Lecture 3 Understanding Research Philosophy

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Research Methods forBusiness Management

(MOD001105)Module Leader: Dr Noah Karley

Email: [email protected] Room LAB322 Ext. 5739
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Lecture 3Understanding Research

Philosophy

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Teaching Objectives

By the end of this lecture/seminar you should be able to: Define the key terms ontology, epistemology and axiologyand explain their relevance to business research. Explain the relevance for business research of philosophical

perspectives such as positivism, realism, pragmatism andinterpretivism. Understand the main research paradigms which aresignificant for business research.State your own epistemological, ontological and axiologicalpositions.

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Influences on business research

Source: Bryman and Bell 2011 Figure 1.2

Epistemology , Ontology and Axiology (values) are branches of philosophy


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Introduction

At every stage in our research we make

assumptions.These include assumptions about humanknowledge, the nature of the realities youencounter in your research, and what is important

or of value. These assumptions shape your your researchquestions, the methods you use and how youinterpret your findings

Therefore it is important to be able to recogniseand articulate what the philosophical choices andcommitments underpinning your research choicesare

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Philosophical considerations

Question

What is the nature ofreality? ( ontology )

Something that isexternal to the socialworld

Something that exists inthe socially negotiatedmeanings that people

give to it

What is consideredacceptable knowledge?(epistemology )

Knowledge based onobservable phenomena

Law like generalisations

Knowledge aboutsubjective meanings

Details of specific cases

What is the role ofvalues in research?(axiology )

Research should bevalue-free

Research is shaped byvalues

Source: based on Saunders et al. 2012 Table 4.1


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Ontological considerations Social ontology: the nature of social entities

What kind of objects exist in the social world?

Are social entities organisations, management- external to social actors or constructed by

them?

Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 - Powerpoints


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Ontology: Objectivism

Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts thatsocial phenomena and their meanings have anexistence that is independent of social actors.

It implies that social phenomena and the categoriesthat we use in everyday discourse have an independentexistence that is separate from social actors.

Source: Bryman and Bell 2011 Key concept 1.13 Page 21


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Ontology - Objectivism

An example of this may be management itself .

You may argue that management is an objective entityand therefore adopt an objectivist stance to studymanagement in a specific organisation.

In order to substantiate your view you would say thatthe managers in the organisation have job descriptionswhich prescribe their duties, there are operating

procedures to which they are supposed to adhere, theyare part of a formal structure which locates them in ahierarchy with people reporting to them and they in turnreport to more senior managers.

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Ontology: ObjectivismObjectivism emphasises the structural aspects ofmanagement and assumes that management is similarin all organisations.

Insofar as management does differ in organisations it is afunction of the different objective aspects of

management e.g. different job descriptions, processes,hierarchical relations.

Within the same organisation there is an assumption

that management is the same thing

And that if anyone else studied management in thesame organisation they would arrive at the same findings 13


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Ontology - Subjectivism / constructionism

Subjectivism asserts that social entities like management,culture, organisations - are created through the perceptions and actions of social actors. Social entities have a reality that is experienced and

performed, enactedAs social interactions between actors are a continualprocess, social entities are dynamic they are in a constantstate of revision

Social entities are also multiple they are different fordifferent people

Subjectivism is often associated with the termconstructionism, or social constructionism. 14


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Constructionism

Social phenomena and their meanings arecontinually being generated by social actors

Social phenomena and categories are produced

through social interaction Social phenomena and categories are in a constant

state of revision Researchers' own accounts of the social world are

constructions

we are also participating in theconstruction of social reality through our research


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Epistemological considerations

What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge?

Can the social world be studied

scientifically

?

Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the naturalsciences to social science research?

Positivism and interpretivism are two contrastingepistemological positions



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Epistemology: Positivism

If your research reflects the philosophy of positivism

you will probably adopt the philosophical stance ofthe natural scientist .

Social entities and phenomena can be studied in the

same way that scientists study non-living things andnon-humans

If you are a positivist, it is likely that you will prefer

collecting data about an observable reality and searchfor regularities and causal relationships in your data tocreate law-like generalisations like those produced byscientists. 21


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Epistemology: Realism

Realism is a branch of epistemology which is similar topositivism in that it assumes a scientific approach to thedevelopment of knowledge.

Realism is another philosophical position which relates toscientific enquiry. The essence of realism is that what wesense is reality: that objects have an existenceindependent of the human mind.

The philosophy of realism is that there is a reality quiteindependent of the mind. In this sense, realism is opposedto idealism, the theory that only the mind and its contentsexist.

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Direct realism and critical realism

Direct realism: Objects exist independently ofour knowledge of them.

Critical realism: What we experience of the realworld are sensations and images of things inthe real world, not the things directly.


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Epistemology: Interpretivism

Interpretivism is taken to denote an alternative to thepositivist orthodoxy .

It is predicated upon the view that a research strategy isrequired that respects the differences between peopleand social entities and the objects of the naturalsciences

It therefore requires the social scientist to grasp thesubjective meaning of social action .



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Axiology - values

Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgementsabout value.

Choosing one topic rather than another suggests that youthink one of the topics is more important.

Your choice of philosophical approach is a reflection ofyour values, as is your choice of data collection techniques.

Researchers demonstrate axiological skill by being able toarticulate their values as a basis for making judgementsabout what research they are conducting and how they goabout doing it. 29


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Influences of personal values onbusiness research

The personal beliefs or the feelings of researcher affect everystage of research process, from the choice of research area tothe interpretation of results.

If we recognize that research cannot be value-free, we mightattempt to limit its constraint on objectivity.

Feminist writers (among others) argue for consciously value-ladenresearch, in which the researcher empathises with the

researched and encourages reciprocity.

Source: Bryman and Bell 2011 p. 30


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Pragmatism

Pragmatism asserts that concepts are only relevant

where they support action . This means that the most important determinant ofyour position on each of the continua is the researchquestion one position may be more appropriatethan another for answering a particular question.For pragmatists, the importance of the meaning ofan idea (or a research finding) are its practicalconsequences .Pragmatists recognise that there are many different

ways of interpreting the world and undertakingresearch, that no single point of view can ever givethe entire picture and that there maybe multiplerealities. 32


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What is a research paradigm?

Paradigms are a cluster of beliefs anddictates that influence:

What should be studied How research should be done How results should be interpreted



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Two Contrasting Research Paradigms

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Objectivism and Interpretivism

http ://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1DDWVlgXTI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1DDWVlgXTIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1DDWVlgXTIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1DDWVlgXTIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n1DDWVlgXTI


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Sociological paradigms in organisational analysis

Radical humanistIndividuals needemancipation from thesocial arrangement oforganizations

Radical structuralistStructural powerrelationships result inconflict

InterpretativeOrganizations do notexist apart from theperceptions of peopleworking in them studytheir experiences

FunctionalistProblem-solvingorientation leading torational explanation

Radical

Regulatory

Sub

j

ectiv

ist

Ob

j

ectiv

ist

Source: Based on Tom Owens, Bryman and Bell 2011 Powerpoints; original fromBurrell and Morgan 1982


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SummaryOntology is a branch of philosophy which is concerned with

the nature of social phenomena as entities .

Objectivism is the ontological position which holds thatsocial entities exist in reality external to social actors

whereas the subjectivist / constructionst view is that socialphenomena are created through the perceptions andconsequent actions of social actors.

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Summary

Epistemology concerns what constitutes acceptable

knowledge in a field of study.

Positivism relates to the philosophical stance of thenatural scientist. This entails working with an observable

social reality and the end product can be law-likegeneralisations similar to those in the physical and naturalsciences.

The essence of realism is that objects have an existence

independent of the human mind.Interpretivism is an epistemology that advocates that it isnecessary for the researcher to understand the subjectivemeaning of social action. 41


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Summary

Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about values.

Pragmatism holds that the most important

determinant of the epistemology, ontology andaxiology adopted is the research question .

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References

Gay, L. R. Mills, G. E. and Airasian. P. W. (2008).Educational Research: Competencies for Analysisand Applications. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

Saunders, M. Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012).Research Methods for Business Students. Harlow:Prentice Hall. Chapter 3.Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2011) Business Researchmethods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter4 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43

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Lecture 3 Understanding Research Philosophy