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introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 11
Lecture 2
Stars: Color and Spectrum
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 1
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2.1 - Solar spectrum
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2.1 - Solar spectrum (as detected on Earth)
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Wavelength[m]
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Light spectrum from atomic transitions
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Theexcitedatomseventuallyemitphotonsandtheelectronsreturntolowerenergyorbitals.Inhydrogen,transi)onstothegroundstate(n=1)yielddiscretelightenergies(lines)namedLymantransi-ons.Transi)onstothefirstexcitedstate(n=2)yieldBalmerlines.
Inahotgas,atomscollideandatomictransi-onsoccur,withelectronsbeingpromotedtohigherorbits.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 8
Emission and absorption lines
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LookingatthelightemiRedbystarsasafunc)onofthewavelength(emissionspectrum),onecaniden)fyspecifictransi)onsincertainatoms,suchasthen=3ton=2transi)oninhydrogen(alphaline).
ButsincelightisemiRedbyseveralatomsinnumerouselectronictransi)ons,itiseasiertodetectabsorp-onlines.Aslightpropagatesthroughthestellaratmosphere,itisabsorbedbyhydrogenatomsandtheintensityisseenreducedatthosewavelengths.
Measuring accurate Te for ~102 or 103 stars is intensive task – spectra are needed and also model of atmospheres. Magnitudes of stars are measured at different wavelengths: standard system is UBVRI
Band U B V R I λ[nm] 365 445 551 658 806
Color-magnitude diagrams
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One has to model stellar spectra at different temperature, e.g., Te = 40,000, 30,000, 20,000 K, to obtain a function f(Te)) so that B - V = f(Te) It amounts in separating the flux into different wavelength bands, finding the wavelength for maximum strength and finding temperature which fits that. Various calibrations can be used to provide the color relation B - V = f(Te)
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Magnitudes and Temperatures
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Calibration of spectral types.
Magnitudes and Temperatures
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Color of stars
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Astronomerscorrelatethecolorindexwiththeeffec)vesurfacetemperatureofastar.TheHRdiagram(next)isaplotoftheluminosityofastarorthebolometricmagnitude(totalenergyemiRedbyastar)versusitssurfacetemperature,oritscolorindex.
Colorsofstarsarecomplextodefine.StarcolorindicesweredefinedbyusingtheresponseofphotographicplateswithbandwidthsspanningtheUltraviolet,BlueandVisual(UBV)spectra.ThecolorindexistheBluemagnitudeminustheVisualmagnitude,wherethemagnitudeisgivenbyEq.(1.10).Hence,hotstarsarecharacterizedbysmall,infactnega)ve,colorindexwhilecoldstarshavelargecolorindex.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 13
Color of stars
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 13
Ingeneral,aspectralclassifica)on O,B,A,F,G,K,M
with1–10subgroupsisused(Sun:G2),whichisactuallypreRywellcorrelatedtothetemperature.OstarsarethehoRestandtheleRersequenceindicatessuccessivelycoolerstarsuptothecoolestMclass.AusefulmnemonicforrememberingthespectraltypeleRersis“OhBeAFineGirl/GuyKissMe”.Informally,Ostarsarecalled“blue”,B“blue–white”,Astars“white”,Fstars“yellow–white”,Gstars“yellow”,Kstars“orange”,andMstars“red”,eventhoughtheactualstarcolorsperceivedbyanobservermaydeviatefromthesecolorsdependingonvisualcondi)onsandindividualstarsobserved.
B F G K
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2.2 - The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
Thisdiagramshowstypicalmethodsusedbyastronomerstoinferstellarproper)essuchassurfacetemperature,distance,luminosityandradii.
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
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The first is known as the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram or the color-magnitude diagram.
M, R, L and T do not vary independently. There are two major relationships – L with T – L with M
L = 4πR2σTeff4 (2.1)From the Stefan-Boltzmann law
Astarcanincreaseluminositybyeitheruppingtheradiusorthetemperature.Withtheradiusconstant,theluminosityversustemperatureinalog–logdiagramisastraightline(mainsequence):log(L)=constant.log(Teff).
• Starsthathavethesameluminosityasdimmermainsequencestars,butaretothelegofthem(hoRer)ontheHRdiagram,havesmallersurfaceareas(smallerradii).
• Bright,coolstarsareverylarge(RedGiants)andlieabovethemainsequenceline.
• Starsthatareveryhotandyets)lldimmusthavesmallsurfaceareas(whitedwarfs)andliebelowthemainsequence.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 16
42eT RL∝Stefan-Boltzmann law shows that L correlates with T
à Hertzprung-Russell’s idea of plotting L vs. T and find a path in the diagram where some information about R could be found à discovery of main sequence stars (large majority of stars along the shaded band).
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 17
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram (HRD)
Color Index (B-V) –0.6 0 +0.6 +2.0 Spectral type O B A F G K M
TheHRDhasbeenpopulatedwithobserva)onsof22,000starsobtainedwiththeHipparcossatelliteand1,000fromtheGliesecatalogueofnearbystars.
The HRD catalogue
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 18
TheastronomerWilhelmGliesepublishedin1957hisfirststarcatalogueofnearlyonethousandstarslocatedwithin20parsecs(65ly)ofEarth.
Hipparcos,waslaunchedin1989bytheEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA),whichoperatedun)l1993.
wikipedia
Forthefewmain-sequencestarsforwhichmassesareknown,thereisaMass-luminosityrela6on. wheren=3-4.Theslopechangesatextremes,lesssteepforlowandhighmassstars.
Thisimpliesthatthemain-sequence(MS)ontheHRDisafunc)onofmassi.e.fromboTomtotopofmain-sequence,starsincreaseinmass WemustunderstandtheM-Lrela)on
andL-Terela)ontheore)cally.Modelsmustreproduceobserva)ons.
Mass-luminosity relation
nM L ∝
Equa)on(2.2)onlyappliestoMSstarswith2<M<20M¤anddoesnotapplytoredgiantsorwhitedwarfs.
Forstarsbiggerthan20M¤,onefindsL~M.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 19
(2.2)
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Lifetime-Mass relation
τ ~ M −2 −M −3 for M < 20 M⊗
τ ~ const for M >> 20 M⊗
Ifaconsiderablemassfrac)onofastarisconsumedinstellarevolu)on,thenthelife)meofastarisgivenby
Mass(M¤) Life-me(years)
Spectraltype
60 3million O3
30 11million O7
10 32million B4
3 370million A5
1.5 3billion F5
1 10billion G2(Sun)
0.1 1000sbillion M7
τ ~ M / L (2.3)
(2.4)
M¤=Sun’smass
There are two other fundamental properties of stars that we can measure – age (time t) and chemical composition (X, Y, Z). Composition parameterized with the notation: X = mass fraction of hydrogen H Y = mass fraction of helium He Z = mass fraction of all other elements e.g., for the Sun: X¤ = 0.747 ; Y¤ = 0.236 ; Z¤ = 0.017 Note: Z is often referred to as metallicity We would like to study stars of same age and same chemical composition – to keep these parameters constant and determine how models reproduce the other observables.
Age and Metallicity relation
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Weobservestarclusters• Starsallatsamedistance• Dynamicallybound• Sameage• Samechemicalcomposi)onCancontain103–106stars
Star clusters
Star cluster known as the Pleiades
Openclustersarelooselyboundbymutualgravita)onalaRrac)onanddisruptbycloseencounterswithotherclustersandcloudsofgas.Openclusterssurviveforafewhundredmillionyears.Themoremassiveglobularclustersareboundbyastrongergravita)onalaRrac)onandcansurviveformanybillionsofyears.
• Inclusters,tandZmustbesameforallstars
• HencedifferencesmustbeduetoM
• ClusterHRD(orcolor-magnitude)diagramsarequitesimilar–agedeterminesoverallappearance
Globular clusters
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Thedifferencesareinterpretedduetoage–openclusterslieinthediskoftheMilkyWayandhavelargerangeofages.Globularclustersareallancient,withtheoldesttracingtheearlieststagesoftheforma)onofMilkyWay(≈12×109yrs).
Globular vs. Open clusters
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 24
Globular Open • MSturn-offpointsinsimilarposi)on.GiantbranchjoiningMS
• HorizontalbranchfromgiantbranchtoabovetheMSturn-offpoint
• HorizontalbranchogenpopulatedonlywithvariableRRLyraestars(periodicvariablestars-theprototypeofsuchastarisintheconstella)onLyra)
• MSturnoffpointvariesmassively,faintestisconsistentwithglobulars
• MaximumluminosityofstarscangettoMv≈-10
• Verymassivestarsfoundintheseclusters.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 25
Doppler Shift in Sound
If the source of sound is moving, the pitch changes.
Doppler Shift in Light Shift in wavelength is Δλ = λ – λo = λov/c λ is the observed (shifted)
wavelength λo is the emitted wavelength v is the source velocity c is the speed of light
Δλ = λ -λ0 = λ0v / c(2.5)
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Redshift and Blueshift • Observed increase in
wavelength is called a redshift
• Decrease in observed wavelength is called a blueshift
• Doppler shift is used to determine an object’s velocity
• Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) and colleagues § measured the spectra (light) of many galaxies § found nearly all galaxies are red-shifted
• Redshift (z)
z = λobserved -λrestλrest
=vc
(2.6)
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 27
Hubble’s Law
Hubble’s data
distance to galaxy
Rec
essi
onal
vel
ocity
v = H0 d
H0 ~ 70 km/s/Mpc
(2.7)
Hubble found the amount of redshift depends upon the distance
• the farther away (d), the greater the redshift (v)
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 28
Cosmological Redshift Universe expands à redshift. The wavelengths get more stretched.
Size of the Universe when the light was emitted.
Size of the Universe now, when we observe the light.
• Distances between galaxies are increasing uniformly.
• There is no need for a center of the universe.
The expansion of the Universe
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 29
Looking Back in Time • It takes time for light to reach us: (a) c = 300,000 km/s, (b) We see things “as they were” some time ago.
• The farther away, the further back in time we are looking – 1 billion ly means looking 1 billion years back in time.
• The greater the redshift, the further back in time – redshift of 0.1 is 1.4 billion ly which means we are looking 1.4 billion years
into the past.
But distance = velocity x time. The time is how long the expansion has been going on à The Age of the Universe) à
All galaxies are moving away from each other à in the past all galaxies were closer to each other.
All the way back in time, it would mean that everything started out at the same point - then began expanding. This starting time is called the Big Bang.
The age of the Universe can be calculated using Hubble’s Law à v = H0 d d = v /H0
tUniverse =1/H0 (2.8)
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Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
This radiation should be cosmologically redshifted - mostly into microwave region – about 2.75 K
As Universe expanded its temperature decreased and so did the temperature of the radiation.
Twenty years after its prediction, it was found by Penzias and Wilson in 1964, for which they got Nobel prize. It is incredibly uniform across sky and the spectrum follows incredibly close to Planck’s blackbody radiation spectrum.
Above: how the sky looks at T=2.7 K. Right: distribution of radiation as a function of wavelength measure by the COBE satellite compared to blackbody radiation for T=2.7 K.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 31
CMB Anisotropies ShortlyagertheCMBwasdiscoveredonerealizedthatthereshouldbeangularvaria)onsintemperature,asaresultofdensityinhomogenei)esintheUniverse.
ThedenserregionscausetheCMBphotonstobegravita)onallyredshigedcomparedtophotonsarisinginlessdenseregions.
TheamplitudeoftheTfluctua)onsisroughly1/3ofthedensityfluctua)ons.
As)mepassed,overdenseregionsbecamegravita)onallyunstableandcollapsedtoformgalaxies,clustersofgalaxiesandallotherstructuresweseeintheUniversetoday.
FromtheobservedCMBangularanisotropiesintemperature,itisstraight-forwardtoderivewhatdensityfluctua)onscreatedthem.
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 32
Figure: temperature fluctuations as measured by the satellite Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP).
CMB Anisotropy
The fluctuations in temperature are at a level of 10-5 T, and difficult to measure – first detection was in 1992. The angular distribution of the temperature fluctuations are expanded in terms of spherical harmonics (any regular function of θ and φ can be expanded in spherical harmonics)
ΔTT(θ,ϕ ) =
l=0
∞
∑m=−l
l
∑ almYlm (θ,ϕ ) (2.10)
where the sum runs over l = 1, 2, . . .∞ and m = − 1, . . . , 1, giving 2l +1 values of m for each l.
The spherical harmonics are orthonormal functions on the sphere, so that
Ylm (θ ,ϕ )∫ Y *l 'm ' (θ ,ϕ )dΩ = δll 'δmm '
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CMB Anisotropy
Summing over the m corresponding to the same multipole number l we have the closure relation
Ylm (θ ,ϕ )m=−l
l
∑2
=2l +14π
Since alm represent a deviation from the average temperature, their expectation value is zero, < alm > = 0 , and the quantity we want to calculate is the variance < |alm|2 > to get a prediction for the typical size of the alm. The isotropic nature of the random process shows up in the alm so that these expectation values depend only on l not m. (The l are related to the angular size of the anisotropy pattern, whereas the m are related to “orientation” or “pattern”.)
The brackets < > mean an average over all observers in the Universe. The absence of a preferred direction in the Universe implies that the coefficients
2lma are independent of m.
This allows us to calculate the multipole coefficients alm from
alm = Ylm*∫ θ ,ϕ( )ΔTT θ ,ϕ( )dΩ
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 34
CMB Anisotropy
The different alm are independent random variables, so that
alma*lm = δlmδl 'm 'Cl
The function Cl (of integers l ≥ 1) is called the angular power spectrum.
Cl ≡ alm2=
12l +1
alm2
m∑ (2.11)
Since < |alm|2 > is independent of m, we can define
Inserting Eq. (2.11) in Eq. (2.10), one gets
ΔTT
θ ,φ( )"
#$
%
&'
2
= almYlm θ ,φ( ) a *l 'm ' Y*l 'm ' θ ,φ( )
l 'm '∑
lm∑
= Ylm θ ,φ( )mm '∑ Y *
l 'm ' θ ,φ( ) alma *l 'm 'll '∑
= Cll∑ Ylm θ ,φ( )
m∑
2=
2l +14πl
∑ Cl ≈l (l +1)2π∫ Cl d ln l
(2.12)
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 35
CMB Anisotropy In the last step the approximation (valid for large values of l) is the reason why instead of Cl one often uses l(l +1)2π
Cl
Thus, if we plot (2l + 1)Cl /4π on a linear l scale, or l(2l + 1)Cl /4π on a logarithmic l scale, the area under the curve gives the temperature variance, i.e., the expectation value for the squared deviation from the average temperature. It has become customary to plot the angular power spectrum as l(l + 1)Cl /2π, which is neither of these, but for large l approximates the second case.
(2.13)
introduc)ontoAstrophysics,C.Bertulani,TexasA&M-Commerce 36
CMB Anisotropy The different multipole numbers l correspond to different angular scales, low l to large scales and high l to small scales. Examination of the functions Ylm(θ, φ) reveals that they have an oscillatory pattern on the sphere, so that there are typically l “wavelengths” of oscillation around a full great circle of the sphere. Thus the angle corresponding to this wavelength is The angle corresponding to a “half-wavelength”, i.e., the separation between a neighboring minimum and maximum is then This is the angular resolution required of the microwave detector for it to be able to resolve the angular power spectrum up to this l. For example, COBE had an angular resolution of 70 allowing a measurement up To l = 180/7 = 26, WMAP had resolution 0.230 reaching to l = 180/0.23 = 783.
ϑλ =2πl=3600
l
ϑ res =πl=1800
l