LECTURE #11: Westward Expansion

(1835-1860)

Presented byDerrick J. Johnson, MPA, JD

Advanced Placement United States History

School for Advanced Studies

Manifest Destiny The idea of manifest destiny fueled the

continued American expansion westward. Beginning in 1830s, some began to

express the view that it was “God’s plan” that America expand beyond the Mississippi River.

By 1845, most political leaders and Protestant organizations openly supported manifest destiny.

Many challenges would arise in opposition to this vision. Americans would have to deal with Great Britain who was actively disputing control of the Oregon territory.

Manifest Destiny “Fifty four or fight” became the rallying

cry to take over all of the Oregon Territory from Great Britain. It would not be until the Oregon Treaty of 1846 that Great Britain would give most of the territory to the Americans.

The California territory was controlled by Spain, and it also attracted the attention of American settlers.

The future of expansion in Oregon and California were key issues in the 1844 presidential election.

The Texas Incident

The westward expansion philosophy of the United States would eventually come into conflict with Mexico’s expansionist goals.

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 and it was encouraging economic development of its Northern province of Texas.

The Mexican Government agreed to welcome and encourage American settlers into Texas to help develop the province. The government gave the settlers large tracts of land for less than nothing. In exchange, the settlers would agree to become Mexican citizens.

These settlers numbered nearly 30,000 by 1836.

The Texas Incident

Many of these settlers did not fulfill their obligations to the Mexican Government, which caused the Mexicans to reassert control over the province. In 1836, the settlers revolted against the Mexican Government.

On March 2, 1836, the settlers declared that Texas was an independent nation and they created a new constitution which legalized slavery.

This enraged the Mexico Government, who sent 3,000 troops to the Alamo to send a message to the settlers. On March 6, 1836, the Mexican army defeated 165 Texan settlers. Among the dead included Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie.

The Texas Incident

The defeat of the settlers at the Alamo became a rallying cry for revenge on Mexico. “Remember the Alamo!” was the battle cry. As a result, many American adventurers, eager for land poured into Texas and helped the Texans to defeat the Mexican army on April 21, 1836.

An independent Republic of Texas was formed. Its first president would be Sam Houston, the general who led the army to defeat the Mexicans.

The Texas Incident Most Texans wanted to join the United

States. In some of his last speeches as president, Andrew Jackson expressed approval of the idea.

However, the Whigs opposed the admittance of Texas in the union because of the legalization of slavery.

The Election of 1844

At the start of the 1844 Presidential Election, it became quite clear that John Tyler had become a “president without a party.” His anti national bank, pro slavery and Texas annexation stances put him at odds with the Whig Party. Instead, the Whigs would select former Secretary of State, Henry Clay, to be the Whig Party nominee.

Because slavery was allowed in Texas, many northerners were opposed to the annexation. Leading the northern wing of the Democratic Party, former president Martin Van Buren opposed immediate annexation.

The Election of 1844

John C. Calhoun led the pro slavery and pro-annexation wing of the Democratic Party.

The dispute between Calhoun and Van Buren caused the Democratic convention to deadlock, and after hours of wrangling, the Democrats nominated a dark horse candidate, Speaker of the House James Knox Polk of Tennessee.

The Election of 1844 Polk was a protégée of Andrew Jackson who

firmly believed in the annexation of Texas, California, Oregon and Westward expansion. He would be the first presidential candidate to make manifest destiny the center of his campaign.

Clay, tried to straddle the controversial issue of Texas annexation by saying he was first against it, and then he was for it. This turned out to be a massive blunder, that cost Clay support in New York state. Abolitionist support went to the anti slavery Liberty Party candidate, James Birney, instead of Clay, which allowed Polk to emerge the winner of New York’s electoral vote.

The Election of 1844

Polk would go on to defeat Clay with “170” electoral votes (1,339,494 popular votes) to Clay’s “105” electoral votes (1,300,004 popular votes).

The Democrats interpreted the election as a mandate to add Texas to the Union.

President James Knox Polk Born: November 2, 1795 Died: June 15, 1849 Term in Office: (1845-1849) Political Party: Democratic

The James Knox Polk Presidency

The James K. Polk PresidencyThe Polk Cabinet

Office Name Term

President James K. Polk 1845–1849

Vice President George M. Dallas 1845–1849

Secretary of State James Buchanan 1845–1849

Secretary of Treasury Robert J. Walker 1845–1849

Secretary of War William L. Marcy 1845–1849

Attorney General

John Y. Mason 1845–1846

Nathan Clifford 1846–1848

Isaac Toucey 1848–1849

Postmaster General Cave Johnson 1845–1849

Secretary of the NavyGeorge Bancroft 1845–1846John Y. Mason 1846–1849

The James K. Polk Presidency

Supreme Court Appointments by President Polk

Levi Woodbury – 1845Robert Cooper Grier – 1846

States Admitted to the Union

Texas – December 29, 1845Iowa – December 28, 1846Wisconsin – May 29, 1848

Texas Annexation Outgoing U.S. President John Tyler

focused most of his attention on annexing Texas.

He saw the election of Polk as a signal to push the annexation of Texas through Congress.

Instead of seeking Senate approval through a treaty, he push through an annexation resolution which only required a simple majority vote of both Houses of Congress. Tyler would leave the question of the Mexican Government’s reaction to the annexation of Texas to be answered by his successor, Polk.

Boundary Dispute in Maine

In the 1840s, there was a boundary dispute between the Canadian province of New Brunswick and Maine.

Canada was still under the control of Great Britain, which was considered, by many Americans, to be the United States greatest threat.

A conflict between rival groups of lumbermen erupted into full fledge fighting and it later became known as the “Battle of the Maps.”

The conflict was resolved in 1842, with the Webster-Ashburn Treaty in which the disputed territory was split by Maine & Canada.

Boundary Dispute in Oregon A far more serious British-American dispute involved

Oregon on the Pacific Coast. The Oregon Territory stretched all the way to Alaska,

and it was originally disputed by Spain, Russia, Britain and the United States.

The British based their claim on the Hudson Fur Company’s profitable fur trade with the Native Americans of the Columbia River and the fact that about a thousand British citizens were living in the northern part of the territory.

The United States based its claim on the following: The discovery of the Columbia River by Captain

Robert Gray in 1792. The Lewis and Clark expedition of 1805. The fur trading post and fort in Astoria, Oregon,

established by John Jacob Astor in 1811.

Boundary Dispute in Oregon President Polk decided to down play the heated

rhetoric of his party and to seek a peaceful resolution with Britain over the territory. Polk was willing to settle for the southern half of the territory and allow Britain to take the part of the territory that was above the 49th Parallel. In addition, British and American diplomats negotiated that Britain would maintain the rights to navigate the Columbian River and maintain control over Vancouver Island.

In 1846, the treaty was submitted to the Senate for ratification. Most Northerners saw the treaty as a sellout proposal because they would be giving up Canada as a potential new territory to join the union. However, war had broken out with Mexico, and fearing a two front war with Mexico and Great Britain, senate opponents reluctantly voted to ratify the treaty.

Mexican-American War

Relations with Mexico was extremely strained by 1846.

Patriots in Mexico were outraged when Texas joined the United States, as they still considered Texas to be a part of Mexico.

Many in the United States, including President Polk, believed that it was America’s mission to occupy the lands all that the way to the Pacific Ocean.

Mexican-American War President Polk did as much as he could to

provoke a war with Mexico. His actions included: Encouraging American settlers in Mexico to

occupy territory all the way to the Rio Grande River, which many Mexicans considered to be outside the territory of Texas (Mexico considered the Nueces River, north of the Rio Grande, as the border between Texas and the rest of Mexico).

Offering to buy territory from Mexico that would expand all the way to California for $25 million. The Mexican Government was insulted and they refused to even receive John Slidell, U.S. diplomat. When Polk learned of their refusal he sent word to the officials stationed in California to let Americans and Mexicans living there that if they rose in opposition to the Mexican Government, the American army would protect them.

Mexican-American War

In late 1845, Polk sent American naval and infantry forces into California.

In early 1846, Polk sent an American force commanded by General Zachary Taylor to defend the Mexican-American border territory. Part of this force was ambushed by the Mexican army.

Mexican-American War

As a result of the Mexican army’s ambush, Congress issued a declaration of war against Mexico on May 13, 1846. This was the second time Congress invoked its war powers under Article I, section 8, clause 11 of the constitution.

Shortly after the Congress declaration of war, settlers rose up in revolt and they supported the American troops led by John Fremont.

On July 4, 1846, the Bear Flag Republic of California declared its independence.

Mexican-American War

American troops made an assault on central Mexico as well. General Zachary Taylor led American forces within Mexico, and he easily defeated Mexican forces in several battles in 1846 and 1847.

Polk demanded their surrender and the Mexican Government refused. Polk then sent General Winfield Scott to Mexico, in March of 1847, to occupy Mexico City. On September 13, 1847, Scott’s troops entered Mexico City and took control. However, the Mexicans staged a guerilla war against Scott’s forces well into 1848.

Mexican-American War Many Whigs objected to the war because they

saw it as a ruse to expand slavery in American territories. However, the war was very popular with the American people.

In 1846, Pennsylvanian Democrat David Wilmot introduced an Amendment to a bill authorizing funding for the Mexican-American War that stated that slavery could not exist in any territory acquired from Mexico. The Wilmot proviso was passed by the House of Representatives, but it was rejected several times by the Senate.

Mexican-American War The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on

February 2, 1848 and it ended the war. The Treaty did the following: Purchased California, New Mexico, and the

Texas territory north of the Rio Grande from the Mexicans for $15 million. Thus increasing the size of the U.S. by one-third.

The U.S. agreed to assume all claims against the Mexican Government.

Proponents of the war saw it being too generous to the Mexicans. Furthermore, many supporters in the South also supported expansion of slavery into the new territories.

Opponents of the war saw the treaty as a power grab for the expansion of slavery.

Polk decides to continue the line drawn by the Missouri Compromise out to the Pacific Ocean in order to avert a heated debate.

The Cuban Incident

During the 1840s, President Polk attempted to purchase Cuba from Spain for $100 million, but Spain refused too sell the last major remnant of its once glorious empire.

Several Southern adventurers led small expeditions to Cuba in an effort to take the island by force. These forays often failed, and those who were caught were executed.

The Election of 1848

The 1848 presidential election started off very awkwardly. Both the Democratic and Whig Parties said very little about slavery during the campaigns.

James Polk, having achieved all of his major objectives in one term and suffering from declining health that would take his life less than four months after leaving office decided not to seek re-election. The Democrats, instead, nominated Senator Lewis Cass to be their party’s nominee.

The Election of 1848 The Democrats had a record of victory, peace,

prosperity, and the acquisition of both Oregon and the Southwest; they appeared almost certain winners unless the Whigs picked a war hero, like General Zachary Taylor.

Taylor was reluctant at first, but eventually he decided to run for office. While he did promise no more future wars, he did not condemn the war or criticize Polk, and Whigs had to follow his lead.

The choice of Taylor was almost in desperation as he was not clearly committed to Whig principles, but he was popular for leading the war effort.

The Election of 1848

Some Liberty Party members and defectors from the Whig and Democratic Parties formed the Free Soil Party, which opposed the expansion of slavery into the new territories. They nominated former President Martin Van Buren as their nominee.

Taylor won the presidency, defeating Cass and Van Buren, with 163 electoral votes (1,361,393 popular votes) to Cass and Van Buren’s 127 electoral votes (1,223,460 popular votes) and 0 electoral votes (291,501 popular votes), respectively.

President Zachary Taylor Born: November 24, 1784 Died: July 9, 1850 Term in Office: (1849-1850) Political Party: Whig

The Zachary Taylor Presidency

The Zachary Taylor Presidency

The Taylor Cabinet

Office Name Term

President Zachary Taylor 1849–1850

Vice President Millard Fillmore 1849–1850

Secretary of State John M. Clayton 1849–1850

Secretary of Treasury William M. Meredith 1849–1850

Secretary of War George W. Crawford 1849–1850

Attorney General Reverdy Johnson 1849–1850

Postmaster General Jacob Collamer 1849–1850

Secretary of the Navy William B. Preston 1849–1850

Secretary of the Interior Thomas Ewing, Sr. 1849–1850

The Zachary Taylor Presidency

Supreme Court Appointments by President Taylor

None

States Admitted to the Union

None

California Dreaming In 1848, gold was discovered in California. In

1849, 80,000 “forty-niners” came to California in the great gold rush. Zachary Taylor also contributed to the notion of westward expansion by encouraging settlers in California and New Mexico territories to apply for statehood.

The issue of slavery consumed the majority of Taylor’s time in office. By the end of 1849, California had adopted a constitution prohibiting slavery and New Mexico did the same six months later.

Taylor proposed acceptance of the territories applications with the prohibition of slavery proviso. This proposal to allow California to enter the union as a non-slave state infuriated many southerners, which led to a convention being called for representatives of Southern states to come together and discuss leaving the Union.

Southern Insurrection Threat

Although he owned slaves on his plantation in Louisiana, Taylor took a moderate stance on the territorial expansion of slavery, angering fellow Southerners.

He told them that if necessary to enforce the laws, he personally would lead the Army and any person "taken in rebellion against the Union, he would hang ... with less reluctance than he had hanged deserters and spies in Mexico." He never wavered.

Henry Clay work with Taylor and other statesmen, like Stephen A. Douglas, to defuse the situation. Clay proposed a complex version of the Compromise of 1850. However, an unexpected event would occur which would change the course of the debate.

Death of A President

On July 4, 1850, after watching a groundbreaking ceremony for the Washington Monument during the Independence Day celebration, Taylor sought refuge from the oppressive heat by consuming a pitcher of milk and a bowl of cherries.

At about 10:00 in the morning on July 9, 1850, very ill, Taylor called his wife to him and asked her not to weep, saying: "I have always done my duty, I am ready to die. My only regret is for the friends I leave behind me." Upon his sudden death on July 9, the cause was listed as gastroenteritis.

Death of A President Taylor would become the second U.S.

President to die in office, and upon his death, Millard Fillmore would become the second sitting Vice-President to assume the office of the presidency.

President Millard Fillmore Born: January 7, 1800 Died: March 8, 1874 Term in Office: (1850-1853) Political Party: Whig

The Millard Fillmore Presidency

The Millard Fillmore Presidency

The Fillmore Cabinet

Office Name Term

President Millard Fillmore 1850–1853

Vice President None 1850–1853

Secretary of State Daniel Webster 1850–1852

Edward Everett 1852–1853

Secretary of Treasury Thomas Corwin 1850–1853

Secretary of War Charles M. Conrad 1850–1853

Attorney General John J. Crittenden 1850–1853

Postmaster General Nathan K. Hall 1850–1852

Samuel D. Hubbard 1852–1853

Secretary of the Navy William A. Graham 1850–1852

John P. Kennedy 1852–1853

Secretary of the Interior Thomas M. T. McKennan 1850

Alexander H. H. Stuart 1850–1853

The Millard Fillmore Presidency

Supreme Court Appointments by President Taylor

Benjamin Robbins Curtis – 1851

States Admitted to the Union

California – September 9, 1850

The Compromise of 1850 On August 6, 1850, Fillmore sent a message to

Congress recommending that Texas be paid to abandon its claims to part of New Mexico. This, combined with his mobilization of 750 Federal troops to New Mexico, helped shift a critical number of northern Whigs in Congress away from their insistence upon the Wilmot Proviso—the stipulation that all land gained by the Mexican War must be closed to slavery.

Douglas's effective strategy in Congress combined with Fillmore's message to Congress gave momentum to the Compromise movement. He proposed the Compromise of 1850 which gave both sides some of what they wanted:

The Compromise of 1850 North

California could enter the union as a free state.

New Mexico and Utah could decide if they wanted to be slave states or free states.

Slave trading was eliminated in Washington, D.C.

 South Provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act was

strengthen Slavery, itself, could continue in the

territories. Congress would abdicate its authority to

regulate interstate slave trading. Fillmore had succeeded in postponing the

inevitable conflict between the North and South, but with the Election of 1852 and the growing tensions over the slavery, the country would nevertheless witness the union in a state of peril in the 1850’s.

THE END OF LECTURE #11