Leashing the Dogs of War - Maxwell School of Citizenship ......Conflict &solution began publication in 1957 and the Center for Research on Conflict . Reso lution . was . founded in

LEASHING THE DOGS OF WAR CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

IN A DIVIDED WORLD

Editedby ChesterA Crocker Fen Osler Hampson

andPamela Aa1

UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE PRESS Washington DC

Photographs used in this work courtesy ofAPWide World Photos Reprinted with permission

The views expressed in this book are those of the authors alone They do not necessarily reflect views of the United States Institute ofPeace

UNITED STATES INSTITUIE OF PEAcE 120017th Street NW Washington DC 20036

copygt 2007 by the Endowment of the United States Institute ofPeace All rights reserved For copyright and other information on prior publication ofall or part ofchapters 3 7 10 25 28 29 35 and 36 see the first entry in the Notes in those chapters

FUSt published 2007

Printed in the United States ofAmerica

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standards for Information Science-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials ANSI Z3948-1984

Library ofCongress Catalogiog-in-Publication Data Leashing the dogs ofwar conflict management in a divided world Chester A Crocker Fen

Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall editors pcm

Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13 978-1-929223-97-8 (alk paper) ISBN-10 1-929223-97-8 (alk paper) ISBN-13 978-1-929223-96-1 (pbk a1k paper) ISBN-10 1-929223-96-X (pbk a1k paper) 1 Peaceful change (International relations) 2 Conflict management 3 Security International

I Crocker Chester A II Hampson Fen Osler III Aall Pamela R JZ5538L4 2007 327172-dc22

2006027680

ADIA TOUVAL

md Victor Kreshytiating Forwardshy(Lanham Md

)sler Hampson Conflicts Mediashygtn DC United )

26 CONTEMPORARY

CONFLICT RESOLUTION APPLICATIONS

Louis Kriesberg

IT MlGHT SEEM OBVIOUS THAT IBE FIELD

ofconflict resolution at least for Amerishycans has little to contribute to countering

terrorist attacks against the United States or to

waging other internationalwars It seems wrong to negotiate with terrorists and evildoers with or without mediators Indeed people working in the conflict resolution field generally do not regard negotiation or mediation to be approshypriate between perpetrators ofa crime and their victims Furthermore it is true that conflict resolution practitioners advocates and theoshyrists tend to take a broader approach than they would as militant partisans ofone side which would seem to minimize their role in working with the US government in a state ofwar

In actuality however as the conflict resolushytion (CR) field has developed it offers many strategies and methods that are relevant for partisans in a fight as well as for intermedishyaries seeking to mitigate destructive conflicts The new developments in CR are largely reshysponses to the changing international envishyronment However they also build on ideas

from the early years of the field as well as inshynovations within the field developed as CR workers elaborate and differentiate their areas ofendeavor Furthermore those new developshyments themselves actually affect the way conshyflicts are waged in societies and in the internashytional system In this chapter the expanding and evolving CR field is depicted then its curshyrent basic features are presented after which the applications of CR ideas and practices to contemporary large-scale conflicts are examshyined and finally major current issues are disshycussed Throughout this chapter CR workers include academics diplomats workshop organshyizers and heads of adversarial organizations when they analyze the CR approach or witshytingly or unwittingly employ elements ofit

DEVELOPMENI OF THE CONFllCT ltF$OLUTION FIELD

Conflict resolution has many sources in pracshytice theory and research resulting in ongoing diversity and controversy-within the field Some

456 Loms KRIESBERG

of these sources are identified along with reshylated public events in chronological order in table 1The authors noted are from many areas of study including anthropology sociology psychology economics peace studies internashytional relations mathematics law and political science The applications are also to be found in many setting-s including industrial relations international diplomacy judicial proceedings military affairs and national struggles against injustice

Although this examination relates particushylarly to developments in North America and Europe since the 1950s the analysts and pracshytitioners in this field have drawn from censhyturies of religious thought social scientific analyses and innovative as well as traditional practices in societies around the world For exshyample nonviolent methods of struggle were used by Mohandas Gandhi in South Africa to oppose discrimination against Indians there and later in India against British rule Furthershymore as the CR developments in North Amershyica and Europe diffused into other regions those ideas were modified and adapted to local conditions Those adaptations and the knowlshyedge ofvarious traditional conflict resolution approaches in other societies also influenced the evolving CR approach in North America and Europe For example they helped raise recognition of the importance of relations beshytween adversaries and community assistance in mending ruptures in those relations1

The term conflict resolution began to be widely used in the mid-1950s referring to mutually acceptable ways ofending conflicts An early site for academic work that contribshyuted significantly to the fields emergence was the UniversityofMichigan where the]ournal ofConflict ampsolution began publication in 1957 and the Center for Research on Conflict Resoshylution was founded in 1959 2 Members ofthese organizations recognized that many conflicts were not to be resolved and hence thought the term conflict resolution was a misnomer but some disliked the term conflict management

with its connotations of manipulation even more In recent years the terms conflict transshyformation problem-solving conflict resolushytionconflict mitigationdispute settlement and principled negotiation have also been used often referring to particular arenas within the CR field

The diverse sources ofCR theory and pracshytice have had varying importance at different periods of CRs development as its areas of analysis and application expanded At the outshyset ofthe rapid growth ofthe field in the 1980s mediation and negotiation were the primary foci ofactivity Subsequently earlier stages in the conflict cycle became additional matters of attention particularly de-escalation and prepashyration to enter negotiations Soon attention also began to be given to CR at even earlier conflict stages preventing destructive escalashytion and fostering constructive escalation Most recently a great deal ofattention in the field has been given to postcombat and postsettleshyment concerns to implementing peace agreeshyments and building institutions to sustain peace The discussion here takes up each arena ofatshytention in that sequencemiddotnoting some of the many sources that contributed to them

Utilizing Negotiation and Mediation In the late 1970s and early 1980s work in the field began to gather momentum in many ways appearing to be a social movement3 The field was then highly focused on negotiation and mediation and their utilization in everyshyday domestic disputes 4 Training and practice grew particularly in what came to be called alshyternative dispute resolution (ADR) Operating in the shadow of the law community dispute resolution centers were established across the United States to handle interpersonal disputes Practitioners and theorists also applied the CR approach to a variety of organizational comshymunity and national conflicts for example reshylating to the environment and other public disputes5 Workers in the field drew on formal theories about maximizing mutually beneficial

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Table 1 Chronology ofPublications Developments and Events Relevant to Conflict Resolution

~~ramp~cl~i ~ l A-~ smiddot

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0 rt S OJ$ s I I JS I en

Institutiorud Developments in Conflict Resolution and

Year Publications Pertaining to Conflict Resolution Global Political EWllts

1942 M P Follett Dynamic Adminitration National War Labor Board established in United States QWrightA Study ofWar

1945 M K Gandhi Teachings ofMahatma Gandhi World War II ends

1947 US Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service established British sovereignty over India ends

1948 Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights adopted by the General Assembly ofthe United Nations signed

1956 L Coser The Functions ofSocial Conflict Successful ending of civil rights bus boycott in Montgomery Alabama

1957 K Deutsch et al Political Community and the North Atlantic Area journalofConflict Resolution begins publishing University ofMichigan Pugwash Conferences begin in Canada

1959 Center for Research on Conflict Resolution established University ofMichigan

International Peace Research Institute (PRIO) founded Oslo Norway

1960 L Richardson Statistics ofDeadly Quarrels Dartmouth Conferences begin T Schelling The Strategy ofConflict

1961 T F Lentz Towards a Science ofPeace

1962 K Boulding Conflict andDefense C E Osgood An Alternative to War rr Surrender

Cuban missile crisis

1964 Journal ofPeace Reseanh begins publishing based at PRIO International Peace Research Association founded

1965 A Rapoport and A Chammah The Prisoners Dilemma J W Burton and others organize problem-solving workshop with representatives from Malaysia Indonesia and Singapore

1966 M Sherif In Common Predicament

Continued

Table l Chronology ofPublications Developments and Events Relevant to Conflict Resolution (continued)

lnstltutlonal Developments in Conflict Resolutlon and Year Publicatlons Pertainingto Conflict Resolution Global Politlcal Efftlts

1968 Centre for Intergroup Studies established in Capetown South Africa

1969 J W Burton Conflict and Communication

1970 Peace Research Institute Frankfurt established in Germany

1971 A Curle Making Peace Department ofPeace and Conflict Research established at Uppsala Universitet Sweden

1972 J D Singer and M Small The Wages ofWar 1816--1965 Detente reached between Soviet Union and United States Treaty on the Limitation ofAnti-ballistic Missile Systems signed

1973 M Deutsch The Resolution ofConflict Department ofPeace Studies established University ofBradford Gene Sharp The Politics ofNrmviolentAction United Kingdom

Society ofProfessionals in Dispute Resolution (SPIDR) initiates conference

1975 Helsinki Fmal Act signed product ofthe Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe

1979 P H Gulliver Disputes andNegotiations A Cross-CulturalPerspective Egyptian-Israeli Treaty mediated by President J Carter Iranian revolution

1981 R Fisher and W Ury Getting to YES

1982 Carter Center established in Atlanta Georgia National Conference on Peacemaking and Conflict Resolution

(NCPCR) initiated in United States Search for Common Ground established in Washington DC United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea adopted

1984 R Axelrod The Ewlution ofCooperation United States Institute of Peace founded in Washington DC The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation initiates grant program

supporting conflict resolution theory and practice International Association for Conflict Management founded

1985 S Touval and I W Zartman eels International Mediation in TherJ1J andPractice

I W Zartman Ripefar ResolutionConflictandInterventiltm in Africa

The Network for CommunityJustice and Conflict Resolution established in Canada

1986 C W Moore The Mediation Process (1st ed) International Alert founded in London

1987 L Susskind and J Cruikshank Breaking the Impasse Consensual Approaches to Resolving Public Disputes

1989 K Kressel and D G Pruitt eels Mediation Research Berlin Wall falls H W van der Merwe Punuing]ustice andPeace in South Africa Partners for Democratic Change founded linking university-based L Kriesberg T A Northrup and SJ Thorson eels Intractable Conflicts centers in Sofia Prague Bratislava Budapest Warsaw and Moscow

and Their Transfarmatwn

1990 OJganimtion for Security and Cooperation in Europe 55-state institution originated with the Charter ofParis for a New Europe

Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations (ASEAN) begins informal workshops

1992 lnstituto Peruano de Resoluci6n de Conflictos Negociaci6n y Mecliaci6n (IPRECONM) established in Peru

1993 M H Ross The Management ofConflict PLO and Israel sign Declaration ofPrinciples European Union established

1994 D Johnston and C Sampson eels Religion the Missing Nelson Mandela elected president of South Africa Dimension ofStatecraft UN Security Council creates the International Criminal Tribunal

A Taylor and JB Miller eds Conflict and Gender for Rwanda

1995 J P Leclerach Preparingfor Peace US brokers end ofwar in Bosnia International Crisis Group established in Brussels

1996 F 0 Hampson Nurturing Peace South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission established Michael S Lund Preventing Violent Conflicts

Continued

Table 1 Chronology ofPublications Developments and Events Relevant to Conflict Resolution (continued

Institutional Demopments in Conflict Resolution and Year Publications Pertaining to Conflict Resolution Global Political Events

1997 P Salem ed Conflict Resolution in theArah World

1998 E Weiner ed The Handbook ofInterethnic Coexistence US Federal Alternative Dispute Resolution Act enacted Good Friday Agreement reached for Northern Ireland International Criminal Court established by Rome statute entered into force in 2002

1999 H H SaundersA Puhlic Peace Process People ofEast Tim or vote for independence from Indonesia B F Walter and J Snyder eds Civil Wars TISlcurity andIntervention

2000 E Boulding Cultures ofPeace Second intifada begins between Palestinians and Israelis J Galtung et al Searchingfor Peace T R Gurr Peopks versus States

2001 September 11 terror attacks on United States

2002 D Cortright and G A Lopez Sanctions and the Searchfar Security D R Smock ed Interfaith Dialogue andPeacebuilding

2003 R OLeary and L Bingham eds The Promise andPerformance US and allied forces invade Iraq ofEnvironmental Conflict ampsolution

E Uwazie ed Conflict ampsolution and Peace Education in Africa

2004 Y Bar-Siman-Tov ed From Conflict ampsolution to ampconciliation Australian Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies founded at University ofQyeensland Brisbane

Peace agreement between government ofSudan and Sudan Peoples Liberation Army

2005 C A Crocker F 0 Hampson and P Aall eds Grasping the Nettle PhD program in peace and conflict studies established at University D Druckman Doing Researlth Methods ofInquiry far ofManitoba Canada

ConflictAnalysis

461CONTEMPORARY CONFUCT REsOLUTION APPLlCATIONS

negotiation outcomes as well as experimental and field research about ways ofnegotiating6

They also drew on the long experience with colshylective bargaining government mediation servshyices and international diplomacy to develop effective ways of negotiating and mediating

Some ofthe methods and reasoning develshyoped in relation to everyday domestic disputes were adapted and applied to large-scale intershynational and intranational conflicts7 The neshygotiation principles include separating persons from positions discovering and responding to interests and not simply to stated positions and developing new options often entailing packshyaging trade-offs More general strategies also were developed such as reframing issues subshystantively as well as symbolically Another prinshyciple is to consider what is the best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) thereby knowing when breaking off negotiations may be worthwhile This suggests the value ofimshyproving ones BATNA to strengthen ones barshygaining position without raising threats In any conflict furthermore improving ones opshytions independently of the opponent reduces vulnerability to the opponents threats

Mediation includes awide range ofservices that help adversaries reach a mutually acceptshyable agreement8 including helping arrange meetings by providing a safe place to meet helping formulate the agenda and even helpshying decide who shall attend the negotiation sessions In addition services include facilitatshying the meeting by assisting the adversaries communication with each other so that each side can better hear what the other is saying by shifting procedures when negotiations are stuck and by meeting with each side to allow for safe venting ofemotions Mediators can also contribute to reaching an agreement by adding resources proposing options building trust and gaining constituency support for the neshygotiators agreement

Mediation is conducted bypersons in awide variety ofroles which vary in their capacity to provide specific services Officials generally

have recognized legitimacy to foster and channel negotiations they also may have acshycess to positive as well as negative sanctions to help reach and sustain agreements Persons in nonofficial roles however may be able to exshyplore possible negotiation options without neshycessitating great commitment by the advershysaries In addition they are often involved in fostering and facilitating informal interactions between people ofvarious levels from the opshyposing sides

De-escalating and Preparing for Negotiation As CR workers turned to civil and internashytional wars and other large-scale conflicts they gave increasing attention to ways intermedishyaries as well as partisans can reduce the inshytensity ofa conflict and move it toward negoshytiations for an agreement acceptable to the adversaries9 CR analysts and practitioners drew from many academic and practitioner sources to develop methods and strategies that contribshyute to that change in the course ofa conflict They began to map out a variety of possible de-escalating strategies and assess their suitshyability for specific times and circumstances10

Two often-noted de-escalation strategies are the graduated reciprocation in tensionshyreduction (GRIT) strategy and the tit-for-tat (TFT) strategy11 According to the GRIT strashytegy one ofthe antagonists announces and unishylaterally initiates a series ofcooperative moves reciprocity is invited but the conciliatory moves continue whether or not there is immediate reciprocityThe TFT strategywas derived from game theory experimental research computer simulations and historical practice Such evishydence indicates that the strategy most likely to result in cooperative relations and the one yielding the highest overall payoff is simply for one player to begin a series ofgames cooperashytively and afterward consistently reciprocate the other players actions whether cooperative or noncooperative

462 Lams KRIESBERG

The GRIT and TFT explanations were compared in an empirical analysis ofreciprocshyity in relations between the United States and the Soviet Union between the United States and the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and between the Soviet Union and the PRC for the period 1948-89 12 The Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced a change in policy toward the United States and Western Europe and made many conciliatory moves conducting what the analysts call super-GRIT It transformed relations with the United States and also led to normalized relations with China

Several methods involving nongovernmenshytal interventions have become features ofmany de-escalating efforts that help prepare for or that expedite negotiations These occur at varshyious levels including between high officials elites and professionals and relatively grassshyroots members of the opposing sides Such initiatives may be intended to foster mutual understanding between the adversaries or to develop possible solutions to the issues ofconshytention between them They include various forms oftrack-two or multitrack diplomacy13

Track-one diplomacy consists of mediation negotiation and other official exchanges beshytween governmental representatives Among the many unofficial or track-two channels are transnational organizations within which memshybers of adversarial parties meet and discuss matters pertaining to the work of their comshymon organizations Another form oftrack-two diplomacy is ongoing dialogue groups in which members from the adversary parties discuss contentious issues among their respective counshytries communities or organizations14

Some forms ofunofficial diplomacy began in the Cold War era and contributed to its deshyescalation and ultimate transformation For example in 1957 nuclear physicists and others from the United States Great Britain and the Soviet Union who were engaged in analyzing the possible use of nuclear weapons began meeting to exchange ideas about reducing the chances that nuclear weapons would be used

again15 From the 1950s through the 1970s the discussions at these meetings ofwhat came to be called the Pugwash Conferences on Scishyence and World Affairs contributed to the signshying ofmany arms control agreements Another important example ofsuch ongoing meetings during the Cold War is the Dartmouth Conshyference which began in 196016 At the urging ofPresident Dwight D Eisenhower a group ofprominent US and Soviet citizens many having held senior official positions were brought together as another communications channel when official relations were especially strained

With the support of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) a series of informal workshops were initiated in 1990 to develop habits ofcooperation in managing the many potential conflicts in the South China Sea17 including regarding conflicting territoshyrial claims access to resources and many other matters Senior officials primarily from govshyernments in the region were participants in their personal capacities not as representatives oftheir governments That nonofficial characshyterization enabled participants to meet and discuss issues that could not be touched when only official positions could be presented The workshops helped achieve the 1992 ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea comshymitting the signatory states to settle conflicts peacefully and the workshops helped establish many cooperative projects relating to exchangshying data marine environmental protection confidence-building measures and using reshysources ofthe South China Sea

Another important form of track-two diplomacy is the interactive problem-solving workshops which involve conveners ( often academics) who bring together a few memshybers from opposing sides and guide their disshycussions about the conflict18 The workshops usually go on for several days Participants typshyically have ties to the leadership of their reshyspective sides or have the potential to become members of the leadership in the future and

BERG CONTEMPORARY CONFLICT RESOLUTION APPLICATIONS 463

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workshops have usually been held in relation to protracted societal and international conshyflicts such as those in Northern Irdand Cyshyprus and the Middle East Participants themshyselves sometimes become quasi mediators on returning to their adversary group but as workshyshop participants they do not attempt to neshygotiate agreements19 Some workshop memshybers later become negotiators as was the case in the negotiations between the Palestine Libshyeration Organization (PLO) and the Israeli government in the early 1990s20 They also may generate ideas that help solve a negotiatshying problem

As the CR approach has gained more recognition and acceptance its practitioners have found increasing interest among memshybers of one side in a conflict in learning how to negotiate better (among themselves and then with the adversary when the time for that comes) Such training helps build the cashypacity of the side with less initial negotiating capability reducing the asymmetry in the conshyflict relationship

These various unofficial or track-two methods however do not assure the transforshymation ofdestructive conflicts They are often undertaken on too small a scale and are not alshyways employed most appropriately furthershymore at any given time groups acting destrucshytively can overwhelm them Nevertheless in the right circumstances they can make imshyportant contributions to_conflict transformashytion Thus during the 1990s many governmenshytal and nongovernmental parties engaged in mediating a transformation of the seemingly intractable conflict in Northern Ireland Aseshyries oftrack-two workshops brought together persons representing the several adversarial parties of Northern Ireland acting as midshywives for the formal negotiations21 The culshymination ofthis multiparty mediation was the 1998 Good Friday Agreement which included establishing a power-sharing executive northshysouth bodies and an elected assembly as well as scheduling the decommissioning ofanns

Avoiding Destructive Escalation

Some CR workers give attention to conflict stages that precede de-escalation including interrupting and avoiding destructive escalashytion and advancing constructive escalation Important work in averting unwanted escalashytion was undertaken during the later years of the Cold War between the Western bloc and the Communist bloc This type ofwork has drawn from many sources including traditional diplomacy the work of international governshymental and nongovernmental organizations and peace research to be relevant to conflict stages before negotiating a conflict settlement melding them into the overall CR approach

There actually are numerous ways to limit destructive escalation many ofwhich can and are undertaken unilaterally by one ofthe adshyversariesThese include enhancing crisis manshyagement systems to foster good deliberations and planning for many contingencies They also include avoiding provocation by conductshying coercive actions very precisely and by reshystructuring military forces to be nonprovocashytively defensive Coercive escalation often is counterproductive arousing intense resistance and creating enemies from groups that had not been engaged in the conflict The risks of coercive escalation are compounded by the tenshydency ofthe winning side to overreach having scored great advances it senses even greater triumphs and expands its goals Therefore simply being careful and avoiding overreachshying is a way to reduce the chances of selfshydefeating escalation

Another strategy that limits destructive esshycalation is avoiding entrapment the process ofcommitting more and more time or other resources because so much has already been devoted to a course of action22 Entrapment contributed to the US difficulty in extricatshying itself from the war in Vietnam President George W Bush and his advisers experienced some of this difficulty after invading Iraq as suggested by the speech the president gave on

464 Loms KruESBERG

August 22 2005 to the convention of the Veterans of Foreign Wars Recognizing the members ofthe US armed forces lost in milshyitary operations in Afghanistan and Iraq he said We owe them something We will finish the task that they gave their lives for We will honor their sacrifice by staying on the offenshysive against the terrorists and building strong allies in Afghanistan and Iraq that will help us fight and win the war on terror

More proactive strategies can also help avoid destructive escalation These include agreements between adversaries to institute confidence-building measures (CBMs) such as exchanging information about military trainshying exercises and installing direct communicashytion lines between leaders ofeach side23

Although some external interventions instishygate and prolong destructive conflicts by proshyviding support to one side resorting to destrucshytive methods many other kinds ofinterventions help prevent a conflict from escalating destrucshytively Diverse international governmental and nongovernmental organizations are increasshyingly proactive in providing mediating and other services at an early stage in a conflict An important action is using various forms of media to alert the international community that conditions in a particular locality are deterioshyrating and may soon result in a grave conflict In addition to expanding media and Internet coverage particular NGOs issue reports and undertake intermediary activities to foster conciliation for example see the International Crisis Group (httpwwwcrisisgrouporg) International Alert (http wwwintematiorudshyalertorg) and the Carter Center (http www cartercenterorg) The United Nations and other international governmental organizashytions provide CR services to alleviate burshygeoning conflicts For example the Organizashytion for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) with fifty-five member countries has a High Commissioner on National Mishynorities which has been instrumental in helpshying to limit the interethnic conflicts that have

erupted in countries that were part of the former Soviet Union such as Latvia When Latvia gained its independence the governshyment announced that naturalization of nonshyLatvians would be based on proficiency in Latvian and residency or descent from resishydents in Latvia before 1940 Because a third of the population-Soviet-era settlers and their fumilies-spoke Russian this policywould have made nearly a quarter ofthe country stateless Over an extended period ofconsultation meshydiation and negotiation an accommodation was reached that was in accordance with funshydamental human rights standards

Coercive interventions to stop gross human rights violations and other destructive escalashytions are also increasingly frequently undershytaken Sometimes this entails the use ofmilishytary force or the threat of it In many cases this is coupled with negotiations about subseshyquent relations among the antagonistic parties and their leaders The terms of those subseshyquent relations and the continuing involveshyment ofexternal intervenors are often matters ofdispute and require good judgment broad engagement and persistence to minimize adshyverse consequences Coercive interventions may also be more indirect and nonviolent as in the application ofvarious forms ofsanctions and boycotts When it results in particular alshyterations of conduct by the targeted groups such escalation can prove constructive

Fostering Constructive Escalation and ConflictTransformation For many years analysts and practitioners in peace studies and nonviolence studies have exshyamined how conflicts can be waged construcshytively and how they can be transformed 24 In recent years these long-noted possibilities and actualities have drawn much greater attention within the CR field25

One form nonviolent action has taken entails recourse to massive public demonstrations to oust an authoritarian government Outraged by fraudulent elections corrupt regimes and

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465CONTEMPORARY CONFLICT RESOLUTION APPLICATIONS

failed government policies widespread nonshyviolent protests for example in the Philipshypines Serbia and Ukraine have succeeded in bringing about a change in government and sometimes installed a more benign and legitishymate one The new information technologies help mobilize demonstrators and gain wideshyspread attention which then may produce exshyternal support

Other governments often aid such popular movements For example the US Congress established the National Endowment for Deshymocracy (NED in 1983 This nonprofit orshyganization governed by an independent nonshypartisan board ofdirectors is funded by annual congressional appropriations and also contrishybutions from foundations corporations and individuals It awards hundreds ofgrants each year to NGOs working to develop civil society in various countries In addition the US govshyernment directly and publicly provides assisshytance to NGOs and projects abroad that fosshyter democracy particularly in countries that have suffered violent conflict and authoritarshyian rule

Many transnational NGOs notably the Albert Einstein Institution (httpwww aeinsteinorg and the Fellowship of Reconshyciliation (http wwwforusaorg working as advocacy and service organizations provide training in nonviolent action and help local NGOs to function more effectively This help may include mediation consultation and aushyditing elections for example these functions were served by the Carter Center in cooperashytion with the Organization ofAmerican States and the United Nations Development Proshygramme when it helped to manage the 2002-4 crises relating to the demonstrations demandshying the recall of Hugo Chavez as president ofVenezuela

Diverse members of one adversary group can choose from several constructive strategies that may induce an opponent to behave more in accordance with their preferences One widely recognized strategy is to try to define

the antagonist narrowly as a small core of a small group separating the penumbra ofsymshypathizers and supporters from the core comshybatants Widely shared norms may be called on to rally international support which can help lessen the opponents legitimacy Anshyother general strategy is for members ofone side to increase their independence from the opponent reducing the threats it might use against them

Whatever strategy may be selected imshyplementing it effectively is often difficult in large-scale conflicts On each side spoilers opshyposing moving toward an accommodation may try to undermine appropriate strategies The strategies may also be hampered by poor coorshydination among different agencies between difshyferent levels ofgovernment and between govshyernmental and nongovernmental organizations CR work encompasses the growing attention to collaborative problem-solving methods and training in order to increase the capacity of conflicting parties to act constructively

Implementing and Sustaining Peace Agreements -Most recently considerable attention has been given to postcombat and postsettlement cirshycumstances and possible CR applications26

Governments have not been prepared to hanshydle the tasks involved and therefore have reshylied to a great extent on outsourcing to NGOs tasks to help strengthen local institutions In addition various nongovernmental organizashytions provide independent assistance in estabshylishing and monitoring domestic arrangements for elections and other civic and economic deshyvelopment projects

One major area ofCR expansion and conshytribution during the postsettlement or postshyaccommodation stage of a conflict is aiding reconciliation between former enemies27 Recshyonciliation is multidimensional and occurs inshysofar as it does through many processes over an extended period oftime it occurs at different speeds and in different degrees for various

466 Loms KruESBERG

members of the opposing sides The proshycesses relate to four major dimensions ofrecshyonciliation truthjustice regard and security

Disagreements about the truth regarding past and current relations are a fundamental barrier to reconciliation Reconciliation may be minimally indicated when people on the two sides openly recognize that they have difshyferent views of reality They may go further and acknowledge the possible validity ofpart ofwhat members ofthe other community beshylieve At a deeper level ofreconciliation memshybers of the different communities develop a shared and more comprehensive truth Proshygress toward agreed-on truths may arise from truth commissions and other official investishygations judicial proceedings literary and mass media reporting educational experiences and dialogue circles and workshops

The second major dimension justice also has manifold qualities One is redress for opshypression and atrocities members ofone or more parties experienced which may be in the form of restitution or compensation for what was lost usually mandated by a government Jusshytice also may take the form ofpunishment for those who committed injustices adjudicated by a domestic or international tribunal or it may be manifested in policies and institutions that provide protection against future discrimshyination or harm

The third dimension in reconciliation inshyvolves overcoming the hatred and resentment felt by those who suffered harm inflicted by the opponent This may arise from differentishyating the other sides members in terms oftheir personal engagement in the wrongdoing or it may result from acknowledging the humanity of those who committed the injuries Most profoundly the acknowledgment may convey mercy and forgiveness stressed by some advoshycates ofreconciliation28

The fourth dimension security pertains to overcoming fears regarding injuries that the former enemy may inflict in the future The adversaries feel secure if they believe they can

look forward to living together without threatshyening each other perhaps even in harmony This may be in the context of high levels of integration or ofseparation with little regular interaction Developing such institutional arshyrangements is best done through negotiations among the stakeholders Such negotiations can be aided by external official or unofficial consultants and facilitators for example by staff members of the United Nations or the United States Institute ofPeace

All these aspects ofreconciliation are rarely fully realized Some may even be contradicshytory at a given time Thus forgiveness and justice often cannot be achieved at the same time although they may be attained in good measure sequentially or by different segments ofthe population in the opposing camps

Although these various CR methods have been linked to different conflict phases to some degree they can be applied at every stage This is so in part because these stages do not neatly move in sequence during the course ofa conshyflict Furthermore in large-scale conflicts difshyferent groups on each side may be at different conflict stages and those differences vary with the particular issues in contention

THE CONTEMPORARY CoNFIJCT REsOLUTION ORIENTATION

Given the great variety ofsources and experishyences a clear consensus about CR ideas and practices among the people engaged in CR is not to be expected Nevertheless there are some shared understandings about analyzing conflicts and about how to w~e or to intershyvene in them so as to minimize their adverse consequences and maximize their benefits

General Premises 1breepremises deserve special attention First there is widespread agreement in the field not only that conflicts are inevitable in social life but that conflicts often serve to advance and

SBERG CONTEMPORARY CONFLICT RESOLUTION APPUCATIONS 467

threatshyrmony vels of regular nal arshyiations iations official ple by or the

rarely tradicshyss and e same ngood ~ents JS

ls have osome eThis neatly aconshycts difshyfferent rywith

experishyas and LCRis ere are tlyzing inter-1dverse fits

1 First ~ldnot ial life ce and

to sustain important human values including security freedom and economic well-being The issue is how to avoid conducting conflicts in ways that contribute to their becoming deshystructive ofthe very values that are being purshysued Unfortunately fighting for security can often generate insecurities not only for an adshyversary but also for the party fighting to win and protect its own

The second CR premise is that a conflict is a kind ofsocial interaction in which each side affects the other Partisans tend to blame the opponent for all the bad things that happen in a fight and they even tend to regard their own bad conduct as forced on them by the opshyponent From a CR perspective such selfshyvictimization reduces the possible ways to reshysist and counter the antagonists attacks As discussed elsewhere in this chapter each side is able to affect its opponent by its own conshyduct Furthermore it can strengthen its position in various ways besides trying to destroy or harm the antagonist Ofcourse relationships are never entirely symmetric but they are varyingly unequal

Third given the destructive as well as conshystructive courses that conflicts may traverse understanding the forces and policies that shape a trajectory is crucial in CR A conflict needs to be carefully analyzed to improve the chances that particular policies chosen by parshytisans or by intermediaries will be effective and not turn out to be counterproductive The analysis should include gathering as much good information as possible about the varishyous stakeholders interests and their views of each other That knowledge should be coupled with theoretical understanding of conflicts generally based on experience and research which can suggest a wide range ofpossible opshytions for action and indicate the probabilities ofdifferent outcomes for various options Such an analysis can help parties avoid policies that seem attractive based on internal considerashytions but are unsuitable for contending with the external adversary The analysis can also help

parties avoid setting unrealistically grandiose goals unattainable by any available means

Specific Ideas The CR field incorporates numerous specific ideas about methods and strategies that are relevant for reducing the destructiveness of conflicts although persons engaged in CR differ to some degree about them

Human Interests and Needs Some CR theoshyrists and practitioners argue that all humans have a few basic needs in common and that the failure to satisfy those needs is unjust and an important source ofconflicts while fulfillshying them adequately is critical to justly resolvshying a conflict29 Other CR workers however doubt that a particular fixed set of needs is universal and stress the cultural variability in needs and how they are defined30 Thus all humans may wish to be respected and not be humiliated but how important that wish is and how it is defined and manifested vary widely among cultures and subcultures One way to bridge these differences is to draw on the consensus that is widely shared and exshypressed in various international declarations and conventions about universal human rights as shown in the earlier discussion ofthe OSCEs mediation in Latvia31

Social Construction ofConflict Parties Memshybers of each party in a conflict have some sense ofwho they are and who the adversaries are they have a collective identity and attribshyute one to the adversary However a conflict often involves some measure ofdispute about these characterizations The identities may seem to be immutable but ofcourse they acshytually change in part as the parties interact with each other Moreover every person has numerous identities associated with membershyship in many collectivities such as a country a religious community an ethnicity and an ocshycupational organizatior1 The understanding ofthe changing primacy ofdifferent collective

468 LOUIS KruESBERG

identities is particularly well studied in the creation ofan ethnicity32 Conventional thinkshying often reifies an enemy viewing its memshybers as a single organism and so giving it a sinshygularity that it does not possess Actually no large entity is unitary and homogeneous the members of every large-scale entity differ in hierarchical ranks and in ways of thinking whether in a country or an organization They tend to have different degrees and kinds of commitment for the struggles in which their collectivity is engaged A simplified image of one adversary in a conflict is depicted in figshyure 1 incorporating three sets of concentric circles One set shows the dominating segshyment ofthe adversary in regard to a particular conflict consisting ofa small circle ofleaders and commanders a somewhat larger circle of fighters and major contributors a larger circle of publicly committed supporters and finally a circle ofprivate supporters In addition howshyever some people in each collectivity dissent and disagree with the way the conflict is being conducted by the dominant leaders They may disagree about the goals and the methods being used favoring a variety ofalternative policies Some dissenters may prefer that a harder line be taken with more extreme goals and methshyods of struggle while others prefer a softer line with more modest goals and less severe means ofstruggle Two such dissenting groups are also depicted one more hard-line and the other less hard-line than the dominant group Finally one large oval encloses the dominatshying and dissenting groupings and also numershyous persons who have little interest in and are not engaged in the external conflict Obviously the relative sizes of these various circles vary greatly from case to case over time For examshyple in the war between the United States and Iraq which began in 2003 American dissenters differed widely in the goals and methods they favored and they increased in number as the military operations continued More persons became engaged and private dissenters became more public and vocal in their dissent People

Figure 1 Components ofan Adversary

Dominant Leaders~---

Fighters and Contributors

~blic Supportes-~~

Pnvate Suppqrters middot

Not Engaged

middot HardLl~DissentingLearegrs

Active Diss~nters

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Soft-Line Dissenting Leaders

Active D1enters ---------lt

Public Diss~nters -----

Pri-~

who had been strong supporters ofthe prevailshying policies weakened their support and some ofthem became dissenters

Another related insight is that no conflict is wholly isolated rather each is linked to many others Each adversary has various internal conshyflicts that impinge on its external adversaries and each has a set ofexternal conflicts some linked over time and others subordinated to even larger conflicts One particular pair ofadshyversaries may give the highest importance to their fight with each other but its salience may lessen when another conflict escalates and becomes more significant 33

Alternatives to Violence The word conflict is often used interchangeably with~ or other words denoting violent confrontations or if it is defined independently it includes one party harming another to obtain what it wants from that other34 In the CR field however conflict is generally defined in terms ofper-

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469CONTEMPORARY CONFIJCT RESOLUTION APPIJCATIONS

sons or groups who manifest incompatible goals35 That manifestation moreover may not be violent indeed each contending party uses various mixtures ofnonviolent coercion promised benefits or persuasive arguments to achieve its contested goals Conflicts are waged using a changing blend ofcoercive and noncoercive inducements Analysts and pracshytitioners of CR often note that great reliance on violence and coercion is risky and can be counterproductive36

Intermediaries andNGOs Adversaries wage a conflict against each other within a larger soshycial context Some ofthe people and groups not engaged as partisans in the conflict may be drawn in as supporters or allies ofone side that possibility can influence the partisans on each side to act in ways that do not spur the outsiders to help their opponent CR workers generally stress the direct and indirect roles that outshysiders exercise in channeling the course ofconshyflicts particularly as intervenors who mediate and otherwise seek to mitigate and settle deshystructive conflicts37 As may be envisaged in figure 2 intermediary efforts can be initiated between many different subgroups from each adversary including official (track-one) medishyation between the dominant leaders ofthe anshytagonistic sides track-two meetings ofpersons from the core groups on each side and diashylogue meetings between grassroots supporters or dissenters on each side

APPUCATIONS IN1HE POST-911 WORLD

As the editors ofthis book note some contemshyporary conflicts are like many past ones in most regards while some exhibit quite new features This discussion ofcontemporary conflicts foshycuses on conflicts that are especially affected by recent global developments including the end of the Cold War and the decline in the influshyence ofMarxist ideologies and the increased preeminence of the United States They also include the increasing impacts oftechnologies

Figure 2 Adversaries and lntervenors

relating to communication and to war making the increasing roles of nonstate transnational actors both corporate and not-for-profit orshyganizations and the growing roles ofreligious faiths and of norms relating to human rights Possible CR applications in these circumshystances are noted for different conflict stages undertaken by partisans and by outsiders

Preventing Destructive Conflicts Partisans in any conflict using CR concepshytions can pursue diverse policies that tend to avoid destructive escalation A general admoshynition is to carry out coercive escalations as precisely targeted as possible to minimize provocations that arouse support for the core leadership of the adversary Another general caution is not to overreach when advancing toward victory the tendency to expand goals after some success is treacherous This may have contributed to the American readiness to attack Iraq in 2003 following the seemingly swift victory in Afghanistan in 2001

More specific CR strategies have relevance for avoiding new eruptions of destructive

470 Loms KruESBERG C

conflicts resulting for example from al ~da-related attacks Al ~dais a transna-tional nonstate network with a small core and associated groups ofvaryingly committed sup-porters whose leaders inspire other persons to strike at the United States and its allies Con-structively countering such attacks is certainly challenging so any means that may help in that effort deserve attention

Some Muslims in many countries agree with al ~eda leaders and other Salafists that returning Islam to the faith and practice ofthe Prophet Muhammad will result in recaptur-ing the greatness of Islams Golden Age38

Furthermore some ofthe Salafists endorse the particular violent jihad strategy adopted by al ~edaThe presence oflarge Islamic commu-nities in the United States and in Western Europe threatens to provide financial and other support for continuing attacks around the world However these communities also pro-vide the opportunity to further isolate al ~eda and related groups draining them ofsympa-thy and support The US governments stra-tegic communication campaigns to win support from the Muslim world initiated soon after the September 11 2001 attacks were widely recognized as ineffective39 the intended audi-ences often dismissed US media programs celebrating the United States Consequently in 2005 President Bush appointed a longtime close adviser Karen P Hughes to serve as under secretaryofstate for public diplomacy and pub-lie affairs and oversee the governments public diplomacy particularly with regard to Mus-lims overseas Despite some new endeavors the problems of fashioning an effective com-prehensive strategy were not overcome40

Many nongovernmental organizations play important roles in helping local Muslims in US cities feel more secure and integrated into American society Some of these are long-standing organizations such as interreligious councils and American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) chapters while others are new organ-izations focusing on Muslim-non-Muslim

relations In addition American Arab and tc Muslim groups such as the American-Arab ta Anti Discrimination Committee (http www ta adcorg) and the Council on American- tr Islamic Relations (httpwwwcair-netorg) Vl

act to protect their constituents rights to plt counter discrimination and to reject terrorist lC

acts in the name oflslam va Engagement by external actors is often cru- Vlmiddot

cial in averting destructive conflicts The en- ar gagement is particularly likely to be effective th insofar as the intervention is regarded as legit- Pf imate Collective engagement by many parties th tends to be seen as legitimate and is also more th likely to be successful in marshaling effective tri inducements Thus in international and in so- be cietal interventions multilateral sanctions are more likely to succeed than are sanctions im- to posed by a single power This was true for the w UN sanctions directed against Libya led by ffo Muammar al-Gadhafi which followed the pe clear evidence linking Libyan agents with the pr1 bombing ofPan Am Flight 103 on December th

21 198841 The sanctions contributed to the du step-by-step transformation ofGadhafis poli- ch cies and ofUS relations with Libya as

More multilateral agreements to reduce the rac availability of highly destructive weapons to ter groups who might employ them in societal 1m and international wars are needed Overt and US

covert arms sales and the development of en weapons ofmass destruction are grave threats m requiring the strongest collective action The defensive reasons that governments may have en for evading such agreements should be ad- sti dressed which may entail universal bans and th controls Those efforts should go hand in hand tru

with fostering nonviolent methods ofwaging ch a struggle tic

in1 Interrupting and Stopping tio Destructive Conflicts hi1 One adversary or some groups within it can act unilaterally to help stop and transform a ha destructive conflict in which it is engaged At fo the grassroots level such action may be efforts ere

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471CONTEMPORARY CoNFUCT RESOLUTION APPLlCATIONS

to place in power new leaders who will undershytake to de-escalate the fighting It may also take the form ofopposing provocative policies that contribute to destructive escalation as was visible in the resistance to the US government policy in Nicaragua and El Salvador by Amershyicans in the early 1980s and to the Soviet inshyvasion ofAfghanistan by the families of Soshyviet soldiers At the elite level some persons and groups may begin to challenge policies that are evidently costly and unproductive comshypelling changes in policies and ultimately in the core leadershipThese developments within the United States and the Soviet Union conshytributed greatly to the end of the Cold War between them 42

The actions that members ofone side take toward their adversary certainly are primary ways to interrupt de~tructively escalating conshyflicts This can occur at the popular level with people-to-people diplomacy which may help prepare the ground for significant changes at the leadership level or the actions may be conshyducted at the elite level and signal readiness to change directions In confrontations as broad as those relating to the advancement ofdemocshyracy the renewal oflslam or the countering of terrorism engagement at all levels is extremely important Demonizing the enemy may seem useful to mobilize constituents but it often creates problems for the inevitable changes in relations

Acts by leaders ofone side directed at leadshyers on the other side or to their various conshystituent groups are particularly important in the context of rapidly expanding channels of mass and interpersonal communication These channels convey a huge volume of informashytion about how friends and foes think and intend to behave Attention to that informashytion and responding to it should be given very high priority

Forceful interventions by external actors to halt disastrous escalations have become more frequent in recent decades These include inshycreasingly sophisticated and targeted sanctions

which require a high degree ofmultilateral coshyoperation to be effective This is also true for police work to locate and bring to justice pershypetrators ofgross human rights violations as well as to control the flow ofmoney and weashypons that sustain destructive conflicts

De-escalatingand Reaching Agreements To bring a destructive conflict to an agreed-on end it is important for the adversaries to beshylieve that an option exists that is better than continuing the fight Members of one side whether officials intellectuals or popular disshysidents may envision such an option and so help transform the conflict Communicating such possible solutions in a way that is credishyble to the other side requires skill and sensibilshyity given the suspicions naturally aroused by intense struggles overcoming such obstacles may be aided by knowledge of how this has been accomplished in the past43

Intermediaries can be critical in constructing new options by mediation which may entail shuttling between adversaries to discover what trade-offs can yield agenerally acceptable agreeshyment or resolve a seemingly intractable issue For example in the 1980s during the civil wars

in Lebanon groups associated with Hezbolshylah took hostage fifteen Americans as well as thirty-nine other Westerners When George H W Bush took office as president of the United States in 1989 following President Ronald Reagan he signaled an opening for neshygotiations to free the hostages44 UN diplomashytic operations then did bring about the release ofthe remaining hostages In particular Gishyandomenico Picco assistant secretary-general to UN secretary-generalJavier Perez de Cuellar conducted intensive mediation shuttling from one country to another in the region

Implementing and SustainingAgreements The tasks to be undertaken after an accomshymodation has been reached whether largely by imposition or by negotiation are manifold

472 CoLoms KRIESBERG

Importantly institutions should be estab-fished that provide legitimate ways to handle conflictsThis may entail power sharing among major stakeholders which helps provide them with security The CR orientation provides a repertoire of ways to constructively settle disputes and generate ideas about systems to mitigate conflicts CR ideas also provide in-sights about ways to advance reconciliation among people who have been gravely harmed by others

CURRENT ISSUES

The preceding discussion has revealed differ-ences within the CR field and between CR workers and members of related fields ofen-deavor Five contentious issues warrant discus-sionhere

Goals and Means CR analysts and practitioners differ in their em-phasis on the process used in waging and set-cling conflicts and their emphasis on the goals sought and realized Thus regarding the roJe of the mediator some workers in CR in theory and in practice stress the neutrality ofthe me-diator and the mediators focus on the process to reach an agreement while others argue that a mediator either should avoid mediating when the parties are so unequal that equity is not likely to be achieved or should act in ways that will help the parties reach an equitable out-come The reliance on the general consensus embodied in the UN declarations and conven-tions about human rights offers CR analysts and practitioners standards that can help pro-duce equitable and enduring settlements

Violence and Nonviolence Analysts and practitioners of CR generally believe that violence is too often used when nonviolent alternatives might be more effec-tive particularly when the choice ofviolence serves internal needs rather than resulting from consideration of its effects on an adversary

when it is used in an unduly broad and impre- one NCcise manner and when it is not used in con-byrjunction with other means to achieve broad ganconstructive goals However CRworkers differ andin the salience they give these ideas and which

remedies they believe would be appropriate OriThese differences are becoming more impor-Thetant with increased military interventions to ma1stop destructively escalating domestic and in-

temational conflicts More analysis is needed tov tidiofhow various violent and nonviolent policies tha1are combined and with what consequences prounder different circumstances pha

Short- and Long-Tenn Perspectives and traiCR analysts tend to stress long-term changes broand strategies while CR practitioners tend to thefocus on short-term policies Theoretical work dentends to give attention to major factors that

affect the course ofconflicts which often do WOI

tiornot seem amenable tochange by acts of any ficasingle person or group Persons engaged in

ameliorating a conflict feel pressures to act with acelt 1urgency which dictates short-term considera-

tions these pressures include fund-raising acalt proconcerns for NGOs and electoral concerns for

government officials drivenmiddot by elections and trac schshort-term calculations More recognition of Unithese different circumstances may help foster

useful syntheses of strategies and better se- WW

degquencing ofstrategies uati

Coordination andAutonomy Un fewAF more and more governmental and non-lutigovernmental organizations appear at the scene in Jof most major conflicts the relations among prothem and the impact ofthose relations expand Staand demand attention The engagement of

many organizations allows for specialized and ingcomplementary programs but also produces qmproblems of competition redundancy and atiltconfusion To enhance the possible benefits rehand minimize the difficulties a wide range of fesimeasures may be taken from informal ad hoc

exchanges ofinformation to regular meetings me

among organizations in the field to having ass

KruESBERG

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473CONTEMPORARY CONFLICT REsOLUTION APPUCATIONS

one organization be the lead agency As more growing body ofempirically grounded assessshyNGOs are financially dependent on funding ments examines which kinds ofinterventions by national governments and international orshy by various groups have what consequences46

ganizations new issues regarding autonomy and co-optation arise

CONCLUSION

Orientation Discipline Profession The CR field continues to grow and evolve It The character ofthe CR field is a many-sided is not yet highly institutionalized and is likely matter ofcontention One issue is the degree to greatly expand in the future become more to which the field is a single discipline a mulshy differentiated and change in many unforeseen tidisciplinary endeavor or a general approach ways In the immediate future much more reshythat should contribute to many disciplines and search assessing various CR methods and projshyprofessions A related issue is the relative emshy ects is needed This is beginning to occur and phasis on core topics that are crucial in training is often required by foundations and other and education or on specialized knowledge and funders ofNGO activities47 This work needs training for particular specialties within the to be supplemented by research about the efshybroad CR field Another contentious issue is fects ofthe complex mixture ofgovernmental the degree to which the field is an area ofacashy and nongovernmental programs ofaction and demic study or a profession with the academic of the various combinations of coercive and work focused on providing training for practishy noncoercive components in transforming conmiddot tioners Vmally there are debates about certishy flicts constructively Past military campaigns fication and codes ofconduct and who might are carefully analyzed and plans for future war accord them over what domains ofpractice fighting are carefully examined and tested in

These contentions are manifested on the war games Comparable research and attention academic side by the great proliferation ofMA are needed for diplomatic and nongovernshyprograms certificate programs courses and middot mental engagement in conflicts So far only a tracks within university graduate schools law little work has been done on coordination beshyschools and other professional schools in the tween governmental and nongovernmental United States and around the world (http organizations engaged in peacebuilding and wwwcampusadrorgClassroom_Building peacemaking48

degreeoprogramshtml About eighty gradshy The fundamental ideas ofthe CR approach uate programs of some kind function in the are diffusing throughout American society and United States but PhD programs remain around the world Admittedly this is happenshyfew45 The first PhD program in conflict resoshy ing selectively and often the ideas are corrupted lution was begun at George Mason University and misused when taken over by people proshyin 1987 but since then only one other PhD foundly committed to traditional coercive program has been established in the United unilateralism in waging conflictsThe CR ideas States at Nova Southeastern University and practices nevertheless are not to be disshy

On the applied side the issues ofestablishshy missed they are increasingly influential and ing certificates and codes ofethics and the freshy great numbers ofpeople use them with beneshyquently changing set of professional associshy fit Ideas and ideologies can have great impact ations bespeak the unsettled nature of issues as demonstrated by the effect of past racist relating to the CR fields discipline and proshy communist and nationalist views and those fessional character An important developshy ofcontemporary Islamic militants American ment linking theory and applied work is the neoconservatives ~md advocates of political assessment of practitioner undertakings A democracy Although gaining recognition

474 Loms KruESBERG

CR ideas are still insufficiently understood and utilized Perhaps if more use were made of them some ofthe miscalculations relating to resorting to terrorist campaigns to countering them and to forcefully overthrowing governshyments would be curtailed

It should be evident that to reduce a largeshyscale conflict to an explosion ofviolence as in a war or a revolution is disastrously unrealisshytic A war or a revolution does not mark the beginning or the end ofa conflict In reality large-scale conflicts occur over a very long time taking different shapes and with different kinds ofconduct The CR orientation locates eruptions ofviolence in a larger context which can help enable adversaries to contend with each other in effective ways that help them achieve more equitable mutually acceptable relations and avoid violent explosions It also can help adversaries themselves to recover from disastrous violence when that occurs Finally the CR approach can help all kinds ofintershymediaries to act more effectively to mitigate conflicts so that they are handled more conshystructively and less destructively

Many changes in the world since the end of the Cold War help explain the empirical finding that the incidence ofcivil wars has deshyclined steeply since 1992 and interstate wars

have declined somewhat since the late 1980s49

The breakup ofthe Soviet Union contributed to a short-lived spurt in societal wars but the end ofUS-Soviet rivalry around the world enabled many such wars to be ended Intershynational governmental and nongovernmental organizations grew in effectiveness as they adshyhered to strengthened international norms reshygarding human rights On the basis of the analysis in this chapter it is reasonable to beshylieve that the increasing applications ofthe ideas and practices of CR have also contributed to the decline in the incidence ofwars

NOTES I wish to thank the editors for their II1lUlf hdpful sugshygestions and comments and I also thank mycolleagues

for their comments about these issues particularly Neil Katz Bruce W Dayton Renee deNevers and F William Smullen

1 John Paul Lederach PreparingforPeace Conshyflict Transformation across Cultures (Syracuse NY Syracuse University Press 1995) Paul Salem ed Conflict Resolution in the Arah World Selected Essays (Beirut American University of Beirut 1997) and Ernest Uwazie ed Omflict Resolution and Peace Edshyucation in Aftica (Lanham Md Lexington 2003)

2 Martha Harty and John Modell The First Conflict Resolution Movement 1956-1971 An Atshytempt to Institutionalize Applied Disciplinary Social Science Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (1991) 720-758

3 Peter S Adler ls ADRa Social Movement Negotiationjourna3no1(1987)59-66andJoseph A ScimeccaConflict Resolution in the United States The Emergence ofa Profession in Coflict Resolushytion Cross-Cultural Perspectives ed Peter W Black Kevin Avruch and Joseph A Scimecca (New York Greenwood 1991)

4 Roger Fisher and William Ury Getting to YES (Boston Houghton Mullin 1981)

S Lawrence Susskind and Jeffrey Cruikshank Brealling the Impasse ConsensualApproades to Resolvshying Public Disputes (NewYork Basic 1987)

6 Howard Railfa The Art and Science ofNegoshytiation (Cambridge Mass Harvard University Press 1982)

7 Roger Fisher Elizabeth Kopelman and Anshydrea Kupfer Schneider BeyondMachiavelli Toolsfor Coping with Conflict(New York Penguin 1994)

8 Christopher W Moore The Mediation Proshycess Practical Strategiesfor Resolving Conflict 3rd ed (San Francisco Jossey-Bass 2003)

9 Janice Gross Stein ed Getting to the Tahle The Process ofInternational Prenegotiation (Baltimore and LondonJohns Hopkins University Press 1989)

10 Loraleigh Keashly and Ronald J Fisher Complementarity and Coordination ofConflict Inshyterventions Taking a Contingency Perspective in ResolvingInternational Conflicts edJacob Bercovitch (Boulder Colo Lynne Rienner 19) 235-261 and Louis Kriesberg and Stuart J Thorson eds Timing the De-Escalation ofInternational Conflicts (Syracuse NY Syracuse University Press 1991)

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-ularly andF

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n ed Essays ) and rceEd-1()3)

e First mAtshySocial 1991)

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475CONTEMPORARY CoNruCT RESOLUTION APPLICATIONS

11 Charles E OsgoodAnAternativeto War or Surrender (Urbana University oflllinois Press 1962) and Robert Axelrod The Ewlution ofCooperation (NewYorkBasic 1984)

12 Joshua S Goldstein and John R Freeman Three-Way Street Strategic Reciprocity in World Politics (Chicago University ofChicago Press 1990)

13 John W McDonald Further Explorations in Track Two Diplomacy in Kriesberg and Thorson eds Timing the De-Escalation ofInternational Conshyflicts 201-220 and Joseph V Montville Transnashytionalism and the Role ofTrack-Two Diplomacy in Approaches to Peace An Intellectual Map ed W Scott Thompson and Kenneth M Jensen (Washington DC United States Institute ofPeace Press 1991)

14 David R Smock ed Intefaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding (Washington DC United States Inshystitute ofPeace Press 2002) and Eugene Weiner ed The Handb((Jk ofInterethnic Coexistence (New York Continuum 1998) See also httpcoexistencenet

15 Michael] Pentt and Gillian SlovoThe Politshyical Significance of Pugwash in KnfJWedge and Power in a GlobalSociety ed William M Evan (Bevshyerly Hills Calipound Sage 1981) 175-203

16 Gennady I Chufrin and Harold H Saunshyders A Public Peace Process Negotiation]ourna9 (1993) 155-177

17 Hasjim Djalal and Ian Townsend-Gault Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea in Herding Cats Multiparty Mediation in a Comshyplex World ed Chester A Crocker Fen Osler Hampshyson and Pamela Aall (Washington DC United States Institute ofPeace Press 1999) 109-133

18 Ronald Fisher Interactive Conflict Resolution (Syracuse NY Syracuse University Press 1997) and Herbert C Kelman Informal Mediation by the Scholar Practitioner in Mediation in International Relations ed Jacob Bercovitch and Jeffrey Z Rubin (New York St Martins 1992)

19 Louis Kriesberg Varieties ofMediating Acshytivities and ofMediators in Resolving International Conflicts edJacob Bercovitch (Boulder Colo Lynne Rienner 1995) 219-233

20 Herbert C Kelman Contributions of an Unofficial Conflict Resolution Effort to the IsraelishyPalestinian Breakthrough Negotiation journal 11 (January 1995) 19-27

21 Paul Arthur Multiparty Mediation in Northshyern Ireland in Crocker Hampson and Aall eds Herding Cats 478

22 Joel Brockner and Jeffrey Z Rubin Entrapshyment in Escalating Conflicts A Social Psychological Analysis (New York Springer 1985)

23 Shai Feldman ed Confaknce Building and Verification Prospects in the Middle East (Jerusalem Jerusalem Post Boulder Colo Westview 1994)

24 Johan Galtung Peace by PeacefulMeans Peace and Conflict Development and Civilization (Thoushysand Oaks Calipound Sage 1996) Lester Kurtz Enshycyclopedia ofViolence Peace and Conflict (San Diego Academic 1999) Roger S Powers and William B Vogele eds with Christopher Kruegler and Ronald M McCarthy Protest PfJWer and Change An Encyshyclopedia ofNonwlentActionfrom ACT-Up to Women Sofrage (New York and London Garland 1997) Gene Sharp The Politics ofNonwlentAction (Boston Porter Smgent 1973) and Carolyn M Stephenson Peace Studies Overview in Encyclopedia ofViolence Peace and Conflict 809-820

25 Louis lltriesberg Constructive Conflicts From Escalation to Resolution 3rd ed (Lanham Md Rowshyman and Littlefield 2006) Lederach Preparingor Peace and John Paul Lederach Building Peace Susshytainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washshyington DC United States Institute ofPeace Press 1997)

26 Stephen John Stedman Donald Rothchild and Elizabeth Cousens eds Ending Civil Wan The Implementation ofPeace Agreements (Boulder Colo Lynne Rienner 2002)

27 Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov ed From ConflictReshysolution to Reconciliation (Oxford Oxford University Press 2004)

28 Michael Henderson The Forgiveness Factor (London Grosvenor 1996)

29 John Burton Conflict Resolution and Prevenshytion (New York St Martins 1990) and James Laue and Gerald Cormick The Ethics oflntervention in Community Disputes in The Ethics ofSocialIntershyvention ed Gordon Bermant Herbert C Kelman and Donald P Warwick (Washington DC Halshystead 1978)

30 Kevin Avruch Culture and Coiflict Resolution (Washington DC United States Institute ofPeace Press 1998)

476 Lorns KruESBERG

31 Eileen F Babbitt Principled Peace Conshyflict Resolution and Human Rights in Intra-state Conshyflicts (Ann Arbor University of Michigan Press forthcoming)

32 Benedict Anderson Imagined Communities Reflections on the Origin and Spread ofNationalism (London Verso 1991) and Franke Wilmer The Soshycial Construction ofMan the State and War Identity Conflict and Violence in the Former Yugosl(ll)ia (New York and London Routledge 2002)

33 Bar-Siman-Tov From Conflict Resolution to Reconciliaiion

34 Lewis A Coser The Functions ofSocial Cotifiict (New York Free Press 1956)

35 PaulWehr CotifiictRegulaJitm (Boulder Colo Westview 1979)

36 Chalmers Johnson BlowJack The Costs and Consequences ofAmerican Empire (New York Henry Holt 2000)

37 William Ury The Third Side (New York Penshyguin 2000)

38 Marc Sageman Understanding Terror Netshyworh (Philadelphia University ofPennsylvania Press 2004)

39 Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Strategic Communication 2004 available online at httpwwwpublicdiplomacyorg37htm United States Government Accountability Office US Public Diplomacy lnteragency Coordination Efforts Hampered by the Lack of a National Comshymunication Strategy GAD-05-323 April 2005 availshyable at wwwgaogov

40 Steven R Weisman Diplomatic Memo On Mideast Listening Tour the Qpestion Is Whos Lisshytening New York Times September 30 2005 A3

41 David Cortright and George Lopez with Richard W ConroyJaleh Dash ti-Gibson and Julia Wagler The Sanctions DecadeAssessing UN Strategies in the 1990s (Boulder Colo Lynne Rienner2000)

42 Richard K Herrmann and Richard Ned Leshybow Ending the Cold War Interpretations Causation and the Study ofInternational Relations (New York Palgrave Macmillan 2004) Louis Kriesberg Internashytional Conflict Resolution The US -USSR and MiJdle East Cases (New Haven Conn Yale University Press 1992) andJeremi Suri Power andProtest GlohalResshyolution and the Rise ofDetente (Cambridge Mass Harvard University Press 2003)

43 Christopher Mitchell Gestures ofConciliation Factors Contributing to Successfol Olive Branches (New York St Martins 2000)

44 Giandomenico Picco Man without a Gun (New York Times Books 1999)

45 Johannes BotesGraduate Peace and Conflict Studies Programs Reconsidering Their Problems and Prospects Conflict Managemmt in Higher Edushycation Report 5 no 1 (2004) 1-10

46 Mary B Anderson and Lara Olson Confrontshying War CriticalLessonsfor Peace Practitioners (Camshybridge Mass Collaborative for Development Action 2003) 1-98 and Rosemary OLeary and Lisa Bingshyham eds The Promise and Performance ofEnvishyronmental Conflict Resolution (Washington DC Resources for the Future 2003)

47 Anderson and Olson Confronting War

48 Susan H Allen Nan Complementarity and Coordination ofConflict Resolution in Eurasia in Conflict Analysis and Resolution (Fairfax Va George Mason University 1999)

49 Monty G Marshall and Ted Robert Gurr Peace and Conflict 2005 (College Park Center for Inshyternational Development and Conflict Management UniversityofMaryland May2005) See also Human Security Centre Human Security Report 2005 (New York Oxford University Press 2006) 151 Wars are defined to have more than 1000 deaths The report is accessible at httpwwwcidcmumdeduinscr see also Mikael Eriksson and PeterWallensteen Armed Conflict 1989-2003 Journal ofPeace ampsearch 41 5 (September 2004) 6254i36

Photographs used in this work courtesy ofAPWide World Photos Reprinted with permission

The views expressed in this book are those of the authors alone They do not necessarily reflect views of the United States Institute ofPeace

UNITED STATES INSTITUIE OF PEAcE 120017th Street NW Washington DC 20036

copygt 2007 by the Endowment of the United States Institute ofPeace All rights reserved For copyright and other information on prior publication ofall or part ofchapters 3 7 10 25 28 29 35 and 36 see the first entry in the Notes in those chapters

FUSt published 2007

Printed in the United States ofAmerica

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standards for Information Science-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials ANSI Z3948-1984

Library ofCongress Catalogiog-in-Publication Data Leashing the dogs ofwar conflict management in a divided world Chester A Crocker Fen

Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall editors pcm

Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13 978-1-929223-97-8 (alk paper) ISBN-10 1-929223-97-8 (alk paper) ISBN-13 978-1-929223-96-1 (pbk a1k paper) ISBN-10 1-929223-96-X (pbk a1k paper) 1 Peaceful change (International relations) 2 Conflict management 3 Security International

I Crocker Chester A II Hampson Fen Osler III Aall Pamela R JZ5538L4 2007 327172-dc22

2006027680

ADIA TOUVAL



26 CONTEMPORARY


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Documents

Leashing the Dogs of War - Maxwell School of Citizenship ......Conflict &solution began publication in 1957 and the Center for Research on Conflict . Reso lution . was . founded in