Learning to Look/Looking at Learning || Instructional Resources: Images of Women by Women in Nineteenth-Century American Sculpture

National Art Education Association

Instructional Resources: Images of Women by Women in Nineteenth-Century AmericanSculptureAuthor(s): Barbara FallettaSource: Art Education, Vol. 49, No. 1, Learning to Look/Looking at Learning (Jan., 1996), pp.25-28+49-52Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193578 .

Accessed: 15/06/2014 02:33

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

National Art Education Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to ArtEducation.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 195.78.108.81 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 02:33:24 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=naea

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193578?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


INSTRUCTIONAL

IMAGES OF WOMEN BY WOMEN IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICAN SCULPTURE

Hiram Powers (American; 1805-1873) The Greek Slave, 1869, marble; 44 in. x 14 in. x 13 1/2 in.

National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institute.



IMAGES OF WOMEN BY WOMEN IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICAN SCULPTURE

** A P At|^-J-

A Atl

GOAL The general goal of this instructional resource is to

introduce high school students to the manner in which women are represented in the sculpture of nineteenth-century American women artists. Specifically, the lesson will focus on a particular group of women artists who have become known asThe White Marmorean Flock An analysis of their sculpture will reveal that although the choice of individuals whom the artists represented falls within the broad range of subjects portrayed by other nineteenth-century sculptors, their treatment of the subject reflects goals of a more personal nature. These goals often reflect attitudes toward human subjection including the oppression of women and people of color.

INTRODUCTION The movement in Western European art that prevailed

during the nineteenth century is called Neoclassicism because it reflected an admiration for Greek and Roman art produced in classical antiquity. In classical sculpture, the human figure was represented as a youthful and ideal figure. The body was posed at rest in an S-shaped curve that is called contrapposto. This posture made the figure appear to be more alive than the manner in which figures had been represented in earlier antique art. Furthermore, the asymmetrical form that resulted from the new posture was more interesting. The subject matter of the sculpture may also be described as ideal. Mythological characters such as Venus were often represented, and the story being told expressed an increased awareness of the importance of high moral character and human dignity.

Like their European contemporaries, both male and female American sculptors who worked in Italy in the nineteenth century turned to themes from antiquity for inspiration and subject matter. The ideals to which these sculptors dedicated their works were beauty, nobility, serenity, fortitude and temperance, and these virtues were associated with figures in myths, legends and historical events as they were recorded in poetry and prose.1 Storytelling by means of literature became so important to nineteenth-century sculptors that they came to be known as the Literary Sculptors.2 From their literary sources, American sculptors were drawn repeatedly to women as subject matter. The individuals whom they represented and their approach to rendering the female figure usually reflected attitudes toward women that were held by most

nineteenth-century Victorian minds. Generally speaking, at opposite poles were the concepts of woman as an example of Christian virtue and woman as the object of sensual allure. Portrayals of a woman nude, partially clothed, or with clothing that revealed every contour of her body were the most common manners of expression, yet something about the sculpture always implied the proper Christian intentions which, in effect, excused the subject's nudity. 3 Furthermore, female figures that were represented were often in the predicament of being imprisoned or enchained.4 Subliminally present is the concept of woman's oppression in a patriarchal society. At this time in history, women's fate was still contingent on male authority, but women were beginning to speak out on their own behalf and for their own causes. Some female neoclassical sculptors produced a number of images of women who responded with fortitude and moral courage to the fate and the sense of powerlessness experienced by women under patriarchy. These female sculptors became known as the White Marmorean Flock

The topic of this lesson will be images of women in sculpture that were produced by three members of this stone sorority-Louisa Lander, Edmonia Lewis, and Harriet Hosmer.

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES The following procedures are suggested for teachers to

consider before using this instructional resource: 1. Plan to use this lesson as a part of the students' general

humanities education. Consult with the history and English teachers in your school so that your lesson will be used at the same time they are presenting materials about the nineteenth century. This approach will provide the students with a better understanding of the content of neoclassical art, and it will enrich their perception of the nineteenth century as a whole.

2. Utilizing the information provided in the introduction of this resource, prepare your students for the lesson by defining Neoclassicism and discussing the manner in which women were traditionally represented in neoclassical art. As an example, use the Greek Slave by Hiram Powers to illustrate the content and form typically used by nineteenth-century American sculptors.5

3. Discuss with your students the role of women artists in nineteenth-century America. Social expectations and the lack of educational opportunities prevented most women from

U | ART EDUCATION / JANUARY 1996



INSTRUCTIONAL ?i 0E L 1!~ " EE

achieving a professional life such as that of an artist. When a woman was able to overcome such obstacles, she was forced to compete in a male-dominated field where she rarely received recognition and, when she did, society saw her accomplished nature as an exception to the rule. However, it was during the nineteenth century that women began to question their role in society and the concept of human oppression in general. It was in these formative years of the

New World that feminism was germinating, abolitionism sprouted, and the movement toward equality among people in America began to blossom.

4. Introduce the White Marmorean Flock to the students. Use them as an example of this new breed of professional women who dared to challenge the traditional manner in which women were represented in art of the nineteenth century.

LOUISA LANDER

Virginia Dare (1860) marble, height 5' 5-1/2", Elizabeth Gardens, Roanoke Island, NC

Photography courtesy of Ware County Tourist Bureau, Manteo, NC

BACKGROUND 1.About the Artist Louisa Lander was born in Salem, Massachusetts in 1826. As

early as childhood, Lander modeled dolls' heads out of wax, and by the time she was twenty-seven, she was modeling portraits of dignitaries who lived in Washington, DC. Eventually, she began to carve subjects of women chosen from mythology and literature, a practice that was compatible with sculpture being made by other nineteenth-century artists. However, in 1855, Lander sailed for Italy to study sculpture in Rome, and it was there that she chose to represent in marble the young Virginia Dare. The subject was an unusual one in American neoclassical art, and the sculpture would become one of her most famous works.

2.About the Subject Virginia Dare was born in 1587, the first child of British parents

born in America. Soon after her birth, the governor of the Roanoke colony sailed for England to obtain supplies. When he returned, he found that the settlement had vanished, and the young Virginia was reportedly carried off by the Indians. According to the legend, Virginia Dare was raised as an Indian princess, and this is how she is portrayed by Lander.

DISCUSSION 1. While the class is looking at a reproduction of the sculpture,

give a brief history of the artist and the subject represented.

2. Since details are not always clear in a reproduction of three- dimensional art, give a description of the work. In this case, the figure stands on the beach, partially draped with a fishing net that is British in design. Her hair is bound with eagle feathers, and around her neck and upper arms are strings of wampum beads. Her pet bird, a heron, is at her side.

3. Ask the following questions to stimulate discussion: How does this sculpture reflect Neoclassicism? How does this figure depart from the neoclassical tradition? How might this departure from the tradition reflect the fact that

Lander is an American woman artist?

ACTIVITY Define a legend and discuss the role that it plays in teaching a

moral or lesson. Ask the students to name some historical heroes or heroines who have fought oppression, for example, Susan B. Anthony or Martin Luther King, Jr. Instruct each student to choose one of the heroes or heroines mentioned. Tell each student to pretend that he or she has been commissioned to do a sculpture of that person. Finally, instruct the students to write and account of how they would portray the characters they have chosen. Have them include such things as the posture of the character, an activity in which the character might be engaged, the kind of clothing the character might wear, and other objects or persons that may appear with the character in the work of art.

EDMONIA LEWIS

Hagar(1875) marble, 52-5/8" x 15-1/4" x 17", National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institute

BACKGROUND 1.About the Artist Edmonia Lewis was born, prophetically perhaps, on the Fourth of

July, 1845, of a Native American Indian (Chippewa) mother and an African American father. When Lewis was very young, both parents died, and she went to live among the Chippewas. In 1856, she

JANUARY 1996 / ART EDUCATION



Louisa Lander (American; 1826-1923) Virginia Dare, 1860, marble; 5 ft. 51/2 in. Elizabeth Gardens, Roanoke Island, North Carolina.

Photo courtesy of Dare County Tourist Bureau, Manteo, North Carolina.



Edmonia Lewis (American; 1845-c.1911) Hagar, 1875, marble; 52 5/8 in. x 15 1/4 in. x 17 in.

National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institute.

-l



entered Ohio's Oberlin College, the only institution in American open to women of color. At Oberlin, Lewis was a fine student But in her fourth year, she was accused of poisoning her two roommates. Although she was acquitted of the crime, the incident sparked racial tension, and the artist was severely beaten by a gang of vigilantes. Lewis was tempted to return to her life as an Indian, but, instead, she had the courage to move to Boston where she eventually pursued a career as a sculptor. Nearly all of the sculptures that Edmonia Lewis made related to her background and to themes of racial oppression. She was the first American sculptor of color to win international fame, and she is recognized today as the first important sculptor of color in America.

2.About the Subject The biblical story of Hagar tells of Abraham, the Israelite leader,

and his maidservant, Hagar, who was Egyptian. Hagar bore Abraham a child, and she was subsequently thrown out of the household by Abraham's jealous wife, Sarah. Hagar was destined to spend the rest of her life wandering in the wilderess.


give a brief history of the artist and the subject represented. 2. Lewis' Hagarmay be described as a beautiful young woman

with classical features. She looks up to heaven with her hands clasped in prayer or pleading for help. An empty ur lies at her feet.

3. Ask the following questions to stimulate discussion: How does Hagar reflect the neoclassical tradition in sculpture?

Why do you think Lewis chose to represent Hagar in this manner?

What kind of symbolism do you think is implied in this sculpture?

Why did Edmonia Lewis and the other members of the White Marmorean Flock go all the way to Europe to pursue careers as sculptors?

ACTIVITY Inform your students that there are many other professional

women artists of color and mixed racial heritage who have responded with courage to racial and sexual discrimination in America by expressing their anger, pain, and pride in their culture through their art. A list of their names includes: Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, May Howard Jackson, Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, Eugenie Frederica Shonnard, Augusta Christine Fells Savage, Selma Burke, Geraldine Hamilton McCullough, Elizabeth Catlett, Karita Coffey, Faith Ringgold, Maria Johnson-Calloway, Marina Guttierez, Ana Mendieta, Maria Lino, May Stevens, and Betye Saar. Ask students to choose one of these artists or discover through library research and reading a woman artist of color whose name does not appear on this list. Each student should then be prepared to bring to class a reproduction of a work of art by the artist whom he or she has chosen and talk in class about the artist and the content of the work. The bibliography provided below would be a good starting point for library research, and the periodical indexArt Index would be another excellent aid.

HARRIET HOSMER

Zenobia in Chains (1859) marble, height 49", Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford, CT.

BACKGROUND 1.About the Artist Harriet Goodhue Hosmer was bor in Watertown,

Massachusetts, on October 9,1830. By the time she was twelve, her mother and all three of her siblings had died of tuberculosis. Hosmer's father was a physician who was determined to prevent the loss of his only remaining child to the disease, and so he insisted that she develop an intensive routine of exercise to build up her strength. He prescribed an outdoor life of activities that included riding, shooting, and even mountain climbing. Such activities were usually considered appropriate only for boys, and so Hosmer found herself competing with males at a very young age. In 1847, Dr. Hosmer sent his daughter to a boarding school for girls, and this experience would prove to be a critical turning point in her life. Creative expression was encouraged at the school, and Hosmer had the advantage of being surrounded by strong independent women who had established themselves in society as distinguished professionals. It was at boarding school that Hosmer learned women could undertake serious work, that is to say, work that was done traditionally by men, and that they could succeed at it.

In spite of her father's objections, Hosmer decided to become a sculptor, and she would soon become the leader and most accomplished member of the White Marmorean Flock.

2.About the Subject Zenobia was the third century queen of Palmyra (Syria). She

came to power as the wife of Odenathus who was an ally of the Romans. She ruled jointly with her husband until his death in 267 and then reigned as regent for their son. Known for her beauty, courage, and learning, she led Palmyra, extending its power as far as Arabia and Egypt. Even though Palmyran control encroached on their territories, the Roman emperors Gallienus and Claudius tolerated the expansion because their armies did not equal those of Zenobia. However, when Aurelian came to power in Rome, he put a stop to Palmyra's growth. He defeated Zenobia in two battles, and he laid siege to the capital city of Palmyra. Zenobia refused the terms of the surrender and slipped through her armies' defense lines to seek aid from the Persians. She was captured by Aurelian, and the city was sacked. Zenobia was taken to Rome and compelled to walk in chains in Aurelian's triumphal procession. It is this moment in the life of the queen that Hosmer depicts.

ART EDUCATION / JANUARY 1996



INSTRUCTIONAL __ -;E ~i nr a ~~


give a brief history of the artist and the subject represented. 2. A description of the work should be made by the teacher.

Zenobia is dressed in classical clothing, and she is adorned with a helmet-like diadem (crown) and jeweled belt befitting a queen. Her jeweled accessories, the position of her head, and her posture imitate famous sculptures from antiquity such as theAthena Giustiniani and the BarberiniJuno, sculptures now in the Vatican collection. The wrists of Zenobia are shackled with chains which she gathers up in her left hand.

3. Ask the following questions to stimulate discussion: From our description of Zenobia, one can see that the

neoclassical tradition is reflected, but how does the figure depart from the tradition most commonly used by nineteenth-century sculptors?

Can you name other powerful women in history who are rarely represented in art?

ACTIVITY Although Hosmer's choice of subject matter is taken from

literature, her treatment ofZenobia is distinctly different from early historic accounts of the queen's life. However, Hosmer's portrayal closely reflects the description of the queen made by the nineteenth-century feminist writer, Anna Jameson. Read to the class the following accounts, but do not reveal the authors. Ask them to choose the literary account that they think influenced Hosmer the most.

In Augustan History, the fourth-century writer Pollio describes Zenobia as follows:

She was adorned with gems so huge that she laboured under the weight of her ornaments, for it is said that this woman, courageous though she was, halted very frequently, saying that she could not endure the load of her gems. Furthermore, her feet were bound with shackles of gold and her hands with golden fetters, and even on her neck she wore a chain of gold, the weight of which was borne by a Persian buffoon.6

Most of the late eighteenth-century and early nineteenth- century descriptions of the queen were based on Pollio's account.

Anna Jameson's account reads:

Every eye was fixed on the beautiful and majestic figure of the Syrian queen, who walked in the procession before her own sumptuous chariot, attired in her diadem and royal robes, blazing with jewels, her eyes fixed on the ground, and her delicate form drooping under the weight of her golden fetters, which were so heavy that two slaves were obliged to assist in supporting them on either side.8

Reveal to your students the identity of the authors of these two descriptions. In summary, make the point to your class that in literature as in art, the author's point of view can have a significant impact on the reader's interpretation of the subject

Barbara A. Falletta is a consultant/instructor of art history and art education at the Centerfor the Fine Arts, Miami, Florida.

NOTES 1Watertown's Victorian Legacy, p.l. 'Thorpe, p. 151 3For example, Undine was the subject of many sculptural

representations, and Chauncey B. Ives presented his Undine in wet drapery displaying a body as revealing as any nude representation. Since Undine was in search of her soul, the sculpture suggests the proper Christian aspirations.

4The subject of enchained females was of great interest to many American sculptors of the nineteenth century. The Greek Slave by Hiram Powers portrays a nude Greek female exposed in a Turkish slave market. This figure recalls the pose of a Venus figure, an image that implies pagan morality. Powers used the pathetic subject of a captive of the Greek war as a respectable pretext for displaying a nude woman.

'The term content refers to the theme of the sculpture, and form is the manner in which the theme is expressed.

Vaughn, p. 222. In the same account, Vaughn states that Vopiscus, another writer of the same approximate period, wrote an account which concurs with Pollio's in that others had to assist Zenobia in supporting the weight of her chains. However, he does not mention a "Persian buffoon."

7Waller, p. 23. Gibbons states: "the golden fetters that encircled her neck and the heavy jewels." Edward Gibbons, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, J. B. Burty (London: Methuen, 1909), p. 334.

8Jameson, p. 32.

REFERENCES American Women Sculptors. (1990). Boston: G.K. Hall & Co. Carr, C. (Ed.). (1912). Harriet Hosmer, Letters and Memories. New

York: Moffat, Yard & Company. Chadwick, W. (1990). Women, Art and Society. New York: Thames

and Hudson, Inc. Craven, W. (1984). Sculpture in America. NewJersey: University of

Delaware Press. Dannett, S. (1964). Profiles of Negro Womanhood. Yonkers, NY:

Educational Heritage (Negro Heritage Library). Gerdts, W. H. (1971). "Marble and Nudity."Art in America, 59, 60-67. James, H. (1903) William Wetmore Story and His Friends (Vol. 1).

Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. Jameson, A (1870). Lives of Celebrated Female Sovereigns and

Illustrious Women. Philadelphia: Porter and Coats. Rubinstein, C. S. (1982). American Women Artists: From Indian Times

to the Present. Boston: G.K Hall & Co. Sherwood, D. (1991). Harriet Hosmer: American Sculptor, 1830-1908.

Columbia: University of Missouri Press. Thorpe, M. F. (June, 1959). 'The White, Marmorean Flock." The New

England Quarterly XXXII (No. 2, pp. 147-169). Vance, W. L. (1989). America's Rome (Vol. 1). New Haven/London:

Yale University Press. Vassar College Art Gallery. (1972). The White Marmorean Flock:

Nineteenth CenturyAmerican Women Neoclassical Sculptors. Exhibition Catalogue by Nicolai Cikovsky, Jr., Marie H. Morrison, and Carol Ockman. Introduction by William Gerdts. Poughkeepsie, New York.

Vaughn, A. C. (1967). Zenobia of Palmyra. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

Waller, S. (1983). 'The Artist, the Writer, and the Queen: Hosmer, Jameson, and Zenobia." Woman's ArtJournal IV (No. 1; Spring/Summer, pp. 21-28).

Ware, W. (1843). Zenobia, or the Fall of Palmyra (Vol. 2). New York/Boston: Francis & Francis.

Watertown Free Public Library. (1976). Watertown's Victorian Legacy-A Bicentennial Art Exhibition. Exhibition Catalogue by Joseph L. Curran. Watertown, Massachusetts: Pentacle Press.

JANUARY 1996 / ART EDUCATION



Harriet Hosmer (American; 1830-1908) Zenobia in Chains, 1859, marble; 49"H.

Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford, Connecticut.



Documents

Learning to Look/Looking at Learning || Instructional Resources: Images of Women by Women in Nineteenth-Century American Sculpture