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LECTURE 4: PERCEPTION ANDATTRIBUTION

Lecture OBJECTIVES

After studying this lecture, you should be ableto:

understand the basic nature of perceptionand its far reaching influence on the nature ofbehaviour and relationships in organisations.

identify and define elements of the processof perception.

To discuss how knowledge of perceptionprocesses can generate insight intophenomena of particular significance in theworkplace such as stereotyping.

KEY ISSUE 1: THE NATURE OF PERCEPTION

“We are all unique, there is only one me…....and there is only one you. We all have our ownunique picture of how we perceive the real

world .....a situation may be the same but theinterpretation of that situation by two

individuals may be vastly different...... thereforeto interact effectively, we must have a

knowledge of what others are thinking, andfeeling, including their attitudes and intention(Mullins, 2006).

This means that perception is one of the mostimportant psychological processes of human

WHAT IS PERCEPTION?

It has been defined in different ways in variousdisciplines such as:

‘the process of selecting, organising andinterpreting information in order to make

sense of the world around us’. (Bratton et al.,2007) ‘the basic psychological systemsassociated with sensory modality, togetherwith central brain processes which integrateand interpret the output from these

PERCEPTION cont’d

‘the process by which individuals select,organise, and interpret the inputs from their

senses”(George and Jones, 2008)

“a psychological process involvingindividuals selecting stimuli from their

environment and processing this data todevelop awareness and understanding abouttheir environment and determine responses”

(Martin and Fellenz, 2010)

THE DEFINITIONS SUGGEST THAT:

The perceptual process begins based onthe dynamics of:

(a) receipt of stimulus(b) selecting,(c) organising of stimuli intomeaningful patterns(d) Interpretation of thesignificance of the stimuli(e) response behaviour

THE DEFINITIONS SUGGEST THAT:

Perception is a cognitive process thatenables us to make interpret andunderstand our surroundings.This means that different people oftenperceive situations differently .Both in terms of (a) what they selectivelyperceive and (b) how they organise andinterpret the things perceived.

THE DEFINITIONS SUGGEST THAT:

Perception includes all these human sensesby which an individual receive informationabout the environment –

(a) Seeing, (b)Hearing, (c) Feeling, (d)Smelling,

(d)TastingPerception can be:(a) selective, (b) subjective and (c)

automatic .

THE DEFINITIONS SUGGEST THAT:

(a) selective - i ndividuals employ “selectiveattention” - the ability of someone to focus

on only some of the sensory stimuli thatreach them, because he/she does not have

the mental ability to fully comprehend allinformation.Attention (is the process of becoming

consciously aware of something orsomeone) plays a part.

THE DEFINITIONS SUGGEST THAT:

(b) subjective - how people interpret whatthey perceive varies considerably . People

often perceive the same things in differentways , and their behavioural responses depend,

in part on these perceptions (subjective). (c) sometime automatic - Based on prior

knowledge , individuals may respond in someway, which then become part of theenvironment, and so influence his/her ownongoing perceptions of what is happening(largely automatic).

Theories underlying the concept ofperception

Social identity theory and socialcategorisation theory (Turner, 1982; Tajfel,

1981; Tajfel and Turner, 1986).Social identity theory explains that to a

varying degree people derive part of their“identity and sense of self” from the groupto which they belong.

Social categories states that people defineand differentiate themselves and others interms of social group.

Theories underlying the concept ofperception

The categorisation may be triggered whenindividuals perceive themselves as

dissimilar to other members, resulting in thetendency to evaluate themselves and othersin terms of “my-team” and “their-team”.Salient differences underlying diversity

dimensions may shape individual member’“perception” of themselves and othermembers, which may influence attitudes,appraisal of issues and behavior.

THE main components OF PERCEPTION

The three main components of perception are:The perceiver – the person trying to interpretsome observation that he/she has just made, orinputs from his/her senses.The target of perception – whatever theperceiver is trying to make sense of (can beanother person, a group of people, an event, asituation, an idea etc.).The situation - the situation is the context inwhich perception takes place.

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: perceiver

The factors influencing perception canreside in the perceiver; the target or objectbeing perceived; or in the context.Factors in the perceiver (a range of internal

factors to the perceiver that are likely toinfluence stimulus selection.They include:(1) Sensory limits – selective attention.

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: perceiver (internal factors)

(2) Psychological factors: the needs of theindividual e.g. personality, motivation,learning and past experiences, intelligence,ability, training, interests, expectations, goals,past experiences, age, etc.(3) Language: the language spoken has afundamental influence on the way andindividual would interpret the world, suchthat that individual actually think differentlythan those who speak a different language.

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: perceiver (internal factors)

Also, different languages can framemeaning differently to give differentways of understanding things

(linguistic relativity) .It can be argued that we all shareuniversal interpretations of the worldbut

language cues will vary across the international sphere.

This applies to ‘body language ’ too.

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: perceiver (internal factors)

(4) Cultural differences: culture, that is the“transmitted and created content andpatterns of values, ideas, and other symbolic -meaningful systems as factors in theshaping of human behaviour and theartefacts produced through behaviour”(Hofstede, 2001).A culture into which a person is born orsocialized also determines many lifeexperiences, and learned cultural differencesinfluence the perceptual process

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: target

Characteristics of the target/object ofperception that can affect perception include:They include:Nature: e.g. visual and involves pictures orpeople.Location: e.g. position

Intensity: e.g. bright, loud Size: e.g. large

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: target/object

MovementRepetitionNoveltyFamiliarityStands out from the backgroundSimilarity

THE factors influencing the PerceptualSELECTION: the situation/context

There are some other range of externalfactors that are likely to influence the

situation or context within whichperception is taking place. They include:

TimeWork settingSocial setting

THE factors influencing the Perceptual SELECTION

Factors that influence perception•

••

••

Factors in the perceiverMotivesAttitudesInterest

ExperienceExpectations

••••

•

Factors in the targetProximity

MotionSoundSize

Background, novelty,

•••

Factors in the situationTime

Work settingSocial setting

Perception

Person perception cont’d

Person perception , the process by whichindividuals attribute characteristics or

traits to other people is of particularinterest due to the significance ofinterpersonal interaction within the worksettings.For example. individuals’ perceptions ofmanagers, colleagues and customers canhave an impact on the effectiveness of theorganisation.

Person perception cont’d

In general, the components of personperception are the same as those theinfluence perceptual selection.In line with the earlier discussions, personperception has a three-component process.1. Perceiver- perceiver characteristics - thisincludes the internal aspects of an individualthat influence perception – personality traits,values, attitudes, past experiences,motivation, past experience and learning etc.

Person perception cont’d

2. The person perceived- the characteristicsof the perceived person involves a widevariety of variables including age, physicalappearance, facial expression, generalappearance, physical appearance, voice andbehaviour.It has been argued that the characteristics ofthe perceived person can either make a

positive contribution to the perceptionprocess or lead to stereotying.

Person perception cont’d

3. The situation variables - the situation isthe context in which perception takesplace.For example, meeting a someone for thefirst time in the company of someone youdislike, the room in which the meetingtakes place.

SELF PERCEPTION

Each person also thinks of himself orherself in particular ways.

Self- concept refers to an individual’s self–belief and self evaluation.

Self concept can be linked to selfconcept complexity – the number ofdistinct and important roles or identitiesthat people perceive themselves.

SELF PERCEPTION

This implies that everyone has somedegree of complexity because of the wayeveryone perceive himself/herself in

different roles at various times (student,friend, daughter etc.)

People hold a perception of themselvesthat influences and is influenced by their

self identity (e.g. mature, sociable,knowledgeable).

SELF PERCEPTION

Self perception can also be linked topersonality, values and other attributes(such as self concept, /core self evaluation– e.g. reflects the individual’s locus ofcontrol, emotional stability (neuroticism)and self esteem.

Perceptual errors: BIASES AND PROBLEMSIN PERSON PERCEPTION

The perceptual process may result in errorsin judgement or understanding .

They are also frequently used shortcuts injudging others.For example misjudging the characteristics,abilities, or behaviours of an employeeduring a performance appraisal reviewcould result in the inaccurate assessmentof the employee’s current and future valueof the firm.

BIASES/PROBLEMS IN PERSON PERCEPTION

Some of the perceptual errors include:Selective perception – the tendency to

selectively interpret what one sees on thebasis of one’s interest, background,

experience and attitudes .Stereotyping: is a perceived notion that

suggests that all members of a particularcategory share a set of characteristics , i.e.

judgements of others that are based ongroup membership, e.g. sex, race, ethnicgroup, age, ‘union members”, etc.

BIASES AND PROBLEMS IN PERSONPERCEPTION

Sex-role stereotype: is the belief thatdiffering traits and abilities make men andwomen particularly well situated fordifferent roles, e.g. women are moreemotional.Age stereotypes : reinforces age

discrimination because of their negativeorientationRace stereotypes : e.g. minorities,

sometime including women, leading toissues of affirmative action

BIASES AND PROBLEMS IN PERSONPERCEPTION cont’d

Projection: a psychological process ofprojecting onto others characteristics that

we see in ourselves . Therefore we tend toassume that everyone thinks and behaves inthe same way we do.Primacy effect (or first impression error):The initial pieces of information that a

perceiver has about a target haveinordinately large effect on the perceiver’sperception and evaluation.

BIASES AND PROBLEMS IN PERSONPERCEPTION cont’d

Recency effect: the last information that aperceiver receive about a target dominatesthe perceiver’s perception and evaluation.Contrast effect: The perceiver’s perceptionsof others influences the perceiver’sperception of a target.Similar-to-me effect (false-consensus effect):people perceives others who are similar tothemselves more positively than theyperceive those who are dissimilar.

BIASES AND PROBLEMS IN PERSONPERCEPTION cont’d

Halo effect: is introduced when the perceiver’spositive impression of a target (favourably)influences his or her perception of

the target on specific dimensions.Horns effect: attributing all the

characteristics of a person in line with a singlenegative characteristic e.g. everything about a person is bad on the basis of a single negative attribute.

BIASES AND PROBLEMS IN PERSONPERCEPTION cont’d

Harshness, leniency and average tendency:Some perceivers tend to be overly harsh intheir perceptions, some overly lenient.Other view most targets as being average.Self-fulfilling prophecy: a prediction thatcomes true because a perceiver expects itto come true (when a perceiverestablished stereotype causes one tobehaves in a certain way).

BIASES AND PROBLEMS IN PERSONPERCEPTION cont’d

Self-enhancement bias: the tendencyto overestimate our performance andcapabilities and to see ourselves in amore positive light than others see us.Self-effacement bias: the tendency tounderestimate our performance andcapabilities and to see events in away that puts ourselves in a morenegative light.

ATTRIBUTION

Social perception induces individuals to attribute

“explanatory causes to behaviour” , attitudes andevents of others or themselves.

Basically, people make attribution in an attemptto understand the behaviour of other people and

to make better sense of their environment .People infer “causes” to behaviour they observe

in others, and these interpretations often largelydetermine their reaction those behaviours.

ATTRIBUTION

Attribution theory is a group of theories thatdescribes how people explain the causes of

behaviour. Attribution theory tries to explain the ways in

which we judge people differently, dependingon the meaning we attribute to a givenbehaviour.

It suggests that when we observe anindividual’s behaviour, we attempt to determinewhether it is internally or externally caused.

ATTRIBUTION

“ is the process by which we ascribecauses to events as well as to our and

others’ behaviour ” (Martin and (Fellenz,2010).“refers to the process ways in whichpeople come to understand the causes ofothers’ and their own behaviours”

(Hellriegel et al., 1998)

ATTRIBUTION THEORY: internal v. externalcauses

Based on information, beliefs and motive,the perceiver often distinguishes between:(1) internal and (2) external causes ofbehaviour.Internal attribution (about the person) orbehaviour are those we believe to be under

the control of the individual - assigns thecause of behaviour to some characteristicsof the target such as ability (perceived self-efficacy); personality and motivation.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY: external causes/attribution rules

External attribution about the situationor behaviour is what we imagine the

situation forced the individual to do so .Involves assigning the cause of

behaviour to outside forces such as taskdifficulty; luck; organisational rules/policies and weather etc.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY: external causes/attribution rules

Attribution Rules:People rely on three attribution rules –

consistency, distinctiveness, andconsensus – to decide whether someone’sbehaviour and performance are mainlycaused by personal characteristics orenvironmental influences.

ATTRIBUTION/rules

Consistency

••

Yes (high consistency)Did this person act this way in thissituation in the past?

Distinctiveness

••

Yes (low distinctiveness)Does this person act this way inother situations?

Consensus

••

No (low consensus)Do other people act this way in thissituation?

ATTRIBUTION biases

Fundamental attribution error: the tendency toover-attribute behaviour to internal rather than to

external causes.Actor-observer effect: the tendency to attribute

the behaviour of others to internal causes and toattribute one’s own behaviour to external causes .

Self-serving attribution : the tendency to takecredit for success and

avoid blames for failures.

Impression management

In social interactions people are constantly,consciously and unconsciously, attempting tocontrol the images that are in social

interactions.This behavior is referred to as impression

management. Impression management is the process

used by individuals to influence and control theview others form about them.

Impression management

There are a number of ways in whichindividuals may manage theirimpressions.A first distinction would be verbal andnonverbal impressions managementtactics.Often in real life situations

these twotypes appearin a mixed form.

Improving PERCEPTIONs

Awareness of perceptual biases e.g.diversity awareness training minimisesdiscrimination

Improving self awareness – being aware ofour own beliefs, values etc. and betterunderstanding of the biases.

Meaningful interactions – any activity thatin which people engage in values activity, eg.Working with others.

Improving PERCEPTIONs

Developing perceptions across borders –global mindset – individual’s ability toperceive, know about and processinformation across cultures – developappreciation of many culture and not tojudge.

PERCEPTION theory ANDORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR practice

Work organisations represents a realchallenge of our own perceptual abilities .

This is because issues such as changingand ambiguous situations includingcompetitors, diverse people in multipleroles and motivations, all contribute to thecomplexity of what people make out ofwhen they go to work each day.

PERCEPTION theory ANDORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR practice

This in turn become important influences onthe nature of individual’s behaviour and relations

with each other as well as on the nature andfate of the whole organisation .

Specific applications in organisations include:employment interview, performanceexpectations, performance evaluations. Forexample:

Career strategies: employees createimpression among those able to desired career

PERCEPTION theory ANDORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR practice Interview (the selection process): during selection applicants try to make a good impression at a job interview because they are usually trying toproject an image that reflects what theybelieve their prospective employer is lookingfor.

PERCEPTION theory ANDORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR practice

Organisational image: Organisations try toproject an image concept by the imposition ofrequirements for particular characteristics.

e.g. airlines recruiting only young attractivepeople to work as hostesses for many years,deliberate management of corporate identitysymbols such as uniforms and logos, design ofan organizations premises and staff dresscodes.

Summary of PERCEPTION & attribution

Summary of PERCEPTION, self perception & attribution