontact.Intheanalysisofitsregulation,theJusticeDepartmentrefersspecificallytotheobligationofpolicedepartments:

LawenforcementagenciesarealsorequiredtoinstallTTYsorequivalentmechanisms...toenablepeoplewithhearingandspeakingimpairmentstocommunicateeffectivelywithsuchagencies.30

TheinstallationofTDDsatpolicestationscanhelpprotectthelivesandpropertyofhearing-impairedcitizens.Moreover,thegeneralpublicbenefitsfromtheabilityofanadditionalsegmentofthelocalpopulationtomakepolicereportsbytelephone.ManycitiesacrossthecountryhavealreadyinstalledTDDsintheirpolicedepartmentsandotheroffices.

EqualJustice

Althoughrecentstateandfederallegislationhasgreatlyadvancedtherightsofdeafpeopleinvolvedwiththelegalsystem,muchremainstobedoneiftheyaretoachievefullaccessandequaljustice.

First,stateswithoutlawsshouldadoptmodelstatutesthatprovidequalifiedinterpreterstoanydeafpartyorwitnessinanyjudicialaction.*Incriminalcases,interpretersshouldbeprovidedtothedeafpersonduringanypoliceinterrogation.Civilandadministrativeproceedings

*SeeAppendixD:"AModelActtoProvidefortheAppointmentofInterpretersforHearing-ImpairedIndividualsforAdministrative,Legislative,andJudicialProceedings."

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shouldalsorequireinterpreterspaidforbythegovernment.

Second,lawssuchastheRehabilitationActof1973mustbefullyenforced.TheDepartmentofJusticemustensurefullcompliancewithitsregulationiftherightsofdeafpeopleinvolvedwiththelegalsystemaretobeprotected.

Third,judges,courtadministrators,lawyers,andlawenforcementofficersmustbecomemoreawareofthecommunicationproblemsofdeafpeople.

Goodlaws,thoroughenforcement,andenlightenedattitudeswillensurethatdeafpeopleobtainequaljusticeunderlaw.

Notes

1.Terryv.StateofAlabama,105So.386(1925)

2.28C.F.R.§35.160(b)

3.28C.F.R.§35.130(f).SeeanalysisbytheDepartmentofJusticeat56Fed.Reg.35,705(July26,1991).(ImpositionofthecostofcourtroominterpreterservicesascourtcostsisimpermissibleunderSection504.)

4.28UnitedStatesCode§1827

5.45FederalRegister37,630(1980)

6.Id.

7.Mirandav.Arizona,384U.S.436(1966)

8.M.Vernon,"ViolationofConstitutionalRights:TheLanguage-

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ImpairedPersonandtheMirandaWarnings,"JournalofRehabilitationoftheDeaf11(1978):4.

9.MaryFurey,personalcommunication,June1976

10.Vernon,"ViolationofConstitutionalRights,"p.6

11.StateofMarylandv.Barker,Crim.Nos.17,995and19,518(Md.Cir.Ct.,Dec.8,1977)

12.Kiddyv.CityofOklahomaCity,576P.2d298(S.Okla.,1978)

13.Section51.55(c)(1)ofOfficeofRevenueSharingregulationtoSection122(a)oftheStateandLocalFiscalAssistanceActof1972,asamended;31U.S.C.§1242(a)

14.28CodeofFederalRegulations§42.503(f)

15.28C.F.R.§42,SubpartG

16.Commonwealthv.Edmonds,Cir.Ct.Staunton,Va.(1975)

17.See,forexample,StateofMarylandv.Barker(Note9)andStateofOregonv.Mason,Crim.No.C-80-03-30821(Ore.Cir.Ct.,May27,1980)

18.337F.2d606(9thCir.1964)

19.45Fed.Reg.37,630(1980)

20.Bonnerv.Lewis,857F.2d559(9thCir.1988)

21.Pylesv.Kamka,CivilNo.K-79-1864(unreporteddecision),Feb.20,1980

22.45Fed.Reg.37,630(1980)

23.InreGault,387U.S.1(1967)

24.Wolffv.McDonnell,418U.S.539(1974)

25.Gagnonv.Scarpelli,411U.S.778(1973);andMorrisseyv.Brewer,408U.S.471(1972)

26.Tropv.Dulles,356U.S.86(1958)

27.KentuckyRev.Stat.§304.064(Supp.1976);NewHampshireH.B.870,Ch.521.1-521.5(1977);TennesseeCodeAnn.§24-108;andVirginiaCodeAnn.§2.1-560through§2.1-563,§19.2-164,§8.01400.1,and§63.1-85.4

28.Touheyv.Duckett,19Crim.L.Rptr.2483(Cir.Ct.AnneArundelCounty,Md.,1976)

29.Duckettv.Touhey,36Md.App.238(1977)

30.45Fed.Reg.37,630(1980)

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Page191

ChapterElevenTelevisionTelevisionhasbecomeourmajorsourceofentertainment,news,andinformation.Thoughtelevisedimagesarepowerful,muchoftheinformationaccompanyingtheseimagesispresentedthroughsound,makingthecontentofthetransmissioninaccessibletodeafandhardofhearingpeople.Technologicaladvances,suchasopen-andclosed-captioning,havemadeitpossiblefordeafandhardofhearingviewerstohaveaccesstoprimetimeandsportsprogramming.However,notuntilthepassageoffederallegislationwastelevisiontrulyaccessibletoallhearing-impairedpeople.

TheTelevisionDecoderCircuitryActensuresthatthebenefitsofclosed-captioningwillreacheveryAmericanhome.Inaddition,theFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)requiresbroadcasterstoopen-captionemergencybulletinsandtoconsiderthedeafcommunity'sneedswhenpreparingtheirprogramming.Thischapterexplainsthefederallawsandhowthenewtechnologywillmaketelevisionavailabletoalldeafandhardofhearingviewers.

EmergencyCaptioning

Before1977,whentheFCCadoptedarulerequiringtelevisionbroadcasterstopresentemergencybulletinsinvisualaswellasoralform,deafpeopleweremorevulnerabletodangerbecausetheycouldnothearteleviseddisasterwarnings.

1Inanemergency,thetelevisionstationwouldinterruptthesoundportionofthesignaltomake

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oralannouncements,butthepicturewouldcontinuewithoutanyindicationthatsomethingwaswrong.Sometimes''EmergencyBulletin"wouldappearonthescreen,andanoff-cameraannouncerwouldreadthedetailsoftheemergency.Thedeafviewer,unabletohearwhatwassaid,couldnotmakerealisticplansforsafety.

WhenfiresravagedwidesectionsofCaliforniain1970,officialsusedloudspeakersandradioandtelevisionbroadcaststowarnresidentstoevacuatethreatenedareas.Severalhearing-impairedpeopleburnedtodeathbecausetheycouldnotheartheloudspeakersortheradiobulletinsandbecausethetelevisionannouncementsgavenovisualinformationaboutthedanger.Theirdeathscouldhavebeenpreventedexceptforsimplethoughtlessness.

ThisandsimilartragediespromptedappealstotheFCC.ThousandsoflettersfrompeoplealloverthecountryconvincedtheFCCtoadoptavisualwarningrule.The"OperationDuringEmergency"sectionstates:

AnyemergencyinformationtransmittedinaccordancewiththisSectionshallbetransmittedbothaurallyandvisuallyoronlyvisually.Televisionbroadcaststationsmayuseanymethodofvisualpresentationwhichresultsinalegiblemessageconveyingtheessentialinformation.Methodswhichmaybeusedincludebutarenotlimitedtoslides,electroniccaptioning,manualmethods(e.g.,handprinting)ormechanicalprintingprocesses.However,whenemergencyoperationisbeingconductedunderaNational,State,orLocalLevelEmergencyBroadcastSystem(EBS)Plan,emergencyannouncementsshallbetransmittedbothaurallyandvisually.

2

UndertheCommunicationsActof1934,theFCCisauthorizedtomakesuchrulestoprotectthesafetyoflifeandpropertythroughtheuseofelectronicmediaandtoimprovethequalityofthosemediain

waysthatpromotethepublicinterest.3

Eventhoughthevisualwarningrulehasbeenineffectformanyyears,manytelevisionstationsstilldonotcomply.Apersonshouldcontactthestationandexplaintothe

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stationmanagertheneedforthevisualemergencybulletin,citingtheaboveFCCrule.Ifthestationstillrefusestoprovidevisualemergencywarnings,thenapersoncanfileacomplaintwiththeFCC.ComplaintsareconsideredwhenastationappliestorenewitsFCClicense.

TheGrowthofCaptioning

Captionedtelevisionhasmadeitpossibleformillionsofpeoplewithhearinglossestoseewhattelevisionhastosay.Captioninghastakentwoformsopen-captioning,whichinvolvesbroadcastingcaptionsonaregulartelevisionsignaltoallreceivers,andclosed-captioning,whichinvolvestransmittingthecaptiononaspecialtelevisionsignalthatrequirestheuseofadecoder-adapteronthereceiver.Today,almostallcaptionsareclosed.

ThePublicBroadcastingService(PBS),anonprofit,noncommercialtelevisionnetwork,firstintroducedcaptioning.Thefirstnationallybroadcastcaptionedprogramwasthecookingshow,"TheFrenchChef."ThecaptioningwasdonebyWGBH,thePBSstationinBoston,Massachusetts.Thisprogram,andafewothersavailableonlyonpublictelevision,hadopencaptions.InDecember1973,WGBHbegancaptioningthe"ABCEveningNews,"ahalf-hourprogramthatdailytookfivestaffpeoplefivehourstocaption.Thisprogramalsohadopencaptions.

Opencaptionsappearonalltelevisionsetsandcannotbeturnedoffbytheviewer.Becauseofconcernsthathearingviewerswouldobjecttowidespreadopencaptioning,PBSbegandevelopingaclosed-captioningsystemin1972.

4In1975,PBSfiledapetitionwiththeFCCtoreserveasegmentofthetelevisionsignalknownas"Line21"fortransmittingclosed-captions.5Closed-captionsareincludedinavideosignalasinvisible

data.Presently,onlyviewerswithaspecialdevicecalledadecodercanseethecaptions.

Since1976,theFCChasreservedLine21ofthetelevisionbroadcastsignalfortransmittingclosed-captions.

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Nevertheless,theFCChasnotimposedmandatorycaptioningrequirements.

6In1979,CongresscreatedtheNationalCaptioningInstitute,anonprofitcorporation,toofferclosed-captioningservicestothebroadcasttelevisionindustryusingLine21.7In1980,closed-captionedtelevisionservicesbeganasacooperativeagreementbetweentheNationalCaptioningInstitute(NCI),theAmericanBroadcastingCompany(ABC),theNationalBroadcastingCompany(NBC),PBS,andSears,Roebuck&Company.8/15ABC,NBC,andPBSeachagreedtocaptionupto16hoursoftheirprogrammingperweek,andSearsagreedtomanufactureandselldecoders.9In1984,theColumbiaBroadcastingSystem,Inc.(CBS)agreedtotransmitclosed-captionsusingbothLine21anditsownteletexttechnologies.10By1989,allprime-timetelevisionprogramsandmostmajorsportseventswereclosed-captioned.11In1990,therewereapproximately290hoursofclosed-captionedprogrammingeachweek.12

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NeedforLegislation

Despitethegrowthinthenumberofclosed-captionedprograms,thebenefitsoftelevisionstillarenotfullyaccessibletomillionsofdeafandhardofhearingAmericansortomillionsofpeoplewhocouldusetelevisiontolearntheEnglishlanguage.Thislackoffullaccessisprimarilyduetothesmallnumberofseparatedecoderscurrentlyinuse.Theseparatedecoderisaheavypieceofequipment,similartoaVCR,thatmustbeattachedtothetelevision.NCIhasestimatedthatsincedecodersfirstbecameavailableonthemarket,andasofJune1990,onlyabout300,000havebeensold.

13

TheCommissiononEducationoftheDeafhasexplainedthatbecauseconsumerspurchasesofewseparatedecoders,commercialincentivesforprivatefundingofcaptioningservicesarelacking.14Theabsenceoffundinghasbeenoneofthemainimpedimentstoaself-sustainingcaptioningservice.

Becausethereisnomarketincentive,agreatnumberoftelevisionprograms,aswellasmoviesonvideocassette(bothcurrentandclassic),arenotbeingclosed-captioned.Inaddition,commercialcableTVchannelsrarelycaptionanyoftheirprograms.In1990,fewnetworkdaytimeandlatenightshowswereclosed-captioned.Moreover,in1991,only150outof1450broadcastaffiliatesclosed-captionedlocalnewsprograms.15Yet,accesstosuchlocalnewsprogramsisessentialtodeafandhardofhearingpeople.Forexample,duringthe1989SanFranciscoandLosAngelesearthquakesandhurricaneHugo,localstationsfailedtoprovidecaptionstoaccompanytheirreports.16

Partofthereasonthatfewprogramsotherthanprimetimetelevision

showsandmajorsportseventsarecaptionedisthatitismorecostlyforbroadcasterstocaptionprogramswithonlyalimitedviewingaudience.NCIestimatesitcosts$2,500andtakesbetween20and30hourstoclose-captionaone-hourprogram.17NCIexplainedtotheCommissiononEducationoftheDeafthattomaintainthecurrentlevelofclosed-captionedprogram-

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ming,500,000homesmustbeabletoreceiveclosed-captionedbroadcasts.

18ThepresidentofCBSSports,NeilPilson,inalettertoSenatorHarkindiscussingthethreattoclosed-captioning,stated:

Asabusinessmanandbroadcaster,Iamconcernedaboutthisimbalancebetweenthecostofcaptioningprogrammingandtheverylimitednumberofviewers.Thisgapmakesitdifficulttojustifytheexpansionofcaptioningbeyondthosewidelyviewedkindsofprogrammingbeingcaptionedtoday.Furthermore,someintheindustrywhohavedemonstratedtheirgrowingsupportofcaptioningthroughfundingmaybegintore-evaluatetheircommitmentand,Ifear,graduallyreducethatcommitment.19

ABCtoldtheCommissionthatdecoderusagemustbeincreasedtoensureaself-sustainingcaptioningservice:

[If]decodersweremorewidelyusedandviewershiptogrow,themarketplacecanbereliedupontoincreasecaptioningbecausemoreviewerswouldbereachedatadecreasedpercapitacost.Increaseddecoderownershipnotjustmorecaptioningisrequiredforastrong,self-sustainingcaptioningservice.20

Congressrecognizedthatitwasnecessarytoenlargetheaudienceforcaptionedservicestoprovidemarketincentivesforanincreasedlevelofcaptioning.Thepotentialaudiencethatcanbenefitfromclosed-captioningisverysignificantitincludes24milliondeafandhardofhearingpersons.21Inaddition,bytheyear2000,itisestimatedthattherewillbemorethan11millionseniorcitizenswithasignificanthearinglosswhocouldbenefitfromclosed-captioning.22

Thepotentialaudienceincludesmorethanjustindividualswithhearingimpairments,however.Studieshaveshownthatclosed-captioningisaneffectivetoolinteachingliteracyskills.Captioning

hasbeenusedsuccessfullyintheclassroomwithadultswhohaveliteracyproblems,23thoselearningEnglishasasecondlanguage,andchildrenwithandwithoutdisabilities.AstudybytheNational

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AssessmentofEducationalProgressestimatesthat23to27millionAmericanadultsarefunctionallyilliterate.

24AnotherthreetofourmillionarelearningEnglishasasecondlanguage.25NCIreportedthat"fortypercentofthe60,000closed-captioningdecoderssoldin1989weretopeopleforwhomEnglishisasecondlanguage."26Thesesalesconfirmresearchthatshowsclosed-captioningbenefitsthoselearningEnglishasasecondlanguage.

Closed-captioninghasalsobeenshowntobenefitchildrenwhocanhear.AreportcommissionedbythePewCharitableTrustinPhiladelphiafoundthatclosed-captioninghas"astartlingeffect"onnon-English-speakingchildren'sabilitytolearnEnglishwords.27MostofthestudentsinthestudywerefromSoutheastAsia.ResultsofastudyattheUniversityofMarylandshowedthatcaptioningimprovedwordrecognitionforstudentswithlearningdisabilities.28Inaddition,aLosAngelesteacherhasbeenusingclosed-captioninginhigh-schoolEnglishclassesandreportsmarkedimprovementinstudentliteracyskills.29Theteacherturnsoffthesoundonclosed-captionedprogramstoforcethestudentstoreadthecaptionstounderstandthetelevisionshows.30

Technologyoffersawaytoprovidethislargepotentialaudiencewitheasyaccesstothebenefitsofclosed-captioning.Decodercircuitrycouldbebuiltintonewtelevisionsetsatanominalcost.Twodecoderchipdesignersestimatedthatthecostofeachchipcouldbebelowthreedollarsifmassproduced.31

TheCommissiononEducationoftheDeafhasrecommendedthatallnewtelevisionshavebuild-indecodercircuitrysothattheyarecapableofreceivingclosed-captionedprogramming.32

TheTelevisionDecoderCircuitryAct

TheTelevisionDecoderCircuitryAct(TDCA)wassignedintolawinOctober1990.33TheTDCArequiresthatalltelevisionsetswithscreens13inchesorlarger,manufac-

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nturedorimportedintotheUnitedStates,havetheabilitytodisplayclosed-captionedtelevisiontransmissionswithouttheaidofexternalequipment.

34In1988,96percentofnewtelevisionshad13-inchorlargerscreens.35

Inaddition,theTDCArequirestheFCCtoestablishperformanceanddisplaystandardsforbuilt-indecodercircuitry.TheFCChasadoptedfinalclosed-captiondisplaystandards.36Thesestandardswillensurethatthetelevisionviewercanenjoythebenefitsofboththelatestinnovativetechnologiesandprovenmethodstoprovidequalityclosed-captioning.Forexample,theFCCrequirestheuseofnewtechnologythatwillallowcaptionstoappearanywhereonthescreen.37Today'sclosed-captiondecoderscanplacetextonlyatthetopandbottomoftheTVpicture.Captionssometimescoverimportantpartsofthepicture,particularlyinnewsprogramswherenameandplaceidentificationsappearatthebottomofthescreen.Thenewfeaturewillallowcaptionstobemovedoutofthewaywhenidentificationsappearandmorepreciseplacementtoindicatewhoisspeaking.

Severalfeaturesthathaveproveneffectiveintheseparatedecoder,suchasablackbackground,arerequiredin

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thenewtelevisionscontainingdecoders.TheFCCpointedoutthat"itisessentialthattelevisionreceiversdisplaycaptionsthatarereadable.Byprovidingablackbackground,thelegibilityofthecaptionisassured."

38Further,theFCChasencouragedtelevisionmanufacturerstodevelopothermethodsthatcanensurelegibilitywithoutobscuringasmuchofthevideopicture.39

Becauseoftherapidchangesintelevisiontechnology,thedraftersoftheTDCAwereconcernedthatanynewtelevisiontechnologies,suchashighdefinitionTV,becapableoftransmittingclosed-captions.AsectionwasincludedintheTDCArequiringtheFCCtotakeappropriateactiontoensurethatasnewtechnologiesaredeveloped,closed-captioningwillcontinuetobeavailabletotelevisionviewerswithouttheneedofaseparatedecoder.40

AsaresultofthepassageoftheTDCA,almostallnewtelevisionswillcontaindecodercircuitry,greatlyexpandingtheaudienceforclosed-captionedprogramming.This,inturn,willprovidethemarketincentiveforastronger,self-sustainingcaptioningservice.Itwillthenbepossibleforallpeoplehearing,deaf,andhardofhearingtohaveeasyaccesstotelevisionprogramming.

Notes

ThesectionsofthischapterontheTelevisionDecoderCircuitryActareadaptedfromanarticleontheTDCAwrittenbySyDuBowintheTempleLawReviewADASymposiumIssue,Volume64(1991).ItisreprintedwithpermissionoftheTempleLawReview,copyright©1991TempleUniversityoftheCommonwealthSystemofHigherEducation.

1.FCCDocketNo.20,659,RM2502(1977)

2.47CodeofFederalRegulations§73.1250(h)

3.47UnitedStatesCode§151etseq.

4.Intheearly1980stheGreaterLosAngelesCouncilonDeafness,Inc.,broughtaclassactionsuitagainstCommunityTelevisionofSouthernCaliforniatomandateopen-captioning.GreaterLosAngelesCouncilonDeafness,Inc.v.CommunityTelevisionofSouthernCalif.,719F.2d1017,1019(9thCir.1983),cert.deniedGottfriedv.UnitedStates,467U.S.1252(1984).Affirmingthedistrictcourt'srulingthatpublictelevisionstationswerenotrequiredtoprovideopen-captioning,theUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinth

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Circuitruledthat§504oftheRehabilitationActdoesnotmandatethatfederallyfundedtelevisionprogramsbeproducedandbroadcastwithopen-captionsratherthanclosed-captions.Id.at1023.ThecourtnotedthattheU.S.DepartmentofEducationhelpedoriginateclosed-captioningandrequiresallprogramsitfundstobeproducedwithclosed-captions.Further,asaconditionofitsgrants,theDepartmentrequiresthatpublicstationsbroadcastwithclosed-captionsthoseprogramsproducedwithclosed-captions.Id.SeealsoCommunityTelevisionv.Gottfried,459U.S.498(1983)(§504oftheRehabilitationActdoesnotrequiretheFCCtoimposegreaterobligationonpubliclicenseesthanoncommerciallicenseestoprovidespecialprogrammingforthehearing-impairedpopulation).

5.FCCDocketNo.20,793,RM2616(1975)

6.CommissiononEducationoftheDeaf(C.O.E.D.),TowardEquality:EducationoftheDeaf(1988)at113

7.Id.

8.Id.

9.Id.

10.Id.

11.S.Rep.No.393,101stCong.,2dSess.2(1990)

12.H.Rep.No.767,101stCong.,2dSess.5(1990)

13.TVDecoderCircuitryAct:HearingsonS.1974BeforetheSubcomm.onCommunications,101stCong.,2dSess.(1990)[hereinafterHearings]at67(statementofJohnBall,president,NationalCaptioningInst.)

14.C.O.E.D.,supranote6,at114-115

15.S.Rep.No.393,supranote11,(citingCAPTIONCENTERTELEVISIONSTATION,WGBH,Boston,Mass.,SURVEY(1990))

16.Id.

17.Id.(citingNationalCaptioningInst.,FYIReport(July1987)).

18.C.O.E.D.,supranote6,at119(500,000homesmustbeabletoreceiveclosed-captioningforittobecomeeconomicallyself-sustaining)

19.S.Rep.No.393,supranote11at4

20.C.O.E.D.,supranote6,at119

21.S.Rep.No.393,supranote11,at1

22.U.S.Congress,OfficeofTechnologyAssessment,"HearingImpairmentandElderlyPeopleABackgroundPaper,"OTA-BP-BA-30,U.S.Govt.PrintingOffice3(May1986)

23.Wilson,"UsingClosed-CaptionedTelevisiontoTeachReadingtoAdults,"ReadingResearchandInstruction28(4)(1989):27-37.

24.F.Chisman,JumpStart,TheFederalRoleinAdultLiteracy,FinalReportontheProjectofAdultLiteracy(1989).

25.Id.ativ

26."TVClosed-CaptionsFightIlliteracy,"USAToday,July11,1990,at6D,col.6.

27.Id.at6D,col.1

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28.Koskinen,Wilson,Gambrell,&Jensema,"Closed-CaptionedTelevision:ANewTechnologyforEnhancingReadingSkillsofLearningDisabledStudents,"E.R.S.Spectrum,JournalofScholarlyResearch&Information(1986).

29.USAToday,supranote26

30.Id.

31.LetterfromEEGEnterprises,Inc.toSyDuBow(Mar.1,1990);Hearings,supranote13(statementofJohnBall,president,NationalCaptioningInst.)

32.C.O.E.D.supranote6at120

33.TelevisionDecoderCircuitryActof1990,Publ.L.No.101-431,104Stat.960(1990)[hereinafterTDCA].TheSenateunanimouslypassedSenateBill1974onAugust2,1990;theHouseunanimouslypasseditonOctober1,1990.PresidentBushsigneditintolawonOctober16,1990.

34.TDCA,supranote33,§3,104Stat.at960

35.12TVDigest(September11,1989).

36.ReportandOrder,intheMatterofAmendmentofPart15oftheCommission'sRulestoImplementtheProvisionsoftheTelevisionDecoderCircuitryActof1990,GeneralDocketNo.91-1,FCC91119,38151(adoptedApril12,1991)(releasedApril15,1991).Thestandardscover,interalia,theuseofcolorcharacters,italics,upperandlowercasecharacters,smoothscrolling,captionsize,andthecompatibilitywithcablescramblingtechnology.

37.Id.at5-8

38.Id.

39.Id.

40.TDCA,supranote33,§4(a),104Stat.at960

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Page203

TelephoneServiceSocietyhasisolateddeafpeopleforcenturies.Todaysuchexclusionisperhapsmostobviousintheareaoftelecommunications.Rapidandefficienttelecommunicationsservices,readilyavailabletoalmostallhearingAmericans,havebeenlargelydeniedtothosewhocannothear.Thetelephonenetworkhasplacedunnecessarybarriersofexpenseanddifficultyondeafpeople,limitingtheirabilitytocommunicatewithfamily,friends,businesses,government,andsocialservices.Fordeafpeopletoparticipatefullyinoursociety,telecommunicationsmustbemadeasrapid,efficient,andreasonablypricedforpeoplewhocannothearasitisforthosewhocan.

Significantdevelopmentshavebeenmadeintheareaoftelecommunicationsfordeafandhardofhearingindividualsinthepastfewyears.Telecommunicationsrelaysystemshavespreadacrossthecountry,givingTDDusersnewtelephoneaccesstoallvoicetelephoneusers.Requirementsforhearing-aid-compatibletelephoneshavegrown,ashaverequirementsforTDD-equippedpublicpayphones.Theseandotherchangeshavecomeaboutasaresultofworkwithfederalandstatelegislativebodiesandregulatoryagencies.

RegulationofTelecommunications

Telephonecompaniesarepublicutilitieswhoseratesandpracticesareregulatedbyfederalandstateagencies.ThefederalagencythatregulatesinterstatetelephonepracticesistheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC).Eachstatehasitsownagencywithpowertoregulatemost

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oftheoperationsoftelephonecompanieswithinthestate(intrastate).Thestateagenciesareusuallycalledpublicutilitycommissions(PUCs)orpublicservicecommissions.TheFCCwasestablishedbyCongressandthePUCsbythestatelegislaturestoensurethattelephonecompaniesoperateinthepublicinterest.Inotherwords,telephonecompaniesmustprovideadequateservicetothepublicforafairprice,andtheymustcomplywithapplicablelawsandregulations.

Thestateagenciessettheratesthattelephonecompaniescancharge.Theyallowthecompaniesenoughrevenuetooperate,providetheservice,andmakeareasonableprofit.Thetelephonecompaniesmustjustifytheirrequestsforratechangesatpublichearings.Forexample,ataratehearing,anindividualphonecompanygivesthestatePUCdetailedfinancialinformationaboutitsexpensesandequipment.Consumersandotherinterestedpeoplecanparticipateinthehearings.Theycantelltheagenciesabouttheservicestheyneedandtheratestheyconsiderfair.Thefinaldecisionabouttherateor''tariff"ismadebythePUC.

TelecommunicationsRelayServices

TelecommunicationsrelayservicesenablepeoplewhouseTDDsorothernonvoiceterminaldevicestohaveconversationswithpeoplewhouseconventionalvoicetelephones.ThecallisrelayedbackandforthbyathirdpartywhoreadswhattheTDDusertypesandtypeswhatthevoicetelephoneuserspeaks.Intheearly1980s,privaterelaysystemsbegantodeveloparoundthecountry,offeringsomelinkforTDDuserstothepublictelecommunicationsnetwork.Mostoftheseprivateprogramswerefundedwithdonationsandstaffedwithvolunteers.

In1987,Californiabecamethefirststatetoopena24-hour,7-day-a-weekrelaysystem.SeveralotherstatesfollowedCalifornia'sexample,

establishingbothprivateandstate-runservices.Unfortunately,fundingshortages

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causedmostofthesestateandprivateprogramstoimposerestrictionsonrelayusers.Fewprogramsrelayedinterstatecalls,andmanyplacedlimitationsonthelength,number,andtimeofdaythatcallscouldbemade.Evenwiththeserestrictions,thedemandforrelayserviceswasoverwhelming.InCalifornia,forexample,50,000callswererelayedthefirstmonthofitsoperations.Thatnumberhasnowreached260,000.ThetremendousneedforrelayserviceseventuallyresultedinthepassageofTitleIVoftheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA),whichrequiresalltelephonecompaniestoprovideintra-andinterstaterelayservicesacrosstheUnitedStatesbyJuly26,1993.

1

InadditiontotheADA,CongresstookotheractiontoexpandrelayservicesforTDDusers.Specifically,onOctober28,1988,CongresspassedtheTelecommunicationsAccessibilityEnhancementAct(TAEA).ThisActexpandedthefederalrelaysystem.Thefederalsystemisusedforrelayingcallsto,from,andwithinthefederalgovernment.Ithasbeeninexistencesince1986.ItwasoriginallyestablishedbytheArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoardandoperatedbytheU.S.TreasuryDepartment.Unfortunately,beforethepassageofTAEA,thefederalrelaysystemhadbeenpoorlypublicizedandunderstaffed.ThenewlawtransferredauthorityforitsoperationstotheGeneralServicesAdministrationandaddedrelayoperatorstoaccommodatemanymoreTDDusers.Inadditiontoenlargingthefederalrelayprogram,theTAEAorderedthepublicationoffederalTDDnumbersinagovernment-widedirectoryanddirectedeachhouseofCongresstodevelopapolicywithrespecttotheplacementofTDDsinmembers'offices.

EquipmentDistributionPrograms

ThecostofowningaTDDcanbeprohibitivefordeafpeople,mostofwhomhavebelow-averageincomes.Inadditiontotheinitialcost,theTDDusermustalsopayfor

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repair,maintenance,and,ifneeded,papersupplies.Expenseisthemainreasonthatonlyabout200,000TDDsareinusetodayintheUnitedStates.ThecostofTDDsandotherspecializedtelephoneequipmenthaspromptedmanystatestodevelopequipmentdistributionprograms.Theseprogramsdistributespecializedequipmenttodeafandotherdisabledindividualsfreeofchargeoratadiscount.Somestatessetincomequalificationsforindividualswishingtoreceivesuchequipment;otherstatesmerelyrequirecertificationthattheindividualsarehearing-impairedorotherwisedisabled.

Todate,approximatelytwenty-fivestateshaveequipmentdistributionprograms.Asthenumberofrelayprogramsincreases,thenumberoftheseprograms,too,isexpectedtoincreasetofilltheincreasedneedforTDDs.

Oneissue,however,hasarisenwithrespecttothesedistributionprograms.Manyfearthattheseprogramsarepromotingtheuseofarchaictechnology.ResearchanddevelopmentinthefieldofTDDsisadvancingrapidly.NewerTDDscannowuseatransmissioncodecalledASCIItheAmericanStandardCodeInformationInterchange.ASCII-codedTDDscan"talk"withcomputersandtransmitwordsfasterthanconventionalTDDs,thusrequiringlesstimeandmoneytocompleteacall.TheadvantagesoftheASCIIformathavecausedseveraldeafadvocacygroupstopassresolutionstohavetheentireTDDnetworkswitchtotheASCIIformatwithinthenextfewyears.

Theproblemwithmany,ifnotmost,oftheTDDdistributionprogramsisthattheydistributeTDDsthatuseanincompatibleandoldercodetheBaudotcode.ManyfearthattheseprogramsaresaturatingthemarketswithBaudotequipmentthatwillsoonbeobsolete.IfastateorcompanyisrequiredtofurnishaTDDtoadeafcustomernow,itmayfeellittleornoobligationtoreplacetheTDD

withamoreadvancedmodelwithinafewyears.OnesolutionisforstatesandcompaniestodistributeTDDswithdual-modecapacity,thatis,theabilitytoswitchfromBaudottoASCIIandback.

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Long-DistanceRateReduction

Thechargeforalong-distancecallisusuallybasedonthenumberofminutesthetelephonelineisused,thedistancebetweenthecallers,thedayoftheweek,andthetimeofdaythecallisplaced.BecauseTDDcallstakemuchlongerthanvoicecallstocommunicatethesamemessage,long-distanceTDDcallsareveryexpensive.

AlthoughbasicTDDscantransmitatamaximumspeedofsixtywordsperminute,mostTDDcallsaretransmittedatamuchslowerrate.Onereasonisthatsomedeafpeoplehavebelow-averageskillswithwritten,aswellasspoken,Englishvocabularyandsyntax.ThelanguagetheyaremostcomfortablewithisAmericanSignLanguage(ASL).TheycommunicateinEnglishmoreslowlythantheycommunicateinsignlanguage.EvenamongskilledEnglish-languageusers,onlyasmallpercentagecantypesixtywordsperminute.Bycontrast,theestimatedaveragespeakingratefornativeusersofAmericanEnglishis165wordsperminute.Thus,atypicalTDDuserpays$6.50tohavethesamelong-distancetelephoneconversationthatahearingpersoncouldhaveforonly$2.50.

InAugust1981,AT&TpetitionedtheFCCforareductionofinterstatelong-distanceratesforhearing-impairedTDDcustomers.TheFCCapprovedthepetitionandtherateswentintoeffectinNovember1981.

2AT&Tratesarenowreduced35percentfordaytimeand60percentforeveningcalls.Latenightandweekendratesremainthesame.Recently,Sprint,anotherlong-distancetelephonecompany,alsobeganprocedurestoofferTDDdiscounts.

Deafcustomershaveusedtwomeanstorequestratereductionsforintrastatelong-distancecalls.Insomestates,theyhavepetitionedthe

statePUCforaratereductionandpresentedevidenceatanadministrativePUChearingabouttheneedforthediscount.Inotherstates,theyhaveaskedthelegislaturetopassalawrequiringthestatePUCtoadopttheratereduction.Thechoicebetweenthesetwoapproachesdependsonwheredeafcustomershavethebestcontactsandmostinfluence.Italsodepends

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onwhetherornotthestatePUCiswillingtograntareductionwithoutgettingspecificauthorityfromthestatelegislature.

Numerousmethodshavebeenadoptedbystatesandtelephonecompaniestoadministerratereductions.Somestates,suchasNewYork,requiredeafcustomerstosubmitastatementfromadoctor,audiologist,orpublicagencycertifyingthattheyarehearingimpaired.Otherstatesmerelyaskdeafcustomerstoapplyforthereducedrate,withoutrequiringcertification.Insomestatesareductionappliestothedeafperson'sentirehousehold;inotherstatesthediscountisonlyappliedtocallsmadewithaTDD.

AnewissueregardingTDDdiscountshascomeupwiththeADA'snewrequirementforrelayservices.Becauselong-distancecallsthatarerelayedtakelongerthandirectvoice-to-voicecalls,deafindividualsbelievethattheFCCshouldorderaratereductionforalllong-distancerelayedcalls.Indeed,somerelayprovidersandstaterelaysystemsalreadyoffersuchdiscounts.Forthepresenttime,theFCChasrejectedthisrequest,buthasencouragedlong-distancecompaniestovoluntarilyofferratereductionsasacompetitivefeatureofrelayservice.

Telephonechargesshouldbebasedonthevalueoftheservicetothecustomerratherthanonthecosttothetelephonecompanyofprovidingtheservice.Forexample,ifhomesinruralormountainousareaswerechargedtheactualcosttothetelephonecompanyofrunningtelephonelinesandinstallingequipment,theirrateswouldbeveryhigh.Yetallresidentialtelephonecustomers,urbanandrural,arechargedthesamefeeforbasictelephoneservice.Thisisdonebecausethevalueofthatserviceisthesameforeveryoneandbecausethetelephonesystemismoreusefulforeveryoneifitreachesasmanypeopleaspossible.Thecostofprovidingservicetoallhouseholdsisaveraged,andthecostisspreadamongallcustomers.Thetelephone

systemissupposedtoprovideaccesstouniversalcommunicationservicesatfairandreasonablerates.ReducedratesforTDDcallswillhelptoensurethatdeaf

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peoplehaveaccesstothetelephonesystemonthesamebasisasothertelephoneusers.

TDD-EquippedPayTelephones

Publictelephoneshaveanimportantcommunicationfunction.DeafpeoplewhocannotaffordtheirowntelephonesorTDDsorwhoareawayfromhomeneedtousepayphones.MostdeafindividualsdonotownTDDsthataretrulyportable.EventhoseindividualswhodopurchaseportableTDDsareunabletousethematpayphonesthatdonothaveelectricaloutletstosupplythenecessarypower.

OnlyrecentlyhavepublicplacesbeguntoinstallTDD-equippedpayphones.Newdevelopmentsdesignedtomakethesephoneslesssusceptibletovandalismhavepromptedsomeairports,subwaytransitsystems,andmallstoinstallthem.

GuidelinesissuedbytheArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoard(ATBCB)pursuanttotheADAwillalsoincreasetheavailabilityofTDD-equipped

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publictelephones.

3Theseguidelinesapplytonewconstructionandalterationsinplacesofpublicaccommodationsandcommercialfacilities,ascoveredbyTitleIIIoftheADA4.Therequirementsareasfollows:

1.Ifthetotalnumberofpayphonesatagivenlocationisfourormore,andatleastoneofthesephonesislocatedinsideabuildingatthatlocation,aTDD-equippedpayphonemustbeprovidedinsidethebuilding.

2.Ifapublicpaytelephoneisprovidedinastadiumorarena,aconventioncenter,ahotelwithaconventioncenter,oracoveredmall,atleastonepublicTDD-equippedpayphonemustbeprovidedinthefacility.

3.Ifapublicpayphoneislocatedinornexttoahospitalwaitingroom,recoveryroom,oremergencyroom,onepublicTDD-equippedpayphonemustbeprovidedateachlocation.

TheATBCBrulesalsorequirethatTDD-equippedpayphonesbeidentifiedbytheinternationalTDDsymbol.Inaddition,ifafacilityhasaTDD-equippedpayphone,itmustplaceasign(usingtheinternationalsymbol)directingindividualstothatphonenexttobanksofpayphonesthatarenotequippedwithTDDs.Ifafacilityhasnobanksoftelephones,itmustplacethedirectionalsignattheentrancetothefacility.

ManydeafindividualsfeelthatinadditiontorequiringTDD-equippedtelephonesintheabovesituations,publicpaytelephonesshouldbedesignedtoaccommodateportableTDDs.ThisisespeciallyimportantinlargerfacilitieswhereindividualswouldhavetowalklongdistancestolocatetheTDD-equippedphones.Respondingtothisconcern,theATBCBregulationsrequirethatnewconstructionor

alterationofpublicaccommodationscoveredunderTitleIIIoftheADAmustincludeatleastonepublicpaytelephoneineachbankofthreeormoretelephonesthatcanaccommodateportableTDDs.ThesetelephoneswillhaveashelffortheTDD,anelectricaloutlet,andatelephonehandsetcordlongenoughtoreachtheTDD.

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HearingAidCompatibility

Hearing-aid-compatibletelephonesenableindividualswhousehearingaidswithatelephoneswitchtoblockoutbackgroundsoundsandhigh-pitchedsquealsthatcanoccurwithincompatibletelephones.Thehearingaidswitchenablesthewearertopickupsoundwavesgeneratedbytheelectromagneticfieldofthetelephonereceiver.Telephoneswiththerequiredamountofelectromagneticleakageareconsideredtobecompatiblewithhearingaids.

Untiltheearly1980smosttelephonesmanufacturedinthiscountryhadstrongelectromagneticfields.Thisisbecausepriortothistime,AT&TrentedtelephonestomostAmericans.Thesetelephoneswereallhearingaidcompatible.Aroundthistime,however,newequipmentcompanieshereandabroadweregivenpermissiontomanufactureanddistributetelephonesthatcouldbepurchasedbyconsumers.Manyofthesetelephonesdidnothaveenoughelectromagneticleakagetobecompatiblewithhearingaids.

In1982,Congresstookstepstorectifythissituation.Atthattime,CongresspassedtheTelecommunicationsfortheDisabledAct,

5whichmadeclearthatcompatibilitybetweentelephonesandhearingaidswasnecessarytoaccommodatetheneedsofindividualswithhearingloss.

Inthe1982Act,Congresstookseveralsteps.First,itdirectedtheFCCtoestablishuniformtechnicalstandardsforhearingaidcompatibility.Second,itsetfortharequirementthatall"essentialtelephones"beequippedforusewithhearingaids.Congressdefined"essential"phonesascoin-operatedphones,phonesforemergencies,andphonesfrequentlyneededbyindividualswithhearingimpairments.Finally,Congressalsodirectedthelabellingoftelephone

equipmentsothatconsumerswouldbeawareofthecompatibilitybetweentelephonesandhearingaids.

IntheyearsfollowingpassageoftheTelecommunicationsfortheDisabledAct,individualswithhearinglossesinsistedthatthedefinitionofessentialtelephoneswasfartoonarrowtomeettheneedsofhearingaidusers.Asa

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consequence,CongressfinallypassedtheHearingAidCompatibilityActof1988(HACAct).

6TheHACActrequiredthatalltelephonesmanufacturedafterAugust16,1989,becompatibleforusewithhearingaids.7OnMay18,1989,theFCCpromulgatedregulationsdirectingcompliancewiththenewlaw.8

AftertheHACActwaspassed,hearingaidwearerswerestillconcernedthattheFCChadnottakenstepstoreducethenumberofincompatibletelephonesthathadbeeninstalledinworkplacesandotherinstitutionspriortothe1989manufacturingdeadline.Asaresultofconsumerpersistenceinthisarea,in1990,theFCCfinallyissuedaruletoagainexpandtheavailabilityofHACtelephones.Thenewrulechangedthedefinitionofessentialtelephones,torequirethattelephoneslocatedincommonareasoftheworkplaceandallcredit-card-operatedtelephonesbecompatiblewithhearingaidsbyMay1,1991.9

Someindividualscanalsobenefitfromtelephonesthatamplifythespeaker'svoice.Thesetelephoneshavevolumecontrols,whichallowthetelephoneusertocontroltheloudnessoftheotherperson'svoice.AnewATBCBruleissuedundertheADAwillexpandthenumberofpublicpayphoneswithvolumecontrolinplacesofpublicaccom-

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modation.Thenewrulerequiresthat25percentofallpublicpaytelephonesinnewlyconstructedbuildingsandfacilitiesbeequippedwithvolumecontrol.Allofthesetelephonesshallbeidentifiedbyasigncontainingatelephonehandsetradiatingsoundwaves.

CustomerandOtherTelephoneServices

Inthepast,deaftelephonesubscriberspaidformanytelephoneservicesthattheycouldnotuse.Forexample,manytypesofcalls,suchasperson-to-personandcollectlong-distancerequireoperatorassistance.Directoryassistanceisnecessaryfornewlistingsandforlong-distanceandothercallsforwhichnotelephonedirectoryisavailable.Whenpeopledesiretelephoneservicerepairsorinstallationsorhavequestionsabouttelephonebills,theymustcallthetelephonebusinessoffice.

AfterJuly26,1993,accesstomostoftheseservicesshouldnolongerbeaproblem.AfterthattimetherelayrequirementoftheADAwillgointoeffectmandating,inpart,relayaccesstoalloperatorservices.

Afewproblemsremain,however.Tobeginwith,manyoperatorsdonothaveadirectoryofTDDnumbers.Todate,mostconventionaltelephonedirectoriesdonotnotewhetheranumberisaccessibleviaaTDD.Eventhosedirectoriesthatdocontainthisinformationtypicallychargeconsumersanextrafeeforsuch"additionallinesofinformation."Thisisanissuethatdeafadvocacygroupswillhavetoaddressinordertogainfullaccesstothetelephonedirectorysystem.

Anotherproblemwithregardtocustomerservicesoccurswhentelephonecompaniesuserecorded"intercept"messages.Typically,thesemessagesareusedfortelephonenumbersthathavebeenchanged,disconnected,orforsomeotherreasonarenotfunctioning.ThesemessagesdonotregisterwithTDDequipment.WhenTDDusersencounterarecordedmessage,theyknowtheircallhasnotbeen

completedbuttheydonotknowwhy.Theyeither

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waitonthelineforextendedperiodsorcontinuetryingtoreachthenumber,eventhoughitisnotinservice.

WhileTDDusersmayusethenewrelaysystemstoascertainwhytheyarenotgettingthroughtoanumber,thiswillcauseaddedphonecallsforboththeTDDcallersandtherelaysystems.DeafadvocacygroupshavesoughttorequirethatroutinerecordedmessagesbeencodedforTDDusers.Telephonecompanieshaveopposedthisproposal,arguingthatitistechnologicallydifficultandprohibitivelyexpensive.However,deafcustomerspayforandneedthisservicejustashearingcustomersdo.Itisabasicservicethatshouldbeavailabletoalltelephonesubscribers.

Amorerecentproblemregardingtelephoneserviceshasarisenwiththedevelopmentofaudiotextservices.Theseservicesprovidearecordedmessagethatgivesthecallerachoiceofoptionsastohowtodirectthecall.Banks,educationalinstitutions,andtransportationinformationlinesareonlyafewoftheplacesthatnowroutinelyuseaudiotextservices.TDDcallershaveaccesstothisserviceonlythroughrelayoperators;however,relayoperatorshaveadifficulttimekeepingupwiththespeedoftherecordedmessages,makingthisservicevirtuallyinaccessibletoTDDusers.

NewDevelopments

Telephoneaccessibilityisextremelyimportantfordeafandhardofhearingpeople,justasitisforhearingpeople.Lackofaccesstothetelephonesystemdramaticallyincreasesisolation.Thischapterprovidesonlyasummaryofthemajorissuesandsomeoftheapproachesthatadvocacygroupshavetakentoexpandtelecommunicationsaccess.

Newanddramaticadvancesintelephonetechnologyareexpectedwithinthenextfewyears.Forexample,newservicessuchasspeech-

to-textmayeliminatetheneedforanoperatortorelaycallsbetweenTDDandvoicetelephoneusers.Similarly,newdevicesmaybecomeavailable

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thatcanprovidebetterandcheapercommunicationfordeafpeople.Newmethodsofprovidingservicesandcompetitioninthetelephonemanufacturingandserviceindustrieshaveandwillcontinuetoalterserviceratesandequipmentprices.Theroleofregulatoryagencieswillalsocontinuetochange.Deafpeopleandtheiradvocatesshouldbecomeknowledgeableaboutthesetelecommunicationsdevelopmentsinordertotakeadvantageofthechangeswhentheyoccur.

Notes

1.ADATitleIVrequirementsarediscussedindetailinchaptertwo.

2.FCCTransmittalNo.13,822(August1981)

3.56Fed.Reg.35408(July26,1991),tobecodifiedat36C.F.R.Part1191

4.SeechaptertwoforadetailedexplanationoftheregulationsandrequirementsincludedinTitleIIIoftheADA.

5.47U.S.C.§610

6.P.L.100-394(1988),codifiedat47U.S.C.§610

7.TheHACActdoesexemptradioandsecuretelephonesfromthisrequirement.

8.54Fed.Reg.21429(May18,1989),codifiedat47C.F.R.Part68

9.55Fed.Reg.28762(July13,1990)

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ChapterThirteenStateLegislaturesandCommissionsSincethe1980elections,thefederalgovernmenthassoughttocutdrasticallyboththebudgetsandtheregulationsfornumerousprogramsthathaveassistedthepoorandotherminoritygroups,includingthedisabled.ThepolicyoftheReaganadministrationhasbeentoreducetheroleofthefederalgovernmentandtofunnellumpsumsoflessmoneytothestategovernments.Thestatesthushavealargerroleinfundingandregulatingordecidingnottofundorregulatesuchprograms.

Oneresultofthispolicyisthathearing-impairedpeopleandtheiradvocatesmustincreasinglyturntostategovernmentstoprovidenotonlyservicesbutaccesstothoseservices.Thisrequiresincreasedawarenessofthestatelegislativeprocessandofthepurposesthatcanbeservedbystatecommissions.Thosetwofactorsarethesubstanceofthischapter.First,however,thereisatruestoryaboutthepatienceandpersistencerequiredtogetonestategovernmenttoapproveabillbenefitinghearing-impairedpeople.

Marylandenactedlegislationin1980establishinganoutpatientmentalhealthprogramfordeafpeople.Therequirementsforstaffexpertisearespelledoutinthelaw:Staffmustbefluentinreceptiveandexpressivesignlanguage,includingAmericanSignLanguage,orbecomesowithinoneyearofbeingemployed.Theprofessionalstaffmusthaveexperienceinassessmenttechniques,individualpsychotherapy,andgrouppsychotherapywithhearing-impairedpeople.Theymustalsohavepracticalknowledgeofdeafpsychology.

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Theproblemsofhearing-impairedpeopleundertreatmentinMaryland'smentalhealthfacilitieswerefirstbroughttolightbypsychologistAllenSussmaninapresentationatthe1977conventionoftheMarylandAssociationoftheDeaf(MAD).SussmanpointedoutthatseveraldeafpersonsinMarylandhospitalswerelargelybeingneglectedbecausetherewasnoregularstafftrainedinaspectsofdeafnessorfluentinsignlanguage.TheassociationrespondedbyestablishingataskforcetomeetformallywithofficialsoftheMarylandDepartmentofHealthandMentalHygiene(DHMH)todiscusstheproblemsandsuggestedsolutions.Thedepartmentrespondedtotheproposedsolutionsbysayingthatitlackedmoneytopayforthespecializedmentalhealthservicesthathearing-impairedpatientsneeded.

MembersandofficialsofMADworkedwiththestaffoftheNationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf(NCLD)todevelopalegalstrategy.Theyconcludedthatlitigationwouldbeexpensive,time-consuming,andprobablynotresultintheneededservices.

TheStoryofOneBill

Alegislativeapproachwasadopted,withMADandNCLDworkingcloselytodraftabill.DelegateRaymondBecksponsoredthebillintheMarylandHouseofDelegates,andDHMHsupportedthelegislation.AfterhearingsthatcommitteechairpersonTorreyBrowncharacterizedasamongthebetteroneshehadseeninhisyearsinthegeneralassembly,thebillpassedquicklyinthehousebutgotstuckinthesenate'sfinancecommittee.Lateinthelegislativesession,confusionaroseincommitteehearingsoverthecompositionoftheproposedadvisorycommitteeandthestatutorydefinitionofwhoiseligiblefortheproposedservice.Amendmentsweremadethatrequiredhouseapproval.

Billsupporterswerefrustratedanddisappointedwhenthe1979legislativesessionexpiredwithnoactionon

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thebill.Theyregroupedbeforethenextsessionandresolvedalldifferencesofopinionaboutthedefinitionofapersonqualifiedfortheserviceandaboutthecompositionoftheadvisorycommittee.Theysoughtbipartisansupport,andidenticalbillswereintroducedsimultaneouslyinboththehouseandthesenatetospeedaction.Theagreed-upondefinitionofaneligiblepersonwas''anindividualwhosehearingimpairmentissoseverethattheindividualisimpairedinprocessinglinguisticinformationthroughhearing,withorwithoutamplification."

Themeasurewasoneofthefirstintroducedinthe1980sessionand,backedbytheorganizedanddemonstratedsupportofthedeafcommunity,passedbothhousesquickly.GovernorHarryHughesreceivedalargedelegationofdeafpeopleinthecapitoland,onMay6,1980,signedthebill.

1

Sevenmonthslater,however,thegovernorindicatedthathewouldcutfundingforthenewprogrambecauseofbudgetaryproblems.Acoalitionofdeaforganizationsquicklyrespondedbymeetingwiththegovernorandorganizingarallywhichhelpedconvincethegovernornottocuttheprogram.TheoutpatientprogramisnowoperatingatFamilyServiceofPrinceGeorge'sCounty,Maryland.

LobbyinginYourStateLegislature

Theaboveaccountpointsoutsomeofthetriumphsandfrustrationsofthestatelegislativeprocess.Attentiontoorganization,timing,anddetailareimportantbefore,during,andafterabillisprocessed.Allofthesefactorsarediscussedinmoredetailinthefollowingguidetoworkingeffectivelywithstategovernorsandlegislators.2

PreparingForAction

1.Stateorganizationsofandforhearing-impairedpeoplemustsetpriorities.Whatspecificservicesorprotectionsdodeafcitizensofyourstateneedmost?

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2.Concentrateonthesebasicgoals.

3.Canyouachieveyourgoalsthroughstateagenciesandthegovernor'sofficewithoutlegislativeaction,ordoyouneedastatelaw?

4.Developcontactswiththeheadsofstateagenciesandfindoutifthereareexistingfundsinthestateagencytoprovidetheservicesyouneed.Workwiththegovernor'sstaffonthepossibilityofthegovernorissuinganexecutiveordertoprovideyoutheprotectionyouwant.InVirginiatheheadofthestatehumanresourcesagencyrequiredallstateagenciesandinstitu-

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tionstopayforqualifiedinterpretersfordeafcitizensseekingaccesstotheirservices.InIllinoisthegovernorissuedanexecutiveordertorequireinterpreters,whenrequested,atallstatemeetingsandconferences.

5.Ifyouneedastatelaw,firsttrytogetsupportfromthestateagencythatwouldadministertheprogram.Encouragethemtorecommendtothegovernorthatyourproposalbeincludedintheirbudget.

6.Iftheagencyrefuses,workdirectlywiththegovernor'sstafftoincludeyourpriorityinthegovernor'sbudget.Inmoststates,legislatorsapprovemostofthegovernor'sbudget.Thegovernor'sfull-time,professionalstaffandthestateagencypersonnelhavethedataandexpertisethatoftenpersuadepart-timelegislatorswithlimitedstaff.Legislatorswillmoreoftensupport,amend,orrejectthegovernor'sbudgetitemsthaninitiatetheirownproposals.Ifyoutrytoapproachalegislatordirectlyandindependently,theexecutivebranchmayopposeyourproposal.Evenifthegovernor'sstaffconsidersyourproposalworthwhile,theymayopposeitbecauseitupsetsthegovernor'sbudget.Thisisespeciallytruegiventougheconomictimesandthepressureforbalancedbudgets.

7.Sometimesthegovernorwillnotagreetosupportyourproposal.Donotgiveup!Seekoutinfluentiallegislatorswhoaresympathetictoyourgoal.Trytogetthemtointroduceabill.

8.Onebigplusistogetalegislatorpreferablyonewhositsonthecommitteethatwillhearthebilltosponsoryourbill.Alegislatorwhoknowsthecommitteememberswellisbestsituatedtomoveyourbillthroughthecommittee.

9.Beforeyouandotherbillsupportersmeetwithyourlegislativesponsor(s),workoutyourdifferences.Itisimportantforleadersofallstateorganizationsofandforhearing-impairedpeopletomeetand

agreeonallpartsofthebillbeforeitisfiled.Toooftensomeorganizationshavenotbeenconsultedorinvolvedinplanningabillbecauseofphilosophical,political,

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orpersonalitydifferences.Afterabillisintroduced,theseorganizationssometimesobjecttopartsofthebillduetomisunderstandingthebill'spurposeorbecauseofmajororminorerrorsoromissions.Theseobjectionscreateconfusioninlegislators'mindsandleadtodelay,withdrawal,ordefeatofabill.Itisimperativethataunitedfrontbepresentedtothelegislators.

10.Doyourhomework.Gatherfactsonwhythebillisneeded.Documentwithactualexperiences.Themostimportantquestionthelegislatorswillwantansweredis"howmuchwillthebillcostthetaxpayers?"Advocatesforthehearing-impairedinNorthCarolinaeffectivelyansweredthisquestioninsupportofacomprehensiveinterpreterbill.Firsttheycompiledthenumberoftimesinterpreterswereusedincourtcasescounty-by-county;thentheymultipliedbythestandardstateinterpreterfeeforthehoursinvolved.Theycalculatedtheactualcostsforinterpreterspaidoutbyinterpreterreferralagencies.Datawerealsocollectedfromotherstatesthathadstatefundsavailableforinterpreterservices;thisshowedthecostsperyearforprovidinginterpretersincriminal,civil,andadministrativeproceedings.

Suchdetailedinformationshouldbeprovidedtothelegislativeofficethatdevelopsthefiscalnote(calculatestheannualcostofimplementingthebill).Theseofficesfrequentlyhavenoideahowtoestimatethefiscalcostforinterpreters.Anyharddatayoucanprovidethem,especiallyiftheytotalalowbutrealisticfigure,canhelpswayvotestosupportyourbill.Also,findouthowmanyhearing-impairedpeopleinthestatecouldbenefitfromthelaw.Willithelppeoplethroughoutthestateoronlyinoneortwocountiesorcities?Collectdataonhowoftentheservicewillbeneeded.Forexample,ifyouwantaninterpreterbilltocovercivilproceedings,howmanycaseswerethereinthestatelastyearinwhichadeaf

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personrequestedinterpreterservicesforaciviltrial(suchasacaraccidentcase)?

11.Whenyoumeetwithyourlegislativesponsor,presenthim/herwithascompleteabillaspossible,includingyoursupportingresearch.Thestatelegislatorwillfrequentlyhavelimitedtimeandstaffresources.Yoursponsorcanhelponthebill'swordingandwillreferthebilltothelegislativedraftingofficeforafinaldraftthatmeetsalllegalrequirements.Urgeyoursponsortoprefilethebillifpossiblethatyear.Prefilinghelpsensureanearlyhearingonyourbillandgivesyoutimebeforethelegislativesessionbeginstosignupcosponsors.HavingbothDemocratandRepublicansponsorsishelpful.

12.Ifastatelegislaturemeetsonlyforafewmonths,trytoarrangeforsponsorsinboththehouseandsenatetointroduceidenticalbills.Thiswillensurehearingsinbothhousesandalegislativeadvocateforyourbillineachchamber.

13.Formcoalitionswithotherorganizationswithsimilarinterests.Coalitionsgiveyoucloutwithboththelegislatorsandthegovernor.Seniorcitizenorganizationsareverypowerfulinmanystatesduetotheirexperience,theirhighvoterturnout,andtheirinvaluabletimetolobby.Theyareanallyworthcultivating.Manyoftheirinterestscoincidewithyours.Parents'groupsandprofessionalsworkingforhearing-impairedchildrenandadultsshouldbepartofyournetwork.Finally,developtieswithorganizationsrepresentingotherdisabilitiesandworktogetheroncommonobjectives.Coalitionsareneededthroughoutthelegislativeprocesstoensurepassageandimplementationofneededlawsandservices.

WhenTheLegislativeSessionBegins

1.Themostcrucialstepinthelegislativeprocessisgettingyourbill

reportedfavorablyoutofcommittee.Thehouseandsenateusuallysupportabillapprovedbya

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committee.Ifacommitteevotesdownyourbill,gettingthefullhouseorsenatetovoteonitisverydifficult.InMaryland,forexample,abillrejectedbyacommitteecanbebroughttoafloorvoteonlybypetitionofthreesenatorsorfifteendelegates.Abillfrequentlyisamendedorkilledincommittee.Youmust,therefore,devoteconsiderableeffortto

· presentingpersuasivetestimony,

· havinganswersforcommitteemembers,and

· demonstratingwidesupportforthebillthroughspeakersrepresentingdifferentgroupsandbyhavingmanysupportersatthehearing.

Thejobofpersuasionmustcontinueafterthehearing.

2.Encourageletterwritingtomembersofthecommitteeandindividuallobbyingwithlegislators.Anindividualizedletterdiscussingarelevantpersonalexperiencefromapersoninthelegislator'shomedistrictismosteffective.Trytoorganizeanetworkofpeopleinyourstatewhocanbemobilizedquicklybeforethevoteonyourbill.

3.Rememberthatalegislator'stimeisvaluable.Youarecompetingwithpeoplewholobbyforaliving.Youmustbepreparedonshortnoticetomeetalegislatorandexplainconciselywhyyourbillisneeded.

4.Trytoavoidamendmentsofyourbillinthesecondchamberthatconsidersit.Ifthesenateamendsabillthatpassedthehouse,theamendedbillmustgobacktothehouseforapproval.Theremaynotbetimeleftforahousevote.AsadexampleofthisprocedureoccurredintheMarylandGeneralAssemblyin1979;asdescribedearlyinthischapter,anamendedbilltosetupanoutpatientmental

healthprogramdiedwhentimeranout.

5.Compromiseisoftennecessarytogainpassageandthegovernor'sapproval.Rememberingyourbasicgoal,however,youshouldstaunchlyresistamendmentsthatcutfunds,staff,orcoveragenecessaryforthelawtobeeffective.Legislatorsfrequentlyfinditeasiersimplyto

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passabeautifullywordedresolutionorsetupavoluntarycommissionthathasnopower.

Approval,Implementation,AndMonitoring

1.Onceabillpassesbothhouses,effortsmustbedirectedtogettingthegovernortosignitintolaw.Sometimesagovernorwillsignabillbutlatertrytocutfundingtoyournewprogrambecauseofbudgetaryproblems.Also,agenciesresponsibleforimplementingalawsometimesperformunsatisfactorilyandneedtobemonitored.

2.Afull-orpart-timepersonworkinginthecapitolisinvaluableforkeepingorganizationsawareoflegislativeandexecutiveactivitiesthatmayaffecthearing-impairedpeople.Thosestatesthathavesetupcommissionsorcouncilsfordeafpeoplehavebeenextremelysuccessfulindevelopingfriendly,workingrelationshipswithexecutivestaffsandlegislators.Butitisyou,thecommittedvoters,whowillmakethedifference.

3.Usethemedia.Newspaperandtelevisionstoriescanbringpublicattentionandsupporttoyourbillandincreaselegislativeawareness.

4.WorkwiththeNationalCenterforLawandDeafness(NCLD)ondraftingthebillandcomparingwhatotherstateshavedone.TheNCLDisafreeresourcetohelpyouateverystepofthelegislativeprocess.

Workingwithpublicofficialscanbeastimulating,rewarding,yetfrustratingexperience.Theyareelectedbyyouandareaccountable,finally,toyou.Somakeyourviewsknown.RememberBenjaminFranklin'sadvice:"Wemustallhangtogether,orassuredlyweshallallhangseparately."

StateCommissions

Deafpeoplehaveworkedwithstatelegislaturestoseethatagenciesareestablishedtoprovidenecessaryservices.

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Theagenciescurrentlyinexistencetakevariousforms;usuallytheyareconstitutedasstatecommissionsorcouncilsfordeafpeople.

Atleasttwentystatesnowhavecommissions,councils,orotheragenciesspecificallyconcernedwithprovidingservicestodeafpeople.*Thesecommissionsusuallyadvocatefortheneedsofdeafcitizensbyadvisingthestatelegislatureandbyprovidingliaisonwithvariousagenciestosecureandcoordinateservices.Anotherpurposeistocollectanddisseminateinformationaboutdeafness,especiallydemographicandotherdatathatservetoraisepublicconsciousnessaboutdeafpeople.Someagenciesalsocoordinateorprovideservices,includinginformation,referral,individualadvocacy,counseling,andinterpreters.Agoalofsomecommissionsistocreateserviceprojectssuchasjobdevelopmentprograms.

Thetypicalcommissionhasfromninetotwentymembers,includingdeafcitizens,parentsofdeafchildren,and

*SeeAppendixEforthetitlesandaddressesofthestatecommissionsorcouncilsthathavebeenestablishedtodate.

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representativesofvariousstateagencies,professionsservingdeafpeople,andorganizationsofdeafpeople.

Therearethreebasicorganizationalstructuresforstatecommissions:Commissionsdirectlyfundedbythestate,thosewithindependentbudgetswithintheiragencyordepartment,andthosewithnoseparatebudgetwithintheiragencyordepartment.

IndependentCommissions

Theindependentcommissionsreporttothegovernorandsubmittheirbudgetsdirectlytothelegislatureorgovernor.Connecticut,Texas,andVirginiahavecommissionsonthismodel.

Connecticut'scommissionisastatewidecoordinatingandadvocacyagencythatprovidesinformation,24-hour-adayinterpreterservicesinacompleterangeofsettings,interpretertraining,counseling,referral,consultationoncommunicationproblemsinmentalhealthfacilities,andrepresentationofdeafcitizeninterestsbeforepublicagenciesandprivateindustry.

TheTexascommission,thefirstinthenation,wascreatedin1971andisresponsibleforprovidingallservicesthatarenottheresponsibilityofotherstateagencies.Itservesasaninformationclearinghouse;providesinterpreterservicesincourts,hospitals,andgovernmentofficesatnocharge;andhiresdeafseniorcitizenstovisitotherelderlydeafpeople.

TheVirginiaDepartmentfortheDeafandHardofHearingcoordinatesastatewideinterpreterservice,consultswithstateagenciesandinstitutionsontheuniqueproblemsofdeafness,evaluatesstateprogramsfortheirrelevanceandeffectiveness,andprovidesinformationtothestategovernmentontherightsandneedsofdeafVirginians.Recognizingthatunderemploymentisamajorproblemofdeafworkers,thedepartmentestablishedanIndustrial

RelationsCommitteetoidentifyandsuggestwaystomeetneedsofdeafworkers.

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ThedirectorofMassachusetts'sOfficeofDeafnessisappointedbythestatesecretaryofhumanservices.Theofficestudiestheserviceneedsofdeafpeopleandthenadvisesandrecommendsprioritiestostateofficialsandagencies.Itactsasaninformationclearinghouseandreviewsbudgetrequestsfromstateagencies,makingcommentsandrecommendationsonthem.Itevaluatesandmonitorsstateservicesfordeafpeopleandsuggestsnecessarychangestoimprovetheirquality.Anditcoordinatesinterpreterservicestodeafpeopleandstateprograms.Theofficealsomonitorsallbillsinthestatelegislaturethataffectdeafpeople.

CommissionsWithinOtherAgencies

Someofthestatecommissionsareindependentpartsofanotheragencyandaredirectlyresponsibletotheheadoftheumbrellaagency.NorthCarolinaisanexampleofthiskindofcommission.

Establishedin1977,NorthCarolina'sCouncilfortheHearingImpairedactsasanadvocatefordeafpeople,abureauofinformation,andanadvisortothesecretaryofthestatedepartmentofhumanresources.Thecouncilplansandimplementsservicesfordeafpeoplethroughcommunityservicecenters,informsdeafpeopleoftheirrightsandavailableservices,makesreferrals,coordinatescommunicationbetweenserviceagenciesanddeafclients,andpromotesaccessiblepubliccommunityservicesandthetrainingofinterpreters.AllofitscommunityserviceprogramsareadministeredbythestateDivisionofVocationalRehabilitationServices.

Commissionsthatarepartofanotherstateagencyhavenoseparatebudgetandoperateundertheauthorityoftheheadofthatagency.Minnesota,NewJersey,andWisconsinhavecommissionsofthistype.

Inadditiontotheusualinformationandadvisoryfunctions,the

MinnesotaDepartmentofPublicWelfarehasadirectservicecomponentfordeafpeople.TheDeafServicesDivisionworkstoensurethatallservicesavailableto

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hearingpeoplearealsoavailabletodeafpeople.Itnegotiatesforclient'srightsanddoesshort-termcasemanagement,counseling,andreferral.Itadviseswelfaredepartmentsandotheragenciesandprogramsand,inconjunctionwiththeDivisionofVocationalRehabilitation,maintainseightregionalservicecenters,eachofwhichisanentrypointfordeafpeoplewhoneedtheservices.Eachcenterhasanadvisorycommitteeofeightpeopleappointedbythestatecommissionerofeconomicsecurity;fouradvisorsaredeafpersonsorparentsofdeafchildrenandfourarerepresentativesofcountyandregionalhumanserviceagencies.

ADivisionoftheDeafwithintheNewJerseyDepartmentofLaborandIndustryprovidesinformationandreferralservices,coordinatesinterpreterservices,andprovidesinterpretertrainingandTDDservicesforpublicagencies.Itisestablishingregionalcommunityservicecentersandworkswithotherstateagenciestocoordinateservices.Forexample,ithasaformal,job-relatedservicesagreementwiththestatedivisionofemploymentservicesandthestatedivisionofvocationalrehabilitation.

Wisconsin'sStateServiceBureaufortheDeafhasaforty-yearhistory.Fromthebeginning,statefundsweregrantedtoandadministeredbyaprivateorganization,theWisconsinAssociationoftheDeaf.In1979theservicebureauwasmadeintoastateagency,theBureaufortheHearingImpaired,aspartofthecommunityservicesdivisionoftheWisconsinDepartmentofHealthandSocialServices.Thenewentitywillcarryoutitsadvisoryandservicefunctionswithnewauthorityandagreatlyexpandedstaff.

SpecificNeedsofDeafPeople

Insomeotherstates,thecommissionresponsiblefordeafconcernsalsorepresentsotherphysicallyandmentallyhandicappedpeople.Suchcommissionsmaybesatisfactoryiftheyhaveabroadbaseof

support.Theadvantagegained

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innotdividingcommunitysupportonaccessibilityanddiscriminationissuesmaybelost,however,ifthecommissionisnotfullyawareoftheproblemsofdeafnessandattentivetothespecialserviceneedsofdeafpeople.

Whenastatelegislatureestablishesacommission,itshouldspecificallyaddressdeafnessintheenablinglegislation.*Ifthecommissionistoexistfortheentirerangeofphysicalandmentaldisabilities,thenalldisabledgroupsshouldberepresentedonthecommission.Theenablinglegislationshouldhaveaclearandcomprehensivedefinitionofeligibilityandbroadapplicationtotheentirerangeofavailableprogramsandsettings.TheHHSregulationstoSection504areexcellentmodels.

3Onceestablished,thecommissionshouldbecarefullymonitoredtomakesurethatitsoffices,services,andstaffarefullyaccessibletodeafpeople.TheofficesshouldhaveTDD-equippedtelephones,andcommissionmembers,staff,andclientsshouldbeprovidedwithinterpretersandothernecessaryaccommodations.Theinterpretersshouldbequalifiedandcertified.

Thehistoriesofexistingstatecommissionsindicatethatthosesetupspecificallyforhearing-impairedcitizensdonotduplicateservicesalreadyprovidedbyotherdepartments.Thecommissionissimplyacentralofficewithspecialknowledgeoftheproblemsandneedsofhearing-impairedpeople.Itprovidesacenterforvitalinformation,consultation,andadvocacy.Italsoraisespublicawarenessaboutdeafnessandcommunicationbarriers.

Theprimaryneedofacouncilorcommissionisadequatemeanstoperformitstask.Fundingmustbesufficientandstablesothatplanningmayhaveapredictableandrealisticscope.Afull-time,paid

staffwithwideexperienceindeafnessisvital.

*SeeAppendixFforthe(amended)enablinglegislationthatestablishedVirginia'sCouncilfortheDeaf.Notetheclearandcomprehensivedefinitionofeligibilityandtheadequatedegreeofauthoritygiventotheagency.

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Notes

1.MarylandCodeAnn.,Art.59,§70-75(1980)

2.AdaptedfromS.DuBow,''CommunicatingwithYourLegislators,"DeafAmerican34(3):34-35.Usedbypermissionofthepublisher.

3.45CodeofFederalRegulations§84.2(j)

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AppendixAReferencePublicationsonDeafnessandPL94-142TheDeafChildandRegularEducation(Mainstreaming)

Benderly,B.DancingWithoutMusic.GardenCity,N.Y.:AnchorPress/Doubleday,1980.Reprint.Washington,D.C.:GallaudetUniversityPress,1990.

Birch,J.W.Hearing-ImpairedChildrenintheMainstream.Reston,Va.:CouncilforExceptionalChildren,1975.

Bishop,M.E.,ed.Mainstreaming:PracticalIdeasforMainstreamingHearing-ImpairedStudents.Washington,D.C.:AlexanderGrahamBellAssociationfortheDeaf,1979.

Brill,R.G.MainstreamingthePrelinguallyDeafChild.Washington,D.C.:GallaudetCollegePress,1978.

Garretson,M."ConceptoftheLeastRestrictiveEnvironment."GallaudetAlumniNewsletter11(16)SpecialIssue,June15,1977,pp.10-11.

Jacobs,L.M.ADeafAdultSpeaksOut.3rded.Washington,D.C.:GallaudetUniversityPress,1989.

Jensema,C.,andTrybus,R.J.WhoAretheDeafChildrenin'Mainstream'Programs?Washington,D.C.:GallaudetCollege,1977.

Karchmer,M.A.,andTrybus,R.J.ReportedEmotional/BehavioralProblemsAmongHearingImpairedChildreninSpecialEducationPrograms;UnitedStates,1972-73.Washington,D.C.:GallaudetCollege,1975.

Katz,L.;Mathis,S.L.;andMerrill,E.C.TheDeafChildinthePublic

Schools:AHandbookforParentsofDeafChildren.Danville,Ill.:InterstatePrintersandPublishers,1978.

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Mindel,E.D.,andVernon,M.TheyGrowinSilence.SilverSpring,Md.:NationalAssociationoftheDeaf,1971.

Moores,D.F.EducatingtheDeaf:Psychology,PrinciplesandPractices,Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1977.

Nix,G.W.,ed.MainstreamEducationforHearing-ImpairedChildrenandYouth.NewYork:GruneandStrattonInc.,1976.

Northcutt,W.H.TheHearing-ImpairedChildintheClassroom:Pre-School,Elementary,andSecondYears.Washington,D.C.:AlexanderGrahamBellAssociation,1973.

Spradley,J.P.,andSpradley,T.S.DeafLikeMe.NewYork:RandomHouse,1978.Reprint.Washington,D.C.:GallaudetUniversityPress,1985.

Vernon,M.,andPrickett,H."Mainstreaming:IssuesandaModelPlan."AudiologyandHearingEducation2(2):5-11.

PL94-142

AlexanderGrahamBellAssociationfortheDeaf.RightsofHearing-ImpairedChildren.Washington,D.C.:AlexanderGrahamBellAssociationfortheDeaf,1977.

CouncilonExceptionalChildren.PrimeronDueProcessinEducation.Reston,Va.:CouncilonExceptionalChildren,1977.

CouncilonExceptionalChildren.PrimeronIEPforHandicappedChildren.Reston,Va.:CouncilonExceptionalChildren,1977.

DuBow,S."P.L.94-142."AmericanAnnalsoftheDeaf122(5)(1977):468-469.

DuBow,S."ApplicationofRowleybyCourtsandSEAs."EducationofHandicappedLawReporter,SA-107(1983).

DuBow,S."MainstreamingorResidentialSchoolsforDeafStudents."GallaudetToday(Spring1985).

DuBow,S."IntotheTurbulentMainstream-ALegalPerspectiveontheWeighttoBeGiventotheLeastRestrictiveEnvironmentinPlacementDecisionsforDeafChildren."JournalofLawandEducation18(1989):215-228.

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DuBow,S.,andGeer,S."SpecialEducationLawSinceRowley."ClearinghouseReview1001(January1984).

GallaudetCollege.Parents'GuidetoIndividualizedEducationProgram.Washington,D.C.:GallaudetCollege,1978.

Geer,S."HowHearing-ImpairedChildrenFareintheCourtsandDueProcessHearingsUnderPL94-142."GallaudetToday(SpecialIssue1986).

KendallDemonstrationElementarySchool.KendallGuidetoAssessment:AHandbookforParents.Washington,D.C.:KendallDemonstrationElementarySchool,GallaudetCollege,1978.

"PL94-142andDeafness."GallaudetToday(Winter1986).

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AppendixBAppropriatePublicEducation:SampleLettersofRequestI.RequestforEvaluation

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II.RequestandAuthorizationforRecords

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III.RequestforLocalDueProcessHearing

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IV.RequestforStateReview

Note

AppendixBisadaptedfromR.Shepard,"TheRepudiationofPlato:ALawyer'sGuidetotheEducationalRightsofHandicappedChildren,"UniversityofRichmondLawReview13(83)Summer1979,pp.842-845.Usedbypermissionofthepublisher.

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AppendixCProvidingInterpreterService:OneAgencyExampleMemorandum

DATE:Nov.15,1979

TO:AllAssociateCommissionersAllActingAssociateCommissionersAllRegionalCommissionersAllAssistantRegionalCommissioners,Field

OperationsAllAreaDirectorsAllDO's/BO's/TSC's

FROM:ActingDirectorforCivilRightsandEqualOpportunitySocialSecurityAdministrationDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare

SUBJECT:ProvidingInterpreterServicefortheHearing-ImpairedinSocialSecurityAdministrationProceedingsACTION

PursuanttoSection504oftheRehabilitationActof1973asamended,SSAhasanobligationtomakesurethatallprogramsandfacilitiesareaccessibletohandicappedpersons.Thisincludesmakingcertainthatthereisaccuratecommunicationwiththehearing-impaired.

InOctoberof1978theAssociateCommissionerforProgramOperationsissuedaseebelow[sic]outliningthecircumstancesunderwhichSSAcouldpurchaseinterpreterservice.However,someorganizationsofthehearing-impairedhavenowrequestedmorespecificguidelines.Inaddition,wehavehadmanyrecentcontactsindicating

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thatthereissomeconfusionastohowourpolicyistobeimplemented,andthatsomedistrictandbranchofficeemployeesareunawarethatinterpreterscanbehiredbySSA.

Accordingly,thismemorandumwilloutlineingreaterdetailtheprocedurestobefollowed.AClaimsManualsectionwillbeissuedonthissubjectinthenearfuture.

ProvisionofInterpreters

ItisthepolicyoftheSocialSecurityAdministrationtoensuremaximumaccessibilityofsocialsecurityprogramstothehearing-impairedinallagencyproceedingsconcerningapplicationfor,orreceipt,suspension,revocation,underpaymentoroverpaymentofbenefitsundertheSocialSecurityAct.Attimes,thiswillincludethelocalpurchaseofinterpreterservicesforthehearing-impaired.Thisprocedureisauthorizedwithinthelocalpurchaseauthoritydelegatedtodistrictandbranchofficemanagerswhenitisnecessaryforeffectivecommunication.Theclaimantshallbeinformedimmediatelybytheappropriatedistrictorbranchofficeemployeethatheorshehastherighttointerpreterserviceinaccordancewiththeoptionslistedbelow,andmayrequestaninterpreterattheagency'sexpenseatanystageofagencyproceedings,ifheorshefeelsthateffectivecommunicationisnotoccurring.

Severaloptionsfortheprovisionofinterpreterserviceexist:

1.Thehearing-impairedpersonmayprovidehisorherowninterpreteratnocosttoSSA;

2.Adistrictorbranchofficemayuseitsownemployeewhoisproficientinsignlanguage,ormayborrowaqualifiedSSAemployeefromanotheroffice;

3.AqualifiedinterpretermaybeborrowedfromanotherHEW

componentorfromanotherFederalagency;

4.Freecommunityservicemaybesecured;or

5.SSAmaypurchasetheneededservice.Note:AnSSAorotherFederalemployeeisconsideredtobequalifiedtosignifheorsheisableaccuratelyand

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simultaneouslytoexpress(sendsignstothehearing-impairedperson)andreceive(understandsignsfromahearing-impairedperson)insignlanguage.

ConditionsforPurchaseofInterpreterServices

InitialClaimsProceedings

Theabovediscussionwillhelptodeterminewhenthepurchaseofinterpreterservicesisneeded.Thepurchaseoftheservicesofaninterpretermaybemadewhenthefollowingconditionsaremet:

1.TherearenoavailableSSAorotherFederalemployeeswhoareabletocommunicateeffectivelywiththehearing-impairedclaimant.

Normally,effectivecommunicationwillrequiretheuseofanemployeewhoisabletosignratherthanwrittencommunication.Ifeithertheemployee-interpreterorhearing-impairedclaimantindicatesheorshehasdifficultycommunicating,thenanon-SSAinterpretershallbeobtained.Innoeventshallahearing-impairedpersonberequiredtouseaninterpreterwithwhomheorsheisunabletocommunicate.

2.Therearenoavailablecommunityorganizationsthatofferfreeinterpreterservicesforthehearing-impaired.

Thedistrictorbranchofficemanagementshallinitiallysurveytheappropriatelocalagenciestodeterminetheavailabilityoffreeservices.Iffreecommunityservicesareavailable,thedistrictorbranchofficesshallmaintainalistingofavailableresourcescontaininginformationsuchasthenumberofavailableinterpretersandthetimelinesswithwhichavolunteerwouldbeavailableintheofficetointerpretaninterview.Itshallbetheprimaryresponsibilityoftheofficeemployeetosecurethefreeoutsideserviceifthehearing-impairedindividualhasnoneofhisorherown.

Ifcommunityservicesarenotavailableorbecomeunavailable,thereshallbeperiodicchecks(abouteverysixmonths)toseeiffreeinterpreterservicesareavail-

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able.Theseperiodicchecksshouldbepartofthenormalcommunityrelationsactivitiesofthedistrictorbranchoffice.

3.Approvalforthepurchaseofservicehasbeensecuredinadvance.

PurchasemaybemadeviaissuanceofSF-147ortheuseofimprestfundsinaccordancewithADSGuideOPOF:130-34,SmallPurchaseProcedures.Bothrequireapprovalbeforeaservicecanbeutilized.

Whenanofficeisnotifiedthatahearing-impairedpersonwishestocomeinforaninterviewanddoesnothavehisorherowninterpreter,adeterminationmustbemadeastotheavailabilityoffreecommunityservice.Ifnoneisavailable,andifnoSSAorotherFederalemployeeisavailable,theappropriatedistrictorbranchofficeemployeeshallmakearrangementsforthepurchaseofservice,shallsecurethenecessaryapprovaldescribedherein,andshallnotifythehearing-impairedindividualandtheinterpreterastothetimeandplaceoftheinterview.Everyeffortshallbemadetoconducttheinterviewasquicklyaspossible.

Ifahearing-impairedpersoncomestoanofficewithaninterpreterwithoutpriorarrangementfortheinterview,andifthehearing-impairedpersonrequestsSSAtopayfortheinterpreter'sservice,everyeffortshallbemadetosecureapprovalofthepurchaseimmediatelysothattheinterviewcanbeconductedwhilethehearing-impairedpersonisintheoffice(naturallytheothercriteriamustalsobemet).

4.A''qualifiedinterpreter"isavailable.

AninterpretershallbedeemedqualifiedifheorsheiscertifiedbytheNationalRegistryofInterpretersorbyastateregistryofinterpreters,orifheorsheisonalistofqualifiedinterpreterscompiledbytheNationalAssociationoftheDeaforanystateassociationofthedeaf.

Itisrecognizedthatqualifiedinterpretersarenotavailableeverywhereinthecountry.Intheeventthataqualifiedinterpreterasdescribedaboveisunavailable,

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theagencyshallprovideaninterpreterwhoisacceptabletoboththehearing-impairedpersonandtheagency.

AppealProceedings

Ahearing-impairedindividualhastherighttohaveaninterpreteravailableatallstagesoftheappealsprocedure.Ifthehearing-impairedindividualdoesnothavehisorherowninterpreter,SSAshallpurchasesuchserviceinaccordancewiththeconditionsoutlinedabove.

InterpretersAppointment;Compensation

Districtandbranchofficeemployeesshallassisttheclaimantinlocatinganinterpreterandarrangeforthepurchaseofaninterpreterwheneverthisisrequestedbytheclaimant.

Anyinterpreter,otherthanaFederalemployee,appointedunderthispolicyshallbepaidareasonablefeebytheagencyforhisorherservices.Thefeesshouldbebasedonprevailingratesandshouldreflectinputfromassociationsforthedeaforhearing-impaired.

SSANotificationtotheHearing-impairedCommunityConcerningtheAvailabilityofInterpreterService

InordertoensuremaximumaccessibilitytoallSSAprogramsbythehearing-impaired,districtandbranchofficesshalltakeallpossiblestepstonotifyhearing-impairedpersonsofthepoliciescontainedherein.Whereverpossible,publicserviceannouncementsshallbemadethroughthenewsmediaonanongoingbasis.Inaddition,districtandbranchofficepersonnelshallprovidetheinformationcontainedhereintolocalorganizationsofthehearing-impaired,communityserviceorganizations,orsocialserviceagenciesaspartoftheirongoingcommunityrelationseffort.

Eachdistrictandbranchofficeshallmaintainanoticetothepublicon

itsbulletinboardscontainingthepoliciesoutlinedherein.

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Note:Inmakingarrangementsforaninterpreterwheretheinterviewisinconnectionwithfilingaclaim,caremustbetakentoensurethatthereisnolossofbenefitsbecauseanapplicationisnotfiledtimely.

(Signed)

PeterF.Velasquez

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AppendixDAModelActtoProvidefortheAppointmentofInterpretersforHearing-ImpairedIndividualsforAdministrative,Legislative,andJudicialProceedingsI.PublicPolicy

Itisthepolicyofthisstatetosecuretherightsofhearing-impairedpersonswho,becauseofimpairedhearing,cannotreadilyunderstandorcommunicateinspokenlanguageandwhoconsequentlycannotequallyparticipateinorbenefitfromproceedings,programs,andactivitiesofthecourts,legislativebodies,administrativeagencies,licensingcommission,departments,andboardsofthestateanditssubdivisionsunlessqualifiedinterpretersareavailabletoassistthem.

II.Definitions

Asusedinthischapter,thefollowingtermshavethefollowingmeanings:

1."Appointingauthority"meansthepresidingofficerorsimilarofficialinanycourt,board,commission,authority,department,agency,orlegislativebody,orinanyproceedingofanynaturewhereaqualifiedinterpreterisrequiredpursuanttothisAct.

2.A"hearing-impairedperson"meansapersonwho,becauseofahearingimpairment,hasdifficultyunderstandingoralcommunication.

3."Qualifiedinterpreter"meansasignlanguageororal

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interpreterasprovidedinSectionsIVandVIIofthisAct.

4."Intermediaryinterpreter"meansanyhearing-impairedpersonwhoisabletoassistinprovidinganaccurateinterpretationbetweenspokenEnglishandsignlanguage,orbetweenvariantsofsignlanguage,byactingasanintermediaryinterpreter.

III.InterpreterRequiredintheFollowingSituations

1.Wheneverahearing-impairedpersonisapartyorwitnessatanystageofanyjudicialorquasi-judicialproceedinginthisstateorinitspoliticalsubdivisions-includingbutnotlimitedtocivilandcriminalcourtproceedings,grandjuryproceedings,proceedingsbeforeamagistrate,juvenileproceedings,adoptionproceedings,mentalhealthcommitmentproceedings,andanyproceedinginwhichahearing-impairedpersonmaybesubjectedtoconfinementorcriminalsanction-theappointingauthorityshallappointandpayforaqualifiedinterpretertointerprettheproceedingstothehearing-impairedpersonandtointerpretthehearing-impairedperson'stestimony.

2.Wheneverajuvenilewhoseparentorparentsarehearing-impairedisbroughtbeforeacourtforanyreasonwhatsoever,thecourtshallappointandpayforaqualifiedinterpretertointerprettheproceedingstothehearing-impairedparent'stestimony.

3.Inanyhearing,proceeding,orotherprogramoractivityofanydepartment,board,licensingauthority,commission,oradministrativeagencyofthestateorofitspoliticalsubdivisions,theappointingauthorityshallappointandpayforaqualifiedinterpreterforthehearing-impairedparticipants.

4.Wheneverahearing-impairedpersonisawitnessbeforeanylegislativecommitteeorsubcommittee,orlegislativeresearchorstudycommitteeorsubcommitteeorcommissionauthorizedbythestatelegislatureorlegislativebodyofanypoliticalsubdivisionofthe

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state,theappointingauthorityshallappointandpayforaqualifiedinterpretertointerprettheproceedingstothehearing-impairedpersonandtointerpretthehearing-impairedperson'stestimony.

5.Wheneverahearing-impairedpersonisarrestedforanallegedviolationofacriminallaw,includingalocalordinance,thearrestingofficershallprocureaqualifiedinterpreterforanyinterrogation,warning,notificationofrights,ortakingofastatement.Nohearing-impairedarresteeotherwiseeligibleforreleaseshallbeheldincustodypendingarrivalofaninterpreter.Noanswer,statement,oradmission,writtenororal,madebyahearing-impairedpersoninreplytoaquestionofalawenforcementofficeroranyotherpersonhavingaprosecutorialfunctioninanycriminalorquasi-criminalproceedingmaybeusedagainstthathearing-impairedpersonunlesseitherthestatementwasmadeorelicitedthroughaqualifiedinterpreterandwasmadeknowingly,voluntarily,andintelligentlyor,inthecaseofwaiver,unlessthecourtmakesaspecialfindingthatthestatementmadebythehearing-impairedpersonwasmadeknowingly,voluntarily,andintelligently.

6.Whereitisthepolicyandpracticeofacourtofthisstateorofitspoliticalsubdivisiontoappointcounselforindigentpeople,theappointingauthorityshallappointandpayforaqualifiedinterpreterforhearing-impairedindigentpeopletoassistincommunicationwithcounselinallphasesofthepreparationandpresentationofthecase.

IV.PreliminaryDeterminationofInterpreter'sQualifications

Beforeappointinganinterpreter,theappointingauthorityshallmakeapreliminarydetermination,onthebasisofthehearing-impairedperson'stestimony,thattheinterpreterisabletoaccuratelycommunicatewithandtranslateinformationtoandfromthehearing-impairedpersoninvolved.Iftheinterpreterisnotabletoprovideeffectivecommunicationwiththehearing-impairedperson,the

Page248

appointingauthorityshallappointanotherqualifiedinterpreter.

V.IntermediaryInterpretertoBeUsed

Ifaqualifiedinterpreterisunabletorenderasatisfactoryinterpretationwithouttheaidofanintermediaryinterpreter,theappointingauthorityshallappointanintermediaryinterpretertoassistthequalifiedinterpreter,subjecttothesameprovisionsthatgovernaqualifiedinterpreterunderthisAct.

VI.InterpreterinFullView

WheneveraninterpreterisrequiredtobeappointedunderthisAct,theappointingauthoritymaynotcommenceproceedingsuntiltheappointedinterpreterisinfullviewofandspatiallysituatedtoassureeffectivecommunicationwiththehearing-impairedparticipants.

VII.CoordinationofInterpreterRequests

1.[TheDepartmentofHumanResources]shallestablish,maintain,update,anddistributealistofqualifiedinterpreters.TheDepartmentshallobtainthenamesofinterpretersforthislistfromthestateassociationofthedeaf,stateregistryofinterpretersforthedeaf,andstateschoolsforthedeaf.

2.WheneveraninterpreterisrequiredunderthisAct,theappointingauthorityshalluseoneoftheinterpretersonthe[DepartmentofHumanResources]list.Ifnoneofthelistedinterpretersisavailableorifaninterpreterisunabletoprovideeffectivecommunicationwiththeparticularhearing-impairedperson,thentheappointingauthorityshallappointanyotherpersonwhoisabletoaccuratelyandsimultaneouslycommunicatewithandtranslateinformationtoandfromtheparticularhearing-impairedpersoninvolved.

Page249

VIII.OathofInterpreter

Beforeheorshebeginstointerpret,eachinterpreterappointedunderthisActshalltakeanoaththatheorshewillmakeatrueinterpretationinanunderstandablemannertoandforthepersonforwhomheorsheisappointedtothebestofhisorherskillsandjudgment.

IX.Compensation

AninterpreterappointedunderthisActisentitledtoareasonablefeeforhisorherservices,includingwaitingtime,reimbursementfornecessarytravel,andsubsistenceexpenses.Thefeeshallbebasedonanyfeescheduleforinterpretersrecommendedbythe[DepartmentofHumanResources]orprevailingmarketrates.Reimbursementfornecessarytravelandsubsistenceexpensesshallbeatratesprovidedbylawforstateemployeesgenerally.

X.Waiver

Therightofahearing-impairedpersontoaninterpretermaynotbewaivedexceptbyahearing-impairedpersonwhorequestsawaiverinwriting.Suchwaiverissubjecttotheapprovalofcounseltothehearing-impairedperson,ifexistent,andissubjecttotheapprovaloftheappointingauthority.Innoeventisthefailureofthehearing-impairedpersontorequestaninterpreterdeemedawaiverofthatright.

XI.PrivilegedCommunications

Wheneverahearing-impairedpersoncommunicatesthroughaninterpretertoanypersonundersuchcircumstancesthatthecommunicationwouldbeprivilegedandsaidpersoncouldnotbecompelledtotestifyastothecommunications,saidprivilegeshallapplytotheinterpreteraswell.

XII.VisualRecording

Theappointingauthority,onhisorherownmotionoronthemotionofapartytotheproceedings,mayorderthat

Page250

thetestimonyofthehearing-impairedpersonandtheinterpretationthereofbeelectronicallyrecorded(visually)foruseinverificationoftheofficialtranscriptoftheproceedings.

Page251

AppendixEStateCommissionsandCouncilsforDeafPeopleArizonaArizonaCouncilfortheHearingImpaired1300WestWashingtonStreet,SecondFloorPhoenix,AZ85007(602)542-3323V/TDD(800)352-8161inAZV/TDD

ArkansasOfficeoftheDeafandHearingImpaired300DonagheyPlaza,North7thandMainStreetsLittleRock,AR72203(501)682-6697VTDD

CaliforniaStateOfficeofDeafAccessDepartmentofSocialServices744PStreet,MS15-10Sacramento,CA95814(914)445-3039V(914)445-8445TDD

ConnecticutConnecticutCommissionontheDeafandHearingImpaired141NorthMainStreetWestHartford,CT06107(203)566-7414V/TDD

Page252

FloridaFloridaCouncilfortheHearingImpairedFloridaEducationCenterSuite622-CTallahassee,FL32399-0401(904)488-5087V/TDD(800)451-4327inFLV/TDD

IndianaOfficeoftheDeafandHearingImpairedServicesIndianaDepartmentofHumanServices150WestMarketStreetBox7083Indianapolis,IN46207(317)232-1143V/TDD

IowaDeafServicesCommissionofIowaIowaDepartmentofHumanRightsLucasStateOfficeBuildingDesMoines,IA50319(515)281-3164V/TDD

KansasKansasCommissionfortheDeafandHearingImpairedBiddleBuilding300SouthwestOakleyTopeka,KS66606(913)296-2874V/TDD(800)432-0698inKSV/TDD

KentuckyKentuckyCommissionontheDeafandHearingImpairedSuite9VersaillesRoad

Frankfort,KY40601(502)564-2604V/TDD(800)372-2907inKYV/TDD

Page253

LouisianaLouisianaCommissionfortheDeafP.0.Box3074BatonRouge,LA70821-3074(504)769-8160ext.340V/TDD(800)256-1523inLAV/TDD

MassachusettsMassachusettsCommissionfortheDeafandHardofHearing600WashingtonStreet,Suite600Boston,MA02111(617)727-5106V/TDD(800)882-1155inMAV/TDD

MichiganMichiganDepartmentofLaborDivisiononDeafness201NorthWashingtonSquareBox30015Lansing,MI48909(517)373-0378V/TDD

MissouriMissouriCommissionfortheDeaf505East5thStreetFulton,MO65251(314)592-4000V/TDD

NebraskaNebraskaCommissionfortheHearingImpaired4600ValleyRoadLincoln,NE68510(402)471-3593V/TDD

NewHampshireProgramfortheDeafandHardofHearingDivisionofVocationalRehabilitation78RegionalDrive,Building2Concord,NH03301(603)271-3471V/TDD

Page254

NewJerseyDivisionoftheDeafandHardofHearingDepartmentofHumanServicesCN074Trenton,NJ08625-0074(609)984-7281V/TDD

NorthCarolinaDivisionofServicesfortheDeafandHardofHearingDepartmentofHumanResources695-APalmerDriveAndersonBuilding,DorotheaDixCampusRaleigh,NC27603(919)733-5199V(919)733-5930TDD

OklahomaServicestotheDeafandHearingImpairedRehabilitationServiceDivisionRS#24P.O.Box25352OklahomaCity,OK73125(405)424-4311ext.2920V(405)424-2794TDD

OregonOregonDisabilitiesCommissionDeafandHearingImpairedAccessProgram1880LancasterDriveNE,Suite106Salem,OR97310(503)378-3142V/TDD(800)358-3117inORV/TDD

Pennsylvania

OfficefortheDeafandHearingImpaired1308LaborandIndustryBuilding7thandForsterStreetsHarrisburg,PA17120(717)783-4912V/TDD(800)233-3008inPAV/TDD

Page255

SouthDakotaCommunicationServicesfortheDeaf3520GatewayLaneSiouxFalls,SD57106(605)339-6718V/TDD

TennesseeTennesseeCouncilfortheHearingImpaired400DeaderickStreet,11thFloorNashville,TN37219(615)741-5644V/TDD

TexasTexasCommissionfortheDeafP.O.Box12904Austin,TX78711-2904(512)444-3323V/TDD

VirginiaDepartmentfortheDeafandHardofHearingWashingtonBuildingCapitalSquare1100BankStreet,12thFloorRichmond,VA23219-3640(804)225-2570V/TDD(800)552-7917inVAV/TDD

WestVirginiaWestVirginiaCommissionfortheHearingImpaired4190WestWashingtonStreetCharleston,WV25313(304)348-2175V/TDD

WisconsinOfficefortheHearingImpairedDepartmentofHealthandSocial

Services1WestWilsonStreetP.O.Box7852Madison,WI53707(608)266-8081V/TDD

Page256

AppendixFEnablingLegislationforaStateCommission:TheExampleofVirginiaVirginiaCouncilfortheDeaf

Va.Code

§63.1-85.1.

Councilestablished;appointment,termsandqualificationsofmembers;meetings;chairman.

§63.1-85.2.

Director.

§63.1-85.3.

Deafpersonsdefinedandclassified.

§63.1-85.4.

PowersanddutiesofCouncil.

§63.1-85.4:1

Statewideinterpreterservice.

§63.1-85.5.

RegisterofthedeaftobemaintainedbyDepartmentofHealth;furtherdutiesofDepartment.

§63.1-85.6.

[Repealed.]

§63.1-85.7.

Giftsanddonations;dispositionofmoneysreceived.

§63.1-85.1.Councilestablished;appointment,termsandqualificationsofmembers;meetings;chairman.

(a)ThereisherebyestablishedaVirginiaCouncilfortheDeaf,hereinafterinthischapterreferredtoastheCouncil.

(b)TheCouncilshallbecomposedoffourteenmembersfromthe

DepartmentofHealth;onememberfromtheDepartmentofEducation;onememberfromtheDepartmentofMentalHygieneandHospitals;onememberfromtheDepartmentofVocationalRehabilitation;onememberfromtheDepartmentofWelfare;onememberfromtheVirginiaSchoolfortheDeafandBlindatStaunton;one

Page257

memberfromtheVirginiaSchoolatHampton;andsevenothermembers,oneofwhomshallbeanaudiologist,andoneofwhomshallbeanotolaryngologist,andoftheremainingfivemembersatleasttwoshallbepersonswhoaredeafandtheremainingthreeshallberepresentativesofprofessions,communityagenciesororganizationsconcernedwiththehealth,education,rehabilitationandwelfareofthedeaf.Nopersonshallbeeligibletoservemorethantwosuccessiveterms(otherthantherepresentativesoftheabovenamedStateagenciesandinstitutions),exceptthatapersonappointedtofillavacancymayservetwoadditionalsuccessiveterms.TheCouncilshallmeetatthecallofthechairman,whoshallbeselectedbytheCouncilfromamongitsmembership,butnolessthanfourtimesayear.(1972,c.543;1974,cc.44,45.)

§63.1-85.2.Director.Thedirectormaybeeitheradeafpersonoronewithnormalhearing,butshallbeatrainedprofessionalwhoisexperiencedinproblemsofthedeafandskilledintheuseofmanualcommunication,commonlyreferredtoassignlanguage.(1972,c.543;1978,c.603.)

§63.1-85.3.Deafpersonsdefinedandclassified.Forthepurposesofthischapter,deafpersonsaredefinedasthoseinwhomthesenseofhearingisnonfunctionalfortheordinarypurposesoflife,includingtwodistinctclassesbasedonthetimeofthelossofhearing:(1)thecongenitaldeafthosewhowereborndeaf;and(2)theadventitiouslydeafthosewhowerebornwithnormalhearingbutinwhomthesenseofhearingbecomesnonfunctionallaterthroughillnessoraccident.(1972,c.543.)

§63.1-85.4.PowersanddutiesofCouncil.TheCouncilshallactasabureauofinformationtothedeaf,toStateagenciesandinstitutionsprovidingservicesforthedeaf,localagenciesofgovernment,andotherpublicorprivatecommunityagenciesandprograms.Inthis

respecttheCouncilshall:

(a)InformthedeafoftheavailabilityoftheprovisionsoftheVirginiaCouncilfortheDeafandsuchotherservicesavailableforthedeafatalllevelsofgovernment;

Page258

(b)EstablishaframeworkforconsultationandcooperationamongtheStateagenciesandinstitutionsrepresentedontheCouncil;

(c)AdvisetheseveralagenciesandinstitutionsrepresentedontheCouncilconcerningtheadministrationof,preparationofregulationsforandoperationoftheirprograms;

(d)Continuouslystudythehandicappingproblemsofdeafofallages,reviewtheadministrationandoperationofthevariousprogramsfordeafintheCommonwealthandmakerecommendationswithrespecttheretototheseveralagenciesandinstitutionsrepresentedontheCouncilastheCouncildeemsnecessaryandproper;

(e)MakeandsubmittotheGovernorandtheGeneralAssemblyannualreportsofitsfindingandrecommendations;

(f)ConductindependentevaluationsofprogramsforthedeafintheCommonwealthandpublishanddistributetheresultsthereof;

(g)TheCouncilmayobtaintheservicesofsuchprofessional,technicalandclericalpersonnelasmaybenecessarytoenablethemtocarryoutitsfunctionunderthissectionandtocontractforsuchservicesasmaybenecessarytocarryoutitsevaluationfunctions;

(h)TheCouncilshallcooperatewiththeschoolsforthedeafasprovidedforinchapter19(§23-254etseq.)ofTitle23oftheCodeinsofarasmaybepracticable.(1972,c.543;1977,c.668.)

§63.1-85.4:1.Statewideinterpreterservice.TheCouncilisauthorizedtoestablish,maintainandcoordinateaStatewideservicetoprovidecourts,Stateandlocallegislativebodiesandagencies,bothpublicandprivate,anddeafpersonswhorequestthesamewithqualifiedinterpretersforthedeafoutofsuchfundsasmaybeappropriatedtotheCouncilforthesepurposes.ThosecourtsandStateandlocalagencieswhichhavefundsdesignatedtoemployqualifiedinterpreters

shallpayfortheactualcostofsuchinterpreters.TheCouncilisfurtherauthorizedtoestablishandmaintainlistsofqualified

Page259

interpretersforthedeaftobeavailabletothecourts,Stateandlocallegislativebodiesandagencies,bothpublicandprivate,andtodeafpersons.(1978,c.603.)

§63.1-85.5.RegisterofthedeaftobemaintainedbyDepartmentofHealth;furtherdutiesofDepartment.(a)TheDepartmentofHealthshallprepareandmaintainacompleteregisterofthedeafintheStatewhichshalldescribethecondition,causeofdeafnessandsuchotherfactsasmaybeofvalue.Eachphysicianorotherpersonwho,uponexaminationofthehearingofanyperson,determinesthatsuchpersonisadeafpersonshallimmediatelyreportthenameandaddressofsuchpersontotheDepartmentofHealth.

(b)TheDepartmentofHealthshallmakeinquiriesconcerningthecauseofdeafness,ascertainwhatportionofsuchcasesarepreventableandadoptandenforceproperpreventivemeasures.

(c)TheDepartmentofHealthshallmakeinformationcontainedontheregisteravailabletotheseveralagenciesandinstitutionsdirectlyconnectedwiththeadministrationofprogramsprovidingservicestothedeaf;orforresearchpurposesmaymaketheinformationavailabletoanorganizationorindividualengagedinresearchonlyforpurposesdirectlyconnectedwiththeadministrationofprogramsrelatingtothedeaf,includingresearchforthedevelopmentofnewknowledgeortechniques,whichwouldbeusefulintheadministrationoftheprogram,butonlyiftheorganizationorindividualfurnishessatisfactoryassurancethattheinformationwillbeusedsolelyforthepurposesforwhichitisprovided;thatitshallnotbereleasedtopersonsnotconnectedwiththestudy;andthatthefinalproductoftheresearchwillnotrevealanyinformationthatmayservetoidentifyanypersonaboutwhomtheinformationhasbeenobtainedwithoutthewrittenconsentofsuchpersonandtheDepartmentofHealth.(1972,c.543.)

§63.1-85.6.RepealedbyActs1980,c.728.

(Crossreference.Forpresentprovisionsastocompen-

Page260

sationofmembersofboards,commissions,committees,councilsandsimilarbodies,see§2.1-20.2etseq.)

§63.1-85.7.Giftsanddonations;dispositionofmoneysreceived.TheCouncilisauthorizedtoreceivesuchgiftsanddonations,eitherfrompublicorprivatesources,asmaybeofferedunconditionallyorundersuchconditionsasinthejudgmentoftheCouncilareproperandconsistentwiththischapter.AllmoneysreceivedasgiftsordonationsorStateappropriationsshallbedepositedintheStatetreasurytobeusedbytheCounciltodefrayexpensesinperformingitsduties.Afullreportofallgiftsanddonationsaccepted,togetherwiththenamesofthedonorsandtherespectiveamountscontributedbyeach,andalldisbursementstherefrom,shallbesubmittedannuallytotheGovernorbytheCouncil.(1972,c.543.)

Page261

Index

A

ABC.SeeAmericanBroadcastingCompany

Accessiblefederallyfundedbuildings,167-170

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,36-37

Accessiblemeetings,HHSSection504regulation,57-58

Accessibleprograms,HEWSection504regulation,51-53

Accommodationofhandicappedpersons

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,17-18

employmentofdeafpersons,141-142

exemptionsforemployers,147

HEWSection504regulation,52-53

hospitals,111-113

mentalhealthservices,129-131

''reasonableaccommodation,"17-18,145-146

unduehardshipforemployer,147

Activistsforlegislativechange,135-136

ADA.SeeAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct

AdministrativeOfficeoftheU.S.Courts,174

Advertisingjobopenings,148-149

Adviceofrights.SeeMirandav.Arizona

Affirmativeaction

federalagencies,143,149

federalcontractors,149,158-160

Section501,RehabilitationActof1973,143,149

Section503,RehabilitationActof1973,143,149,159

Alabama,Universityof,93

Alarms.SeeLightsassignalsforauditorysystems

Alexanderv.Choate,97

AmericanBroadcastingCompany(ABC),193-194

EveningNews,193

AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI),167-170

inadequacyofstandards,169

AmericanSignLanguage(ASL),2-5

difficultconceptsexpressed,177

instructionmethod,77-78

AmericanSocietyforDeafChildren,78

AmericanStandardCodeInformationInterchange(ASCII),206

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,15-45

accessibilityguidelinesfornewconstructionandbuildingalterations,36-37

acquisitionormodificationofequipment,17-18

auxiliaryaids,32-37

providedbystateandlocalgovernments,26-29

captioning,27,44

complaint,filing,37,43

conferencesandperformancesinpublicaccommodations,34

courts,accessibilityprovisions,173-174

"directthreat"tohealthorsafety,20-22

effectivedateofpublicaccommodation

provisions,37

employerdefenses,20-23

employerscovered,15-16

employmentdiscriminationprovisions,15-23

enforcementprovisions,23,37,43

examinationsandcourses,35-36

hiringprovisions,15-23

JusticeDepartmentenforcement,49

medicalexaminationspriortohiring,20

publicaccommodations,32-37,210,212-213

publicserviceannouncements,27

publictransportationprovisions,24

qualificationsforemployment,19-20

"qualified"individuals,defined,16-17

reasonableaccommodation,17-18

reassignmentofposition,18

relayservices,37-43,205,213

remedies,23,43

restructuringofjob,18

selectioncriteriaforhiring,19-20

serviceanimals,useinpublicaccommodations,35

stateandlocalgovernmentprovisions,23-31

TDDservices,37-43.

SeealsoTelecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf

employmentsetting,17-18

operatorandcustomerservices,213

publicaccommodations,36-37,210

publicagencies,33-34

testsforemployment,19-20

unduehardshiponoperationofbusiness,22-23

AmericanTelephoneandTelegraphCo.(AT&T).

SeeTelephoneservices

Amplifiersfortelephonereceivers,10,213

AMTRAK,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

ANSI.SeeAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute

Appeals

dueprocesshearings,82-83

federalemployeediscriminationsuits,157

Page262

ArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoard(ATBCB),167-170,205,209-210

address,170

compositionof,167-170

Architecturalbarriers,167-170

ambiguousstandards,169

complaintprocedure,167,170

publicandpayphones.SeeTelephoneservices

Section502,RehabilitationActof1973,168-170

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,

compliance,170-171

statelaws,171

ArchitecturalBarriersActof1968,167

Arizona,provisionofinterpretersforprisoners,184

Arrestsofdeafpersons,179

ASCII.SeeAmericanStandardCodeInformationInterchange

ASL.SeeAmericanSignLanguage

Assistivedevices.SeeAuxiliaryaids

AT&T.SeeTelephoneservices

ATBCB.SeeArchitecturalandTransportationBarriersComplianceBoard

Attorney-clientprivilege,interpreterscoveredby,186-187

AttorneyGeneralsuits,37

Auditorymethodofteaching,76

Auxiliaryaids.SeealsoInterpreters;Telecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,26-28,32-35

collegesanduniversities,90-91

hospitals,101,108-110

legalsystemtoprovide,174

libraries,101

serviceagencies,102-104

B

Backgroundnoise,7.

SeealsoHearingaids

Barker,David,178

BaudotcodeforTDDs,206

Beck,Raymond,218

Bilingual,Hearing,andSpeech-ImpairedCourtInterpreterAct,174

Broadcasting.SeeFederalCommunicationsCommission;Television

Brown,Torrey,218

Brownv.BoardofEducation,67

Buildingconstruction,accessibilityguidelines,167-170

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,36-37

BureauforEducationoftheHandicapped,83

Burlington,Townofv.MassachusettsDepartmentofEducation,75

C

Cabletelevision,194

California,telecommunicationrelayservices,204-205

Camenischv.UniversityofTexas,93-94

Captioning.

SeealsoTelevisionDecoderCircuitryAct

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,27,44

collegeanduniversitycoursefilmsor

videotapes,90

television,191,193-194

benefitstonondeafpersons,197

cabletelevision,194

decoders,195-196

emergencycaptioning,191-193

fundingneeds,195

"Line21,"193-194

newsprogramming,193,195

standards,197-198

CBS.SeeColumbiaBroadcastingSystem,Inc.

Childbirth,interpreterpresentduring,105

Civildamagesuits,128

Civilrightslaws,state.SeeStatelaws;specificstates

CivilServiceexaminations,150

CivilServiceReformActof1978,146,152

Classactionsuits,129-131

Clinics

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

Closedcaptioning,191,193-194.

Seealso

generallyCaptioning

Coin-operatedphones.SeeTelephoneservices

Collegesanduniversities

admissions,87-89

auxiliaryaids,90-91

interpreters,87-89

pre-admissioninquiries,88

recruitment,87-89

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,applicability,87

testsforadmissions,88

treatmentofdisabledstudents,88

vocationalrehabilitationdeafstudents,87-89

ColumbiaBroadcastingSystem,Inc.(CBS),193-194

CommissiononEducationoftheDeaf,195-197

Commissions,state,225-229

directory(AppendixE),251-255

enablinglegislation,Virginiaasexample(AppendixF),256-260

Communicationbarriers,5-8

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,15-45

employment,142

HEWSection504regulation,55-57

hospitals,105-106

prisons,183-185

CommunicationsActof1934,191

Communicationsassistantsfortelephoneuse.SeeTelecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf

Communicationwithhearingimpaired,1-12.

SeealsoInterpreters;Lipreading;Notewriting;Telecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf

Community-basedcareformentalillness,133-134

Commutertransportation.SeePublictransportation

Complaintprocedures

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,37,43

architecturalbarriersinfederallyfunded

buildings,167,170

FederalCommunicationsCommission,193

Page263

federalcontractors'employeeclaimingdiscrimination,158-160

federalemployees,discriminationcomplaints,154-158

PL94-142,83

Section501,RehabilitationActof1973,143,154-158

Section503,RehabilitationActof1973,143,158-160

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,50-51,59-62,83,143,160

Conferencesinpublicaccommodations,

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,34,210

Connecticut,commissionforthedeaf,227

Consenttomedicaltreatment,88,113-115

Constitutionalrights

FourteenthAmendment,184

interpreterfordeafpartyincourtproceedings,173,175-176,185-186

mentalhealthpatientswheninstitutionalized,129-131

SixthAmendment,183

Continuingeducationclasses,83

Contractors

federal.SeeFederalcontractors

stateandlocalgovernments,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

Conventioncenters,TDDservice,210

Counseling

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,counselingcenterprovisions,24

Section501,RehabilitationActof1973,informalpre-complaintcounselingprovisions,154-156

vocationalrehabilitationcounselors,153-154

Courts.SeeCriminalproceedings;Legalsystem

Criminalproceedings

arrestsofdeafpersons,178-182

confessionsofdeafdefendants,178

interpretersfor,174-176,178-184

jailtimeofdeafdefendants,178-180

Mirandarights,176-178,182

pre-trialpreparation,183

victims,interpretersfor,181

Cuedspeech,77

D

Damages.SeeRemedies

Davis,Frances,94-96

Davisv.Frank,17

"Deafanddumb,"asinsult,8

Deaf-blindpersons

definitionunderPL94-142,69

interpretersfor,2-5

"Deaf-mute,"asinsult,8

Deafparents,interpretersfor,80-84

Deafpersons

definitionunderPL94-142,69

postlinguallydeaf,106

prelinguallydeaf,5,106,176

statistics,1,6,121-122,141

Deafpride,Inc.,118

Decoders.SeeCaptioning;TelevisionDecoderCircuitryAct

DeRochev.UnitedStates,183

DevelopmentallyDisabledAssistanceandBillofRightsAct,133,136

Disabledpersons.SeeAccommodationofhandicappedpersons;Handicappedpersons

Discrimination

employment.SeeEmploymentofdeafpersons

federalcontractors'employeescharging,158-160

federalemployees,154-158

healthcareandsocialservices,103-104

DistrictofColumbia

HospitalizationoftheMentallyIllAct,132

involuntarycommitment,131

programsfordeafpersonswheninstitutionalized,126

rightoftreatmentforinstitutionalizedpatients,129-131

St.ElizabethsHospital,126,132

Dixonv.Weinberger,132

Doev.Wilzack,137

Donaldson,Kenneth,128

Dueprocesshearings,80-83

appeals,82-83

decisions,82-83

lettersofrequest(AppendixB),235-238

preparationfor,80-82

recordofhearing,82

E

Education,U.S.Departmentof(ED)

architecturalbarriers,Section504regulation,170-171

collegeanduniversityviolationsofSection504,RehabilitationActof1973,75

OfficeforCivilRights,83,87

RehabilitationServicesAdministration(RSA),161-162

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,regulation,48,87

Educationalinstitutions.SeeSchoolsandeducationalinstitutions

EducationforAllHandicappedChildrenAct.SeePublicLaw94-142

EEOC.SeeEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission

Emergencybroadcasting,191-193

Emergencymedicalcare,communicationwithdeafpersons,108-111

Employerattitudes,141-142

Employerdefenses,147

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,20-23

Employmentofdeafpersons,141-142.

SeealsoSection501,RehabilitationActof1973;Section503,RehabilitationActof1973;Section504,RehabilitationActof1973

accommodation.SeeAccommodationofhandicappedpersons

advertisingjobopenings,148-149

affirmativeaction.SeeAffirmativeaction

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,discriminationprovisions,18-20

communicationbarriers,142

Page264

complaintproceduresfordiscriminationunderTitleV,RehabilitationActof1973,154-158

"essentialfunctions,"defined,144

exemptionsforemployers,147

federaljobs.SeeFederalemployees

"ghettoizing"prohibited,148

interpreterservices,145-146

medicalexaminations,147-148

statediscriminationlaws,160-161

statistics,141

trainingprograms,148-149

unduehardship,147

vocationalrehabilitationservices,161-162

Englishlanguageanddeafpersons,2-7

collegeadmissiontests,88-89

incomprehensibilityofMirandawarnings,176-178

EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,powersandregulation,17,18,21

federalemployeeappealto,154-158

Equaljustice,187-188

Equalopportunity,HEWSection504regulation,53-54

ExecutiveOrder12125,152

F

FCC.SeeFederalCommunicationsCommission

Federalagencies

discriminationcomplaintsagainst,154-158

employeesof.SeeFederalemployees

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,applicability,49-51

FederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActrelayservices,regulation,38-43

complaintprocedure,193

HACActregulations,212

telecommunicationsregulation,203-204

televisionbroadcasterstoconsiderdeafcommunity'sneeds,191-195

TelevisionDecoderCircuitryActstandards,197-198

Federalcontractors.

SeealsoSection503,RehabilitationActof1973

affirmativeaction,149,159

complaintprocedureforemployeeclaimingdiscrimination,158-160

jobtrainingfordeafpersons,148-149

Federalemployees.

SeealsoSection501,RehabilitationActof1973

affirmativeaction,149

CivilService.SeeCivilServiceexaminations

discriminationsuits,154-158

exceptedappointments,151

ExecutiveOrder12125,152

legalchallenges,151-152

interpreterservices,149,152

jobinformationcenters,153

rehabilitationcounselors,153-154

ScheduleAappointment,151

selectiveplacementcoordinators,154

temporarytrial,151

Federalfunding

"assuranceofcompliance"form,160

defined,49-50

mentalhealthprograms,126-127

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,48-64

vocationalgrants,161

Federallyfundedbuildingsaccessibility,167-170

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,36-37

FederalPersonnelManual,146

Fingerspelling,5

instructionmethod,76

Mirandawarnings,176-178

Firedepartments,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

FOIA.SeeFreedomofInformationAct

Foodstampoffices

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

auxiliaryaids,102

FourteenthAmendment,184

FreedomofInformationAct(FOIA),50

Furey,Mary,177

G

GallaudetUniversity,NationalAcademy,118

GeneralServicesAdministration,168-169,205

Georgia,mentalhealthservices,134-135

Grievanceprocedures.SeeComplaintprocedures

Guidedogs,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,35

H

Habeascorpusactions,128-129

HACAct.SeeHearingAidCompatibilityActof1988

Handicappedpersons.

SeealsoAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct;RehabilitationActof1973

accommodation.SeeAccommodationofhandicappedpersons

definition,HEWSection504regulation,51

"Hardofhearing,"definitionunderPL94-142,69

Health,Education,andWelfare,U.S.Departmentof.SeenowEducation,U.S.Departmentof;HealthandHumanServices,U.S.Departmentof

HealthandHumanServices,U.S.DepartmentofSection504,RehabilitationActof1973,regulations,48

architecturalbarriers,170-171

hospitals,107-110

interpreters,56

mentalhealthservices,136-137

TDDs,56

Healthcareservices.

SeealsoHospitals;Mentalhealthservices

agencyresponsibilities,103-104

agencyrulesprohibitingdiscrimination,103-104

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

consenttomedicaltreatment,109,113-115

emergencymedicalcare,108-111

HHSSection504regulation,107-110

interpreters,101-103

Page265

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,applicability,101-119

statelawsprohibitingdiscrimination,104-105

trainingforstaff,117-119

HearingAidCompatibilityActof1988(HACAct),212

Hearingaids

employeeswith,146

hospitalpatientswith,112

mentalhealthservicesproviding,133

Section502,RehabilitationActof1973,audioloopsinpublicbuildings,170

telephonecompatibility,211-213

telephoneswitches,10

Hearingofficers,80,82

Hearings.SeeDueprocesshearings

HendrickHudsonSchoolDistrictv.Rowley,74-75

HEWSection504regulation.SeeSection504,RehabilitationActof1973

HHSSection504regulation.SeeHealthandHumanServices,U.S.Departmentof

Hiring.SeeEmploymentofdeafpersons

Hospitals

accommodationofdeafpersons,111-113

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

auxiliaryaids,101,107-110

carestaff,115-116

childbirth,interpreterpresentduring,105

communicationbarriers,105-106

consenttomedicaltreatment,109,113-115

emergencymedicalcare,108-111

hearingaids,patientswith,112

HHSSection504regulation,107-110

intercomsystems,112

interpreterservices,105-111

NCLDguidelines,113-115

noticetopatients,109

staffawareness,112,117-119

TDDservice,101,210

trainingforstaff,112,117-119

Hotels.SeePublicaccommodations

HowardUniversityHospital,118

Hughes,Harry,219

I

IDEA(IndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct).SeePublicLaw94-142

IEP.SeeIndividualizedEducationProgram

Illinois

InstituteofTechnology,92-93

MentalHealthCode,133-134

mentalhealthservices,122,134-135

rehabilitationlegislation,123-124

RehabilitationServicesDepartment,92

Incompetenttostandtrial,123-124

Indigentdeafdefendants,interpretersfor,175-176,183

IndividualizedEducationProgram(IEP),70-74

aidsandservicesfordeafchildren,73

contents,72

developmentof,70-71

dueprocesshearings,80-83

lettersofrequest,samples(AppendixB),235-238

manuallanguagecomponents,77-78

methodsofinstruction,76

noticeofchangein,80

parentalrole,71,79-80

teacherexperienceandeducationallevel,78-79

writing,75-77

IndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct(IDEA).SeePublicLaw94-142

Informationreferralcentersfordeafpersons,161-162

Interior,U.S.Departmentof,168

InternationalAssociationofParentsoftheDeaf.SeenowAmericanSocietyforDeafChildren

Interpreters

accessiblemeetings,HHSregulation,56

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,19,24,32

arrestofdeafdefendants,178-182

Bilingual,Hearing,andSpeech-ImpairedCourtInterpreterAct,174

certification,3,162

CodeofEthics,4

collegesanduniversitiestoprovide,87-88,90-94

courtstoprovide,174-176

criminalproceedings,for,174-176,178-184

deaf-blind,for,2-5

deafparents,for,80,84

EEOChearing,158

employerstoprovide,145-146

federalemployees,149,152

guidelinesforuse,4

HEWSection504regulation,56-58

hospitalstoprovide,105-111

indigentdeafdefendants,for,175-176,183

inexperienced,5

modelstateacttoprovideforinterpretersforgovernmentandjudicialproceedings(AppendixD),245-250

oral,2

policedepartmentstoprovide,178-182

prisoners,for,183-185

privilegedcommunicationsincourtproceedings,186-187

referralcenters,161-162

RegistryofInterpretersfortheDeaf(RID),2-4

schoolstoprovide,80,84

SocialSecurityAdministration,103-104,239-244

socialserviceagenciestoprovide,101-103

statecommissionstoprovide,230

training,federalfundingfor,162

victimsofcrimes,for,181

IrvingIndependentSchoolDistrictv.Tatro,75

J

Jackson,Theon,124-126

Jails

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

incarcerationtimeofdeafcriminaldefendants,178-180

Jobapplicants.SeeEmploymentofdeafpersons

Jobinformationcentersforfederalemployees,153-154

Jobtrainingfordeafpersons,148-149

Page266

Justice,U.S.Departmentof

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,enforcement,49

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,enforcement,49,175

interpreters,provisionbypolicedepartments,179-181

interpreters,provisionforcivilproceedings,186

TDDservices,provisionbypolicedepartments,187

K

KeanCollege,91

Kentucky,interpreterprivilegein,186

L

Labor,U.S.Departmentof,159

Lang,Donald,123-124

Lawenforcementagencies.SeePolicedepartments

LegalAdvocacyProjectforHearingImpairedPersons,137

Legalsystem,173-188.

SeealsoConstitutionalrights;Criminalproceedings

costsofinterpreters,174

equaljustice,187-188

indigentdeafdefendants,175-176

interpreters,174-176

state,civil,andadministrativeproceedings,186

Legislation,state.SeeStategovernments;Statelaws

Libraries

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

auxiliaryaidsandTDDs,101

Lights,flashing,10,146,170

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,36

"Line21,"193-194

Lipreading,6-7,113

instructionmethod,76

Lobbying,219-225

Localgovernments

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,23-31

contractorswith,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActcoverage,24

M

Maine,community-basedmentalhealthservices,132-133

Mainstreaming,70

referencepublications(AppendixA),232-233

Manuallanguagecomponents.SeeAmericanSignLanguage;Fingerspelling;Signlanguage

Maryland

AssociationoftheDeaf,218

DepartmentofHealthandMentalHygiene,218

mentalhealthservicesfordeafpersons,137

outpatientmentalhealthprogramfordeafpersons,217-218

prisoners,provisionofinterpretersfor,184

privilegedcommunicationsbetweendeafpersonsandinterpreters,186-187

Massachusetts

mentalhealthservices,134-135

OfficeofDeafness,228

MassachusettsDepartmentofEducation;Burlington,Townofv.,75

Masstransit,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24-31

Medicalexaminations

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,pre-employmentexaminations,20

jobdisqualificationofdeafpersonsdueto,147-148

Medicalmalpractice,misdiagnosisofdeafchildasmentallyretarded,138

Medicalservices.SeeHealthcareservices;Hospitals

Meetingaccessibility,HHSSection504regulation,57-58

Mentalhealthservices,121-139

abuseofpatients,126-127

accommodationofdeafpersons,129-131

advocacyagencies,135-136

civildamagesuits,128

classactionsuits,129-131

community-basedcare,133-134

consciousnessraisingforcommunity-basedservices,133-134

constitutionalrightsofpatients,129-131

federalfunding,126-127

federalregulation,136-137

habeascorpusactions,128-129

HHSSection504regulation,136-137

lessrestrictivealternatives,128,132

litigationbydeafpersons,137-138

Marylandoutpatientprogramfordeafpersons,217-218

misdiagnosis,121-123,138

"protectionfromharm"theory,131

rightoftreatmentforinstitutionalizedpatients,129-131

righttorehabilitation,132-133

signlanguage,130,133

statelaws,131-132,134-135

statisticsofdeafpersonsinmentalhealthfacilities,121-122

Michigan

CenterforDeafTreatmentServices,126

Handicapper'sCivilRightsAct,105

mentalhealthservices,134-135

Minnesota

DepartmentofPublicWelfare,DeafServicesDivision,228-229

mentalhealthservicesfordeafpersons,137-138

Mirandav.Arizona,175

adviceofrights,176-178,181,182

incomprehensibilityofwarningsbydeafpersons,176-178

Misdiagnosis,mentalhealth,121-123,138

Motorvehicledepartments,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

Municipalities.SeeLocalgovernments

Page267

N

NationalAcademy,GallaudetUniversity,118

NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,152

NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress,196-197

NationalAssociationoftheDeaf,174

LegalDefenseFund,91,137,152

NationalBroadcastingCompany(NBC),194

NationalCaptioningInstitute(NCI),194-196

NationalCensusofDeafPopulation,6

NationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf(NCLD)

hospitalguidelines,113-115

interpretersfordeafdefendantsuponarrest,179

legislativedraftingassistance,225

litigation,108

Marylandlegislation,218-219

NBC.SeeNationalBroadcastingCompany

NCI.SeeNationalCaptioningInstitute

NCLD.SeeNationalCenterforLawandtheDeaf

Neo-oralism,76

NewHampshire,interpreterprivilegein,186

NewJersey

DepartmentofLaborandIndustry,DivisionoftheDeaf,229

VocationalRehabilitationServicesDivision,91-92,102

NewMexico,provisionofinterpreters,104

NewYork

mentalhealthservices,122

telephoneratereductionsforTDDusers,208

WillowbrookStateSchool,131

NorthCarolinaCouncilfortheHearingImpaired,228

Notetakers,collegesanduniversities,90

Notewriting,5-6,113

Nurses.SeeHealthcareservices;Hospitals

0

O'Connorv.Donaldson,128

OFCCP.SeeOfficeofFederalContractCompliancePrograms

OfficeforCivilRights,U.S.DepartmentofEducation,83,87

OfficeofFederalContractCompliancePrograms(OFCCP),158-160

OfficeofHandicappedIndividuals,162

OfficeofPersonnelManagement,148

OfficeofRevenueSharing(ORS),179,187

Oklahoma

interpretersfordeafdefendantsuponarrest,178-182

mentalhealthservicesfordeafpatients,134,135

Opencaptioning,193

Oralinterpreters,2

Oralmethodofteaching,76

ORS.SeeOfficeofRevenueSharing

P

Parents

IEProle,71,79-80

interpretersfordeafparents,80,84

Parksandrecreationprograms,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

Payphones.SeeTelephoneservices

PBS.SeePublicBroadcastingService

Pennhurstv.Halderman,133

PennhurstStateSchoolandHospital,133

Pennsylvania,mentalhealthservices,134-135

PewCharitableTrust,197

Pilson,Neil,196

PL94-142.SeePublicLaw94-142

Policedepartments

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

arrestsofdeafpersons,178-182

interpreters,provisionof,179-181

TDDservices,104,187

videotapingofcommunicationswithdeafpersons,182

PostalService,U.S.

hiringofdeafpersons,148

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,applicability,51

Postsecondaryeducation.SeeCollegesanduniversities

Pre-admissioninquiries

collegesanduniversities,88

PrinceGeorge'sGeneralHospital(Maryland),118

Prisoners,deaf,183-185

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

interpretersfor,183-185

Privilegedcommunicationsbetweendeafpersonsandinterpreters,186-187

Probationofficers,compliancewithSection504,provisionofinterpreter,185

Programaccessibility,HEWSection504regulation,51-53

"Protectionfromharm"theory,mentalhealthinstitutionalization,131

Publicaccommodations,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,36-37,210,212-213

PublicBroadcastingService(PBS),193-194

Publicbuildings.SeeFederallyfundedbuildings

PublicLaw94-142,68-75

childrencoveredby,69

complaintprocedures,83

definitions,69

dueprocesshearing,80-83

IndividualizedEducationProgram(IEP),70-74

mainstreaming,70

proceduralsafeguards,79-83

purpose,68

referencepublications(AppendixA),233-234

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,and,68

SupremeCourtcasesinvolving,74-75

Publicschooleducation,67-84.

SeealsoSchoolsandeducationalinstitutions

Publicserviceannouncements,27,58

Publictransportation,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24

Publicutilitycommissions,204,207-208

Q

"Qualifiedhandicappedperson,"definition

Section501,RehabilitationActof1973,143

Section503,RehabilitationActof1973,143

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,52-53,143

Page268

R

Readingcomprehensionproblemsofdeafpeople,5

Reaganadministration,217

Reasonableaccommodation

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,17-18

TitleV,RehabilitationActof1973,145-146

Referralcentersfordeafpersons,161-162

RegistryofInterpretersfortheDeaf(RID),2-4,174,181

CodeofEthics,4

RehabilitationActof1973,47-64.

SeealsoSection501,RehabilitationActof1973;Section502,RehabilitationActof1973;Section503,RehabilitationActof1973;Section504,RehabilitationActof1973

architecturalbarriers.SeeArchitecturalbarriers;Section502,RehabilitationActof1973

TitleIfunding,162

TitleVsections,47-48

remedies,141-165

vocationalrehabilitationservices,161-162

Rehabilitationcounselors.SeeVocationalrehabilitation

RehabilitationServicesAdministration(RSA),161-162

Relayservices.SeeTelecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf

Remedies

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,23,37,43

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,violations,63

TitleV,RehabilitationActof1973,142-154

Revenuesharingfunds.SeeFederalfunding;Section504,RehabilitationActof1973

RID.SeeRegistryofInterpretersfortheDeaf

Righttoattorney,183

Rochestermethodofteaching,76

Rousev.Cameron,131

Rowley,Amy,74-75

RSA.SeeRehabilitationServicesAdministration

S

St.ElizabethsHospital(Washington,D.C.),126,132

St.Louis,Missouri,policedepartment,179

ScheduleAappointmentforfederalemployment,151

ExecutiveOrder12125,152

legalchallenges,151-152

Schoolsandeducationalinstitutions,67-84.

SeealsoCollegesanduniversities;IndividualizedEducationProgram;PublicLaw94-142

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,24,35

continuingeducationclasses,103

EducationforAllHandicappedChildrenAct.SeePublicLaw94-142

records,inspection,101-103

lettersofrequest(AppendixB),235

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,

applicability,67,103-104

Schornstein,RuthAnn,91

Sears,Roebuck&Company,194

Section501,RehabilitationActof1973

accommodation.SeeAccommodationofhandicappedpersons

applicability,143

complaintprocedure,154-158

description,47-48

enforcementprocedures,154-158

"essentialfunctions,"defined,144

federalcourtsuit,158

informalprecomplaintcounseling,154-156

NoticeofFinalInterviewletter,155

"qualifiedhandicappedperson,"defined,143

Section502,RehabilitationActof1973

architecturalbarriers,168-170

description,47-48

Section503,RehabilitationActof1973

accommodation.SeeAccommodationofhandicappedpersons

applicability,143

businessnecessitydefenseforemployers,148

complaintprocedure,158-160

description,47-48

enforcementprocedures,158-160

"essentialfunctions,"defined,144

"qualifiedhandicappedperson,"defined,143

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,48-64

accessiblemeetings,HHSregulation,57-58

accommodation.SeeAccommodationof

handicappedpersons

administrativeenforcement,59

applicability,49-51,143

architecturalbarriers,HHS/EDregulation,170-171

collegesanduniversities,applicability,87

communicationbarriers,HEWregulation,55-57

complaintprocedure,50-51,59-62,83,160

description,48

differentorspecialtreatment,HEWregulation,54-55

education,67

EducationDepartmentregulations,48-49,87

enforcement,58-59

equalopportunity,HEWregulation,53-54

"essentialfunctions,"defined,144

federalaidrecipients,applicability,49-51

grievanceprocedures,59-60

"handicapped,"defined,51

HealthandHumanServicesDepartmentregulations,48-49

healthcareservices,101-119

hospitals,HHSregulation,107-110

interpreters,HEWregulation,56

investigationofcomplaint,62-63

judicialenforcement,63

JusticeDepartmentenforcementofregulations.SeeJustice,U.S.Departmentof

medicalexaminationsforemployment,148

mentalhealthservices,HHSregulation,136-137

ORSregulationusedtocompelinterpretersfordeafcriminaldefendantsuponarrest,179

probationofficertoprovideinterpretertodeafdefendant,185

Page269

proceduralsafeguards,79-83

programaccessibility,51-53

protectionsaffordedby,51-53

PublicLaw94-142and,68

"qualifiedhandicappedperson,"defined,52-53,143

regulationsunder,48-49.

SeealsoHealthandHumanServices,U.S.Departmentof

remedies,63

schools,applicability,103-104

self-evaluationofcompliancebyfederalaidrecipients,59

socialservices,101-119

SupremeCourtcases,88-89,160

Serviceanimals,useinpublicaccommodations,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,35

Shirey,Edward,152

Shoppingmalls,TDDservice,210

Signlanguage,2-5.

SeealsoAmericanSignLanguage

emergencymedicaltreatmentstaff,108,112

instructionmethods,77-78

mentalhealthserviceproviders,130,133,135

Mirandawarnings,176-178

policedepartmenttoprovideinterpreterfor,uponarrestofdeafperson,179-181

Simultaneousmethodofteaching,76

SixthAmendmentrights,182-183

SocialSecurityAdministration

interpreterservices,103-104,239-244

TDDservice,103-104

Socialservices

agencyresponsibilities,103-104

agencyrulesprohibitingdiscrimination,102-103

interpreters,101-103

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,applicability,101-119

statelawsprohibitingdiscrimination,104-105

SoutheasternCommunityCollegev.Davis,88-89,90,94-96

SovietUnion,neo-oralism,76

Speech,usebydeafpeople,8

Speechreading.SeeLipreading

Sprint.SeeTelephoneservices

Statecivilandadministrativeproceedings,185-186

Stategovernments,217-230

AmericanswithDisabilitiesActprovisions,23-31

commissionsorcouncils,225-229

directory(AppendixE),251-255

enablinglegislation,Virginiaasexample(AppendixF),256-260

contractorswith,AmericanswithDisabilitiesActcoverage,24

legislativeprocess,223-225

lobbying,219-225

Statelaws.

Seealsospecificstates

activistsforlegislativechange,135-136

architecturalbarriers,171

employmentdiscrimination,160-161

legislativeprocess.SeeStategovernments

mentalhealth,131-132,134-135

modelacttoprovideforinterpretersforgovernmentandjudicialproceedings(AppendixD),245-250

nondiscrimination,104-105

privilegedcommunicationsbetweendeafpersonsandinterpreters,186-187

Statistics,deafpersons,1,6

employment,141

institutionalizedinmentalhealthfacilities,121-122

Stewart,Larry,141

Strathiev.DepartmentofTransportation,21

SupremeCourt,U.S.

Alexanderv.Choate,97

Burlington,Townofv.MassachusettsDepartmentofEducation,75

HendrickHudsonSchoolDistrictv.Rowley,74-75

IrvingIndependentSchoolDistrictv.Tatro,75

Jacksonv.Indiana,124-126

Mirandav.Arizona,176-178

O'Connorv.Donaldson,128

Pennhurstv.Halderman,133

Section504,RehabilitationActof1973,coverage,160

SoutheasternCommunityCollegev.Davis,88-89,94-96

Sussman,Allen,141,218

T

TAEA.SeeTelecommunicationsAccessibilityEnhancementAct

TDCA.SeeTelevisionDecoderCircuitryAct

TDD.SeeTelecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf

Teachersofdeafstudents,162

experienceandeducationallevel,78-79

Teachingmethods.SeeIndividualizedEducationProgram

TelecommunicationsAccessibilityEnhancementAct(TAEA),205

Telecommunicationsdeviceforthedeaf(TDD),810,203-215

AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,accommodation,18,26,29,32-34,36-39,56

ANSIstandardand,169-170

ASCII,useof,206

audiotextservices,214

Baudotcode,useof,206

conventioncenters,210

directoryofTDDnumbers,205,213

emergencyrooms,110-111

emergencytelephoneservices,37

equipmentfundinganddistribution,205-206

HEW/HHSSection504regulation,56.

Seealsospecificpublicagency(e.g.,Hospitals)

accessiblemeetings,57-58

hospitals,101,210

internationalsymbol,210,215

libraries,101

long-distancerates,207-208

newtechnology,214-215

operatorservices,213

payorpublicphones,37,203,209-210,213-214

policedepartments,104,187