Lecture 2: European Imperialism and the

Ottoman Empire

Lecture Plan:• Background: Ottoman governance• Ottoman Decline & ‘defensive modernisation’• ‘Westernisation’ & impact on post-independence politics• Conclusion: politico-economic transition and contemporary problems

Ottoman Empire in 1856

Ottoman Empire in 1914

Ottoman Governance

1350-1918: Multi-national, -linguistic, -religious empire:o Majorities: Christians in Balkans, Turks in Anatolia, Arabic-speakers

in Fertile Crescent, Egypt & N. Africa Mosaic society: autonomous religious millets; family/tribal

fragmentation; regional decentralisation Unifying ideology: Islam (Caliphate) & Empire Sultan-Caliph: Islamic legitimation; absolute ruler; central

function: guarantor of justice (’adala); consultatitve Diwan; Grand-Vizier; firman (edicts); tax-farming; mamluk army

Elites' int’l origins: Greeks/bureaucracy, Christian-origin Mamluks (slave soldiers); Turkish landed elite

Ottoman Decline

• European pressure + internal tension re-orientation of political/economic structures

• Declining economic base of empire:– Western economic penetration: loss of trade routes, decline

of traditional industries, growing debt to Western capital markets ( states)

• European military pressure (Rus, Aus, UK, Fra)• Internal disintegrative pressures (e.g. Egypt): • Nationalism among Christian minorities in Balkans

(cf. European trends)

European Imperialism:

Creeping Conquest and Occupation• piecemeal dismemberment of Arabic-speaking realms

by British & French over 100 years: – Algeria (1830) and Egypt (1882), to the post-WWI

establishment of Mandates in the Fertile Crescent

• Settler Colonialism: Palestine & Algeria– European settlement uproots & peripherizes native

populations, subordinates & transforms remnants of traditional indigenous societies

• Indirect control: – Egypt, Suez Canal, bankruptcy & Dual Control

Ottoman Decline & Defensive Modernisation

Reforms (Tanzimat): strengthen without disrupting traditional order: mil.-bur. modernisation/centralisation, defend borders, ensure tax collection

o Consitutionalism: limit Sultan's power; create politically aware population with rights, giving a stake in society & its defence

o secular law: Islam seen as divisive & obstacle to modernisationo military: conscription, taxation & standing armyo nationalism: empire weak for lack of shared sense of nationhood

Consequences:o Rise of new middle class: reform requires Western-style education/professions,

Western ideas of modernisation, nationalist, democracy among new middle class.o Split in Ottoman elite: reformists (modern military, bureaucrats) struggle with

traditionalists (military, religious, warlords)o military: early moderniser/nationalists: first Western-educated, mission of border

defence à nationalists wanting a strong empire o Problem of Identity: which 'national' identity could unite the empire?

• Ottomanism (Muslim elite, not masses/minorities), Islamic revival (antagonises secular middle class & Christians linked to West), Linguistic nationalism (e.g. pan-Turkism alienates Arabs)

Ataturk and Mehmet AliTurkey:• WWI Collapse of Ottoman Empire

– Ataturk a military hero, member of CUP/‘Young Turks’• Nationalism: mobilises Turks against W designs on Anatolia

– External threat + half a century of nationalism 'arouses sleeping Turkish nation’

• Secular Turkish republic based on – i. ethnicity & language, and ii. territory (Anatolia)

• Economic independence through statist modernisation• Political dilemmas:

– 'democrats' vs. authoritarian-nationalists: ‘democracy’ would empower traditional leaders (since 'the people' remain too traditional)

– Turkification alienates Arabs reinforces early Arabism

Egypt: Mehmet Ali / Muhammad Ali:– Standing army conscription economic reform bur. centralisation– Nationalist ‘gel’ Egyptian nationalism

Imposition of a Western-Style State System

• WWI: fragmentation into many small states– Hussein-MacMahon (1915-16), Sykes-Picot (1916), Balfour

Declaration (1917), Treaty of Sevres (1920)• Artificiality:

– some have traditional roots consolidated by ‘state system’: Egypt, Yemen, but …

– others are artificial, e.g. protectorate over Kuwait & dismemberment of Syria (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan)

• Consequences: instability– Division: military-political weakness of small feuding states– Irredentism: discontent w/ 'artificial' boundaries Arab

nationalism aims to unite: one nation, one state (cf. European nationalism)

Economics & ‘Modernisation’

• Incorporation of local economy into global capital as periphery – export raw materials, import manufactured goods:– Capital accumulation difficult

• commercial agriculture for export (e.g. Egypt's cotton)– Financial vulnerability & revenue fluctuations hard to plan

• Modernisation: spread of urbanisation, infrastructure, education, limited industrialisation– traditional artisan industries undermined by W mass production– Decline of traditional middle classes, income polarisation

• (later) exploitation of local oil reserves, owned by W MNCs• Conclusion

– Econ: Difficulties of ‘development’– Pol: territorialisation ‘internal’ tensions (Plaestine, Kurds)

ConclusionEuropean modernity: economic & technological (industrial revolution) +

cultural-political (nationalism, centralisation)• Economics: Industrial Revolution economic initiative with

Europe Ottoman decline & European penetration• Ideology: strong impact of European ideologies: nationalism

perceived as source of unity and therefore strength increasingly popular; Islam (at times perceived as obstacle) later radicalises under continued Western dominance

• Strategic: Industrial Revolution European military technology & production capabilities > Ottoman shifting power balance

• Postcoloniality: imperialism (divide et impera strategy) + economics (new economic system & classes) creates internal divisions which cause post-independence instability ('weak' or 'unfinished' states, artificial liable to collapse)

(Cf. Ottoman Empire: hybrid, parallel governance)