Upload
others
View
5
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
LLNL-PRES-668311 This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344. Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC
Lecture Notes on Radiation Transport for Spectroscopy
ICTP-IAEA School on Atomic Processes in Plasmas
27 February – 3 March 2017 Trieste, Italy
Outline • Definitions, assumptions and terminology
• Equilibrium limit • Radiation transport equation
• Characteristic form & formal solution • Material radiative properties
• Absorption, emission, scattering • Coupled systems
• LTE / non-LTE • Line radiation
• Line shapes • Redistribution • Material motion
• Solution methods • Transport operators • 2-level & multi-level atoms • Escape factors
Radiation Transport
Basic assumptions
Classical / Semi-classical description –
• Radiation field described by either specific intensity Iν or the photon distribution function fν
• Unpolarized radiation
• Neglect index of refraction effects (n≈1, ω>>ωp) è Photons travel in straight lines
• Neglect true scattering (mostly)
• Static material (for now) è Single reference frame
Macroscopic - specific intensity Iν • energy per (area x solid angle x time) within
the frequency range
• dE = energy crossing area dA within
Microscopic - photon distribution function
Radiation Description
dE = Iv
r ,Ω,t( ) n • Ω( )dAdΩdv dt
dE = hv( )
spins∑ fν
!r , !p,t( ) d 3!xd 3 !ph3
Iv = 2 hv3
c2 fν!r , !p,t( )
(ν ,ν + dν )
(dΩdv dt)
p = hv
cΩ
0th moment = energy density x c/4π
1st moment = flux x 1 /4π
2nd moment = pressure tensor x c /4π
For isotropic radiation, Kν is diagonal with equal elements:
In this case, radiation looks like an ideal gas with = 4/3
Jν =
14π
Iν dΩ∫
Hν =
14π
nIν dΩ∫
Kν =
14π
nnIν dΩ∫
Kν =
13
Jν I (P = 13
E)
Angular Moments
γ
Thermal Equilibrium
Intensity: Planck function Distribution function: Bose-Einstein Energy density For Te=Tr and nH = 1023 cm-3 :
Bv = 2 hv3
c2
1
ehv
kTr −1 fν = 1
ehv
kTr −1
Erad Tr( ) = 4π
cBv Tr( )
0
∞
∫ dv = aTr4
Erad = Ematter ⇔ T ≈ 300eV
LTE(LocalThermodynamicEquilibrium)-par8cleshavethermaldistribu8ons(Te,Ti)photondistribu8oncanbearbitrary
• Boltzmann equation for the photon distribution function:
• The LHS describes the flow of radiation in phase space • The RHS describes absorption and emission
• Absorption & emission coefficients depend on atomic physics • Photon # is not conserved (except for scattering)
• Photon mean free path
Radiation Transport Equation
= absorption coefficient (fraction of energy absorbed per unit length)
= emissivity (energy emitted per unit time, volume, frequency, solid angle)
1c∂ Iv
∂ t+!Ω i∇Iv = −α v Iv +ηv
1c∂ fν∂ t
+!Ω i∇fν =
∂ fν∂ t
⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟ coll
α v
ηv
Iv = 2hν hν
c⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
2
fν
λν = 1/αν
Characteristic Form
Define the source function Sν and optical depth τν: Sν = ην/αν = Bν in LTE dτν = αν ds Along a characteristic, the radiation transport equation becomes
This solution is useful when material properties are fixed, e.g. postprocessing for diagnostics Important features: • Explicit non-local relationship between Iν and Sν • Escaping radiation comes from depth τν ≈ 1 • Implicit Sν(Iν) dependence comes from radiation / material coupling
dIv
dτ v
= − Iv + Sv ⇒ Iv τ v( ) = Iv 0( )e−τ v + e− τ v− ′τν( )Sv ′τν( )0
τ v∫ d ′τν
Self-consistently determining Sν and Iν is the hard part of radiation transport
Limiting Cases
Optically-thin τν<<1 (viewed in emission):
Iν reflects spectral characteristics of emission, independent of absorption Optically-thick τν>>1:
Iν reflects spectral characteristics of Sν (over ~last optical depth) Negligible emission (viewed in absorption):
Iν / Iν(0) reflects spectral characteristics of absorption
Iv = Sv0
τ v∫ d ′τν = ηv0
dx
∫ d ′x →ηvdx
Iv τ v( ) = e− τ v− ′τν( )Sv ′τν( )
0
τ v∫ d ′τν → Sv τν( )
Iv τ v( ) = Iv 0( )e−τ v , τν = α v0
dx
∫ d ′x →α vdx
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
optic
al d
epth
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
flux
(cgs
)
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
Example – Flux from a uniform sphere
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE
Δr=0.001cm
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
flux
(cgs
)
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
optic
al d
epth
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
Example – Flux from a uniform sphere
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE
Δr=0.1cm
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
flux
(cgs
)
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
100
101
102
103
104
optic
al d
epth
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
Example – Flux from a uniform sphere
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE
Δr=10.0cm
Absorption / emission coefficients !!"#$%#&&!'($)*$&&+),)$)-.&
Plasma Physics Division
The simulated and experimental K-shell spectra reveal plasma conditions in the emitting region are Te~3.5 keV and ne ~ 3x1022 cm-3.
+21#)"2:-%)*&$169*1962&W&0).2?*&6#12$>&E9.:#%2.1#"&:#1#&1-&.-.=5/>&B"#$%#&%-:2"$&
: .
Dasgupta, R. W. Clark, et al., AIP #1161, 207 (2009) Dasgupta, J. G. Giuliani, et al., IEEE TPS, 38, 598 (2010)
@WEQWECFE! I9/3/.#0!X.0V86;WX.0V8.?&3!:<%I!6&3O! FB!
fromT.Mehlhorn
Macroscopic description – energy changes • Energy removed from radiation passing through material of area dA,
depth ds, over time dt
• Energy emitted by material
Microscopic description – radiative transitions • Absorption and emission coefficients are
constructed from atomic populations yi and cross sections σij:
dE = −αν Iν dAdsdΩdν dt
dE = ην dAdsdΩdν dt
αν = σν , iji< j∑ (yi −
gigjyj ) , ην =
2hν 3
c2 σν , iji< j∑ gi
gjyj
Bound-bound Transitions
Probability (per unit time) of • Spontaneous emission: A21 • Absorption: B12 • Stimulated emission: B21
A21, B12, B21 are Einstein coefficients
2 g2
1
n2
g1 n1
Two energy level system
g1B21 = g2B12 , A21 =2hv0
3
c2B21
J
φ(ν )
0
∞
∫ dν =1
Line profile measures probability of absorption φ v⎛⎝ ⎞
⎠
Transition rate from level 1 to level 2
R12 = B12J , J = Jv0
∞
∫ φ v( )dv
ΔE = hv0
(assuming that the linewidth << ΔE)
J
αν = n1
πe2
mcf12φ v( ) 1−
g1n2
g2n1
⎡
⎣⎢
⎤
⎦⎥
ην =2hν 3
c2
⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
n2
πe2
mcf12φ v( )
Absorption and emission coefficients:
absorp8on–s8mulatedemissionspontaneousemission
σ v( ) = hvo
4πB21φ v( ) = πe2
mcf12φ v( )
Cross section for absorption
Oscillator strength f12 relates the quantum mechanical result to the classical treatment of a harmonic oscillator
• Strong transitions have f ~1
• Sum rule (# of bound electrons) fij = Zj∑
For now we are assuming that absorption and emission have the same line profile
f12 = oscillator strength
πe2
mc=0.02654 cm2 /s
Bound-free absorption
Free-free absorption
σ bf = 7.91⋅10−18 ngbf
ν0
ν⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
3
1− e−hν
kTe⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
cm2
Absorption cross section from state of principal quantum number n and charge Z
Absorption cross section per ion of charge Z
Gauntfactor hv0 = thresholdenergy
σ ff = 3.69 ⋅108 Z 2
ν 3 Te
g ff ne 1− e−hν
kTe⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
cm2
The term accounts for stimulated emission 1− e−hν
kTe
Gauntfactor
Scattering
Interaction in which the photon energy is (mostly) conserved (i.e. not converted to kinetic energy)
Examples: Scattering by bound electrons – Rayleigh scattering - important in atmospheric radiation transport Scattering by free electrons – Thomson / Compton scattering
Note: frequency shift from scattering is ~
Doppler shift from electron velocity is ~ For most laboratory plasmas, these types of scattering are negligible Note: X-ray Thomson scattering (off ion acoustic waves and plasma oscillations) can be a powerful diagnostic for multiple plasma parameters (Te, Ti, ne)
σ T =
8π3
e2
mec2
⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
2
= 6.65x10−25 cm2 hν mec2
hν /mec2
2kT /mec2
Radiation transport equation with scattering (and frequency changes):
The redistribution function R describes the scattering of photons (ν,Ω) è (ν’,Ω’)
Neglecting frequency changes, this simplifies to Scattering contributes to both absorption and emission terms (and may be
denoted separately or included in αν and ην)
1c∂ Iv
∂ t+Ω i∇Iv = −(α v +σ v )Iv +ηv +σ v
d ′Ω4π∫ Iv ( ′
Ω )g
Ω i ′Ω( )
→−(α v +σ v )Iv +ηv +σ v Jv
1c∂ Iv
∂ t+Ω i∇Iv = −α v Iv +ηv +
σ v d ′ν d ′Ω4π
−R( ′ν , ′Ω ;ν ,Ω) ν′ν
Iv (1+ ′fν )+ R(ν ,Ω; ′ν , ′Ω )I ′v (1+ fν )⎡
⎣⎢
⎤
⎦⎥∫
0
∞
∫s8mulatedscaGering
forisotropicscaGering
Effective scattering
Photons also “scatter” by e.g. resonant absorption / emission Upper level 2 can decay a) radiatively A21 b) collisionally neC21 The fraction of photons are destroyed / thermalized The fraction (1-ε) of photons are “scattered”
è energy changes only slightly (mostly Doppler shifts) è undergo many “scatterings” before being thermalized
Note: is the condition for a strongly non-LTE transition
and is easily satisfied for low density or high ΔE !
2 g2
1
n2
g1 n1
Two energy level system
ε ≈ neC21 / A21
ε 1
Population distribution
LTE: Saha-Boltzmann equation
• Excited states follow a Boltzmann distribution
• Ionization stages obey the Saha equation
NLTE: Collisional-radiative model • Calculate populations by integrating rate equations
yiyj
= gigje−(εi−ε j )/Te
Nq
Nq+1
= 12neUq
Uq+1
h2
2πmeTe
⎛⎝⎜
⎞⎠⎟
3/2
e−(ε0q+1−ε0
q )/Te
ε i = energyof state iTe = electron temperature
Nq = yii∈q∑ e−(εi−ε0
q )/Te number densityof chargestateq
Uq = gii∈q∑ e−(εi−ε0
q )/Te partition functionof chargestateq
dydt
= Ay Aij = Cij + Rij + (other)ij
Rij = σ ij (ν )J(ν ) dνhν
, Rji =∫ σ ij (ν ) J(ν )+ 2hν 3
c2
⎡
⎣⎢
⎤
⎦⎥ e
−hν kT∫dνhν
Cij = ne vσ ij (v) f (v)dv∫
• Summed over populations and radiative transitions:
• In NLTE, the source function has a complex dependence on plasma parameters and on the radiation spectrum:
• In LTE, absorption and emission spectra are complex but the source function obeys Kirchoff’s law:
Summary of absorption / emission coefficients
Sν = Sν (ne ,Te; yi(Jν ))
αν = yiπe2
mc2fij φij v( ) 1− gi y jg j yi
⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟ + σ ij
bf (ν ) + neσ ijff (ν )⎡⎣ ⎤⎦ (1− e
−hν /kTe )⎧⎨⎪
⎩⎪
⎫⎬⎪
⎭⎪ij∑
ην =2hν 3
c2y j
πe2
mc2gig jfij φij v( )+ σ ij
bf (ν ) + neσ ijff (ν )⎡⎣ ⎤⎦e
−hν /kTe⎧⎨⎪
⎩⎪
⎫⎬⎪
⎭⎪ij∑
Sν = Bν (Te )
Opacity & mean opacities
opacity = absorption coefficient / mass density
κν =αν ρ
1κ R
=dν
0
∞
∫ 1κν
dBν
dT
dν0
∞
∫ dBν
dT
κ P =dν
0
∞
∫ κνBν
dν0
∞
∫ Bν
Rosseland mean opacity: emphasizes transmission includes scattering appropriate for average flux
Planck mean opacity:
emphasizes absorption no scattering appropriate for energy exchange
0.1
1
10
100
1000
abso
rptio
n co
effic
ient
(1/
cm)
300025002000150010005000photon energy (eV)
dB/dT
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE
10-12
10-11
10-10
10-9
10-8
10-7
10-6
10-5
10-4
abso
rptio
n co
effic
ient
(cm
-1)
0.1 1 10 100photon energy (eV)
total bound-free free-free n=1
n=2n=3
Example – Hydrogen (Te= 2 eV, ne=1014 cm-3)
absorption coefficient
10-11
10-10
10-9
10-8
10-7
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
abso
rptio
n co
effic
ient
(cm
-1)
0.1 1 10 100photon energy (eV)
LTE NLTE
Hydrogen, again (Te= 2 eV, ne=1014 cm-3)
emissivity sourcefunc8on
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
emiss
ivity
(er
g/cm
3 /s/e
V/st
er)
0.1 1 10 100photon energy (eV)
6x1011
5
4
3
2
1
0
sour
ce fu
nctio
n (e
rg/c
m2 /s
/eV/
ster
)
0.1 1 10 100photon energy (eV)
LTE NLTE
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
optic
al d
epth
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
flux
(cgs
)
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
LTE NLTE
Flux from a uniform sphere revisited
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE / NLTE
Δr=0.001cm
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
flux
(cgs
)
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
LTE NLTE
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
optic
al d
epth
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
Flux from a uniform sphere revisited
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE / NLTE
Δr=0.1cm
100
101
102
103
104
optic
al d
epth
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
flux
(cgs
)
2000150010005000photon energy (eV)
LTE NLTE
Flux from a uniform sphere revisited
Kr @ T = 200 eV, ρ = 0.01 g/cc, LTE / NLTE
Δr=10.0cm
Flux from a uniform sphere - Summary
200
150
100
50
0T r
, eff
1.00.80.60.40.20.0r/∆r
LTE NLTE
∆r = 10. cm
∆r = 0.1 cm
∆r = 0.001 cm
§ “Black-body” emission requires large optical depths
§ Large optical depths è high radiation fields èLTE conditions
§ Boundaries introduce non-uniformities through radiation fields
§ The radiation field will also change the material temperature
Conditions do not remain uniform in the
presence of radiation transport and boundaries
1.0x10-9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
spec
ific
inte
nsity
(cg
s)
-0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002photon energy w.r.t. line center (eV)
90º 10º
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
opti
cal depth
10.20210.20010.19810.196photon energy (eV)
Ly-α emission from a uniform plasma • Te = 1 eV, ne = 1014 cm-3 • Moderate optical depth τ ~ 5 • Viewing angles 90o and 10o
show optical depth broadening
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
opti
cal depth
-0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002photon energy w.r.t. line center (eV)
90o10o
1 cm
Example – Hydrogen Ly-α
3.0x10-8
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
n=2
frac
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion
1.00.80.60.40.20.0
position (cm)
self-consistent uniform
6x10-9
5
4
3
2
1
0
spec
ific
inte
nsity
(cg
s)
-0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
photon energy w.r.t. line center (eV)
self-consistent 90º 10º
uniform
90º 10º
Example – Hydrogen Ly-α Ly-α emission from a plasma with uniform temperature and density
• Te= 1 eV, ne= 1014 cm-3 • Self-consistent solution displays effects of
– Radiation trapping / pumping – Non-uniformity due to boundaries
90o10o
1 cm
Coupled systems – or – What does “Radiation Transport” mean?
The system of equations and emphasis varies with the application
For laboratory plasmas, these two sets are most useful -
LTE / energy transport : • Coupled to energy balance
• Indirect radiation-material coupling through energy/temperature
• Collisions couple all frequencies locally, independent of Jν
• Solution methods concentrate on non-local aspects
dEm
dt= 4π αν (Jν − Sν )∫ dν
αν =αν (Te ) , Sν = Bν (Te )
NLTE / spectroscopy : • Coupled to rate equations
• Direct coupling of radiation to material • Collisions couple frequencies over
narrow band (line profiles) • Solution methods concentrate on local
material-radiation coupling • Non-local aspects are less critical
dydt
= Ay , A ij =A ij (Te , Jν )
Sν =2hν3
c2 Sij , Sij ≈ a + b Jij
Line Profiles
Line profiles are determined by multiple effects: • Natural broadening (A12) - Lorentzian • Collisional broadening (ne, Te) - Lorentzian • Doppler broadening (Ti) - Gaussian • Stark effect (plasma microfields) - complex
-5.0 -3.0 -1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0
φ, li
ne p
rofil
e fa
ctor
Gaussian, Voigt and Lorentzian Profiles
Gaussian
Lorentzian
Voigt, a=0.001Voigt, a=0.01Voigt, a=0.1
(ν-νo)/∆
10
10−1
10−2
10−3
10−4
10−5
φ(ν ) = 1ΔνD π
H (a, x)
a = Γ4πΔνD
ΔνD = ν0c
2kTimi
H (a, x) = aπ
e− y2
(x − y)2 + a2−∞
∞
∫ dy
φ(ν ) = Γ 4π 2
ν −ν0( )2 + Γ 4π( )2
Γ =destruc8onrate
Redistribution
The emission profile is determined by multiple effects: • collisional excitation è natural line profile (Lorentzian) • photo excitation + coherent scattering • photo excitation + elastic scattering è ~absorption profile • Doppler broadening This is described by the redistribution function
Complete redistribution (CRD): Doppler broadening is only slightly different from CRD, while coherent scattering gives A good approximation for partial redistribution (PRD) is often where f (<<1 for X-rays) is the ratio of elastic scattering and de-excitation rates, includes coherent scattering and Doppler broadening
ψν = φν
ψν
R(ν , ′ν )
R(ν , ′ν )
0
∞
∫ dv = φ( ′ν ) , ψ (ν ) = R(ν , ′ν )0
∞
∫ J ( ′ν )d ′v φ( ′ν )0
∞
∫ J ( ′ν )d ′v
R(ν , ′ν ) = φ(ν )δ (ν − ′ν )
R(ν , ′ν ) = (1− f )φ( ′ν )φ(ν )+ f RII (ν , ′ν )
RII
6x10-9
5
4
3
2
1
0
spec
ific
inte
nsity
(cg
s)
-0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
photon energy w.r.t. line center (eV)
PRD 90º 10º
CRD
90º 10º
uniform
90º 10º
3.5x10-8
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
n=2
frac
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion
1.00.80.60.40.20.0
position (cm)
PRD CRD uniform
Hydrogen Ly-α w/ Partial Redistribution
90o10o
1 cm
Ly-α emission from a plasma with uniform temperature and density • Te= 1 eV, ne= 1014 cm-3 • Optical depth τ ~ 5 • Voigt parameter a ~ 0.0003
Material Velocity
The discussion so far applies in the reference frame of the material
Doppler shifts matter for line radiation when v/c ~ ΔE/E
If velocity gradients are present, either a) Transform the RTE into the co-moving frame - or – b) Transform material properties into the laboratory frame
Option (a) is complicated (particularly when v/c è 1) - see the references by Castor and Mihalas for discussions
Option (b) is relatively simple, but makes the absorption and emission coefficients direction-dependent
Al sphere w/ uniform expansion velocity
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
optic
al d
epth
240022002000180016001400photon energy (eV)
0.1
1
10
100
area
l flux
(er
g/s/
Hz/s
ter)
240022002000180016001400photon energy (eV)
v/c = 0 v/c = 0.003 v/c = 0.01 v/c = 0.03
optical depth areal flux
Te=500eVρ=10-3g/cm3Router=1.0cmRinner=0.9cm
0.1
1
10
100
area
l flux
(er
g/s/
Hz/s
ter)
1800170016001500photon energy (eV)
v/c = 0 v/c = 0.003 v/c = 0.01 v/c = 0.03
Al sphere w/ uniform expansion velocity
He-α Ly-α
2-Level Atom
Rate equation for two levels in steady state: Absorption / Emission: Source Function:
2 g2
1
n2
g1 n1
Two energy level systemn1(B12J12 +C12 ) = n2 (A21 + B21J12 +C21)
J12 = Jv0
∞
∫ φ12 v( )dv , C12 =g2g1
e−hν0 kTC21ΔE = hv0
αν =hν4π
n1B12 − n2B21( )φ12 (ν ) , ην =hν4π
n2A21φ12 (ν )
Sν =n2A21
n1B12 − n2B21= (1− ε )J12 + εBν , ε
1− ε=C21
A211− e−hν0 kT( )
Sν is independent of frequency and linear in - solution methods exploit this dependence
J
A Popular Solution Technique
For a single line, the system of equations can be expressed as where the lambda operator and the source function depend on the populations through the absorption and emission coefficients. A numerical solution for uniquely specifies the entire system. Since depends on through the populations, the full system is non-linear and requires iterating solutions of the rate equations and radiation transport equation. The dependence of on is usually weak, so convergence is rapid.
dIv
dτ v
= − Iv + Sv ⇒ Iv =λνSv (J )
Sv = aν + bν J , J = 14π
dΩ∫ Iv0
∞
∫ φ v( )dv
λν
J
J
J
λν
λν
Solution technique for the linear source function: This linear system can (in principle) be solved directly for and in 1D this is very efficient The (angle,frequency)-integrated operator includes factors, so amplifies (radiation trapping) Efficient solution methods approximate key parts of
NLTE – local frequency scattering LTE (linear in ΔTe) – non-local coupling
Iv =λν aν + bν J⎡⎣ ⎤⎦
⇒ J = 14π
dΩ∫λν aν + bν J⎡⎣ ⎤⎦0
∞
∫ φ v( )dv
⇒ J = 1−Λ⎡⎣ ⎤⎦
−1 14π
dΩ∫λνaν0
∞
∫ φ v( )dv
Λ = 1
4πdΩ∫
λνbν0
∞
∫ φ v( )dv
J
J Λ
1−Λ⎡⎣ ⎤⎦
−11− e−τν
Λ
For multiple lines, the source function for each line can be put in the two-level form – ETLA (Extended Two Level Atom) – or the full source function can be expressed in the following manner: Solve for each individually (if coupling between lines is not important) or simultaneously. (Complete) linearization – expand in terms of and solve as before. Partial redistribution usually converges at a slightly slower rate.
J
Sv =ην
c + ηνℓ(Jℓ )φν
ℓ
ℓ∑
ανc + αν
ℓ(Jℓ )φνℓ
ℓ∑
Multi-Level Atom
Sν ΔJℓ
Sν =Sν (Jℓ
0 )+ ∂Sν∂Jℓ
Jℓ − Jℓ0( )
ℓ∑
Numerical methods need to fulfill 2 requirements
1. Accurate formal transport solution which is • conservative, • non-negative • 2nd order (spatial) accuracy (diffusion limit as τ >> 1) • causal (+ efficient) Many options are available – each has advantages and disadvantages
2. Method to converge solution of coupled implicit equations • Multiple methods fall into a few classes
– Full nonlinear system solution – Accelerated transport solution – Incorporate transport information into other physics
• Optimized methods are available for specific regimes, but no single method works well across all regimes
Method #1 – Source (or lambda) iteration
Advantages – Simple to implement Independent of formal transport method
Disadvantages –
Can require many iterations: # iterations ~ τ2 False convergence is a problem for τ >> 1
1. Evaluate source function 2. Formal solution of radiation
transport equation 3. Use intensities to evaluate
temperature / populations
iteratetoconvergence
Hydrogen Lyman-α revisited • Source iteration (green curves) approaches self-consistent solution slowly • Linearization achieves convergence in 1 iteration
Sij = a + b Jij , Jij = Jνφv dν∫ çlinearfunc8onof
3.0x10-8
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
n=2
frac
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion
1.00.80.60.40.20.0
position (cm)
self-consistent uniform
6x10-9
5
4
3
2
1
0
spec
ific
inte
nsity
(cg
s)
-0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
photon energy w.r.t. line center (eV)
90º self-consistent uniform
itera8o
n#
itera8o
n#
J
Method #2 – Monte Carlo Formal solution method – 1) Sample emission distribution in (space, frequency, direction) to create “photons” 2) Track “photons” until they escape or are destroyed
Advantages – Works well for complicated geometries Not overly constrained by discretizations è does details very well Disadvantages – Statistical noise improves slowly with # of particles Expense increases with optical depth Iterative evaluation of coupled system is not possible / advisable Semi-implicit nature requires careful timestep control Convergence – A procedure that transforms absorption/emission events into effective scatterings (Implicit Monte Carlo) provides a semi-implicit solution Symbolic IMC provides a fully-implicit solution at the cost of a solving a single mesh-wide nonlinear equation
Method #3 – Discrete Ordinates (SN) Formal solution method –
Discretization in angle converts integro-differential equations into a set of coupled differential equations (provides lambda operator)
Advantages – Handles regions with τ<<1 and τ>>1 equally well Modern spatial discretizations achieve the diffusion limit Deterministic method can be iterated to convergence Disadvantages – Ray effects due to preferred directions angular profiles become inaccurate well before angular integrals Required # of angles in 2D/3D can become enormous Discretization in 7 dimensions requires large computational resources Convergence –
Effective solution algorithms exist for both LTE and NLTE versions [6] – e.g. LTE – synthetic grey transport (or diffusion)
NLTE – complete linearization (provides linear source function) + accelerated lambda iteration in 2D/3D (Note: this applies to all deterministic methods)
Method #4 – Escape factors Escape factor pe is used to eliminate radiation field from net radiative rate Equivalent to incorporating a (partial) lambda operator into the rate equations è combines the formal solution + convergence method Advantages – Very fast – no transport equation solution required Can be combined with other physics with no (or minimal) changes Disadvantages – Details of transport solution are absent Escape factors depend on line profiles, system geometry Iterative improvement is possible, but usually not worthwhile
yjBjiJ − yiBij J = yjAji pe
Escape factor is built off the single flight escape probability Iron’s theorem – this gives the correct rate on average
(spatial average weighted by emission) Note that the optical depth depends on the line profile, plus continuum Asymptotic expressions for large optical depth:
Gaussian profile Voigt profile Evaluating pe can be complicated by overlapping lines, Doppler shifts, etc. Many variations and extensions exist in a large literature
pe =
14π
dΩ∫ e−τν0
∞
∫ φ v( )dv
1− J S = pe
e−τν
pe ≈1 4τ ln τ π( ) pe ≈ 13 a τ
References
Stellar Atmospheres, 2nd edition, D. Mihalas, Freeman, 1978. Theory of Stellar Atmospheres: An Introduction to Astrophysical Non-
equilibrium Quantitative Spectroscopic Analysis, I. Hubeny and D. Mihalas, Princeton, 2014.
Radiation Hydrodynamics, J. Castor, Cambridge University Press, 2004. Kinetics Theory of Particles and Photons (Theoretical Foundations of Non-
LTE Plasma Spectroscopy), J. Oxenius, Springer-Verlag, 1986. Radiation Trapping in Atomic Vapours, A.F. Molisch and B.P. Oehry, Oxford
University Press, 1998. Radiation Processes in Plasmas, G. Bekefi, John Wiley and Sons, 1966. Computational Methods of Neutron Transport, E.E. Lewis and W.F. Miller, Jr.,
John Wiley and Sons, 1984.