Running head: LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 1

Learning Theory and the Educational Processes

Monica R. Woods

University Of Phoenix

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 2

Abstract

This paper is to summarize the learning theories behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, social

cognitivism, humanism, and moral development. It is intended to describe key concepts of each

learning theory discovered through the course readings and further examination of learning

theories. This paper will also identify major theorists that identified as contributors to of each

theory and introducing them to science and society. This summary will also include some

identified strengths and weaknesses of each theory. Finally, this paper will discuss each theory

and how educators can use these theories to optimize the learning processes and experiences of

students in the classroom setting.

Keywords: learning theory, behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, classroom,

instruction, social cognitivism, humanism, moral development, and self-actualization

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 3

Learning Theory and the Educational Processes

Today's classroom teaching requires educators to go beyond the systematic execution of

basic pedagogical steps of instructional design. The necessity to close the gap between learning

theories and educational practices have been discussed amongst researchers for since the late

1900's (Ertmer and & Newby, 2013). According to Ertmer and Newby, researchers have

expressed a strong need to giving an engineering analogy to science and math content to translate

theory into practice. Educators must have a clear understanding of various learning theories to

consider the benefits associated with strategies of instruction in the classroom. Learning theories

discussed in this paper are behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, social cognitivism,

humanism, and moral development. These approaches offer strategies that can bringing clarity,

direction, and focus on designing and implementing instruction that align with student learning.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a learning theory that dates back to Plato’s ideas of the mind being the

basic principle of reality (Gredler, 2009). Gredler discussed other behaviorists Aristotle, Ivan

Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Edward Thorndike as major contributors to the study

of behavior. Pavlov was most noted by his work with a dog, a bell, and food, which brought us

classical conditioning (Mergel, 1998). John Watson took Pavlov's idea and studied human

behavior (Mergel). Watson demonstrated classical conditioning using a baby and a white rat

associating a loud noise to the baby touching the white rat. Mergel described B. F. Skinner as a

behaviorist that associated rewards or positive behavior, called operant conditioning, to the

stimulus-response pattern, which he saw as a way to condition behavior. Edward Thorndike held

a behaviorist belief stating that a bond establishes between stimuli and responses when the

response was positive (Mergel). Behaviorism plays an important role in instruction as the need

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 4

for educators to structure the classroom environment to stimulate learning in direct response to

the behavioral needs of the student. As shown in the chart attached, behaviorism occurs when

teachers can demonstrate a relationship between the curriculum (stimuli) and the engaging

(response) of the student. Teachers can activate the memory through review and practice to get

an idea of the student's readiness. Factors that influence learning using the behaviorists view

include designing the environment with the needs of the student's learning style in mind.

Students are building and strengthening instructional cues and reinforcing concepts through

practice.

Cognitivism

Where behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors, cognitivism, on the other hand,

focuses on the internal processes of the mind. Cognitivists such as Vygotsky, Bruner, Piaget,

Dewey, and Gagne recognized learning went beyond observable behaviors (Gredler, 2009).

Cognitivists believe that learning takes place when associations can be made cognitively with

repetition. Gredler states that fundamental concepts of cognitivism include schema, which is the

internal knowledge with existing cognitive structures. It also includes a three-stage information

process involving sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Cognitivist

concepts also use meaningful effects that make information easier to learn and remember. Serial

position effects make it easy to remember information sequentially from beginning to end and.

Practice effects that employ practicing and rehearsing to improve retention. Transfer effects of

prior learning to learning new information is another concept of cognitivism. Concepts also

include the interference effect where prior learning interferes with learning new knowledge.

Then, organization effects when the learner categorizes what I taken in to make information easy

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 5

to remember. Another commonly used concept is mnemonic effects, which involves using

strategies to place meaningless input into meaningful images or context (Mergel, 1998).

The best learning teachers can use with cognitivism is to challenge students' retrieval and

store information to use at a later time. As shown in the chart, cognitivism works best with

strategies that require reasoning and problem-solving skills.

Constructivism

Constructivists such as Piaget, Bruner, Vygotsky, Dewey, Vico, and Rorty view learning

as the building of knowledge through doing (Gredler, 2009). Constructivism learning theory

states that knowledge is based on individual experiences and cannot be passed from one learner

to another. Constructivism assumes that learning is adaptive, is positional, is constructed by the

learner, is resistant to change, and is social (Yilmaz, 2008). Constructivist learning is seen in

self-directed learning environments where student activity is hands-on and reflecting.

Constructivism shows a focus on the learner constructing knowledge within a social context

(Yilmaz, 2008). Learning occurs in constructivism when students are given the opportunity to

construct (create) their meaning and understanding (interpret) of the concept derived from their

individual experiences (see chart included). Teachers who use the constructivists view in

instruction facilitates the learning allowing students to function in a social setting that invite

discovery.

Social Cognitivism

Albert Bandura founded the social cognitive theory in his discovery of behavioral

modeling while working with his patients with snake phobias. Bandura's theory broadened by

theorists Edwin Holt, Harold Chapman Brown, Neal E. Miller, and John Dollard (Ormrod,

2014). The social cognitivist view is learning by relating to one’s environment. Bandura suggests

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 6

that people learn by observing others in their environment. Miller and Dollard took Bandura’s

theory further suggesting that learning occurs through observing and imitating the behavior of

others (Ormrod, 2014).

Social Cognitivism theory employs the most simplistic instructional implications for

classroom instruction. Teachers should provide students with frequent opportunities to observe

models of knowledge, behaviors, and skills they are expected to master. Learning occurs in a

social cognitive classroom through a reciprocal interaction of students, the environment, and

behavior (Denler, Wolters, and Benzon, 2014). Social Cognitivism theory uses cognitive, verbal,

and coping functions learned and stored in the memory (see the chart associated). Students learn

best in classrooms where the teacher utilizes mnemonics, visual graphics, and makes the content

relevant and personal to the student.

Humanism

Humanists Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, John Dewey, Malcolm Knowles, and Rollo

May shared the belief that learning is activated by personal drive guided by reason (Carter,

2014). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs demonstrates the process educators can use to lead students

to discover self-identity and holistic understanding. Carter explains humanistic theory is unlike

most theories as focusing on how learning takes place and acquiring knowledge, humanism

emphasizes the learners learning by the association between social transformation and self-

actualization.

The teacher who uses humanistic pedagogy will design learning with an understanding

that learning occurs when the instruction is intended to meet cognitive needs, and the student can

derive personal meaning from the content. Humanistic instruction is activated when influenced

by an environment in which the educational decisions and practices are personalized, promotes

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 7

positive direction and independence. A humanistic teacher will adapt from being an instructor

presenting the curriculum to a facilitator guiding students in their learning.

Moral Development

Moral development theory is based on a system of beliefs, values, and principles directed

by human conduct associated with the behavior response and its consequences. Moral theorists

Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan, H.J. Eysenck, and Justin Aronfreed were very

influential in the field and built upon the three levels and six stages of moral development

founded by Piaget and Kohlberg (Stephens, 2009). These stages are critical in the moral

development of people, beginning with babies. Kohlberg identifies the three levels and six stages

of moral development as (1) pre-conditional morality- individual moral decision based on self,

(stage 1) obedience and punishment orientation, (stage 2) individualism and exchange; (2)

conventional morality (stage 3) good interpersonal relationships, (stage 4) maintaining the social

order; (3) post-conventional morality (stage 5) social contract and individual right, (stage 6)

universal principles (Stephens, 2009).

Learning occurs in moral development theory by the student’s ability to discern between

obedience and punishment. According to Stephens, learning occurs as the student associate

obedience to discipline, uses reasoning skills, understands one's beliefs and values, and fears

authority. Moralistic teachers gear students in the direction to gain acceptance from peers.

Classroom instruction is best provided to students in cooperative learning groups, and using

word problems, problem-solving skills in activities and assessments. Decision-making and self-

interest are also the centers of moral development. A teacher that promotes

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 8

Strengths and Weaknesses

The strengths and weaknesses of learning theories vary based on the learning outcomes

of the learner. The strengths of behaviorist learning are rooted in goals to be met, and learner

focus on achievement (Ertmer and Newby, 2013). The weakness in behaviorism is in the

effectiveness of stimuli-response. If the stimuli-response lacks the appropriate incentive, then the

desired behavior may not appear. The strengths of cognitivism are that instruction potentially

derives meaningful learning for longer impact on the learner and is well suited for higher levels

of learning (Yilmaz, 2008). The weakness of cognitivism lies in the schemas that help make

learning meaningful. According to Ertmer and Newby (2013) learners are at a disadvantage

when schemas or prior knowledge are not present. Constructivism theory is strengthened by the

ability to present content in various ways. Constructivist learners can develop and present new

information and knowledge in an active learning way (Baumgartner and Duncan, 2009).

Constructivism is weakened by individual interpretation and interests, making it difficult to

assess learning outcomes.

Conclusion

Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism are founding theories that other theories

such as social cognitivism, humanism, and moral development were derived. Because each

theory gives insight into human learning, it is important that educators understand how to

incorporate the distinguishing elements to effect instruction. Factors key to behaviorism theory

gives teachers tools to develop rules and guideline that set up a classroom environment that is

nurturing and encourages learning. The cognitive theory allows teachers to develop learning

activities to teach students problem-solving and reasoning skills. Constructivism turns a

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 9

classroom into an environment that teaches to individual learning styles and empowers the

learner to construct meaning based on individual experiences. Social cognitive theory guide

student using mnemonic themes and relative curriculum that leads to cognitive and verbal

mastery. Humanistic teaching calls for personalized education plans that supports positive

direction and independence while incorporating technology and cooperative group learning.

Finally, teachers should understand the moral development of students to gauge reasoning skills

and the ability for a student to make good decisions. Where one theory can improve learning

based on desired outcomes, a mix of theories can lead to individual self-actualization.

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 10

References

Baumgartner, E., & Duncan, K. (2009). Evolution of students' ideas about natural selection through a

constructivist framework. The American Biology Teacher, 71(4), 218.

Denler, H., Wolters, C., & Benzon, M. (2014, January). Social cognitive theory. Education.com,1-18.

Retrieved from http://education.com/reference/article/socialcognitivetheory

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical

features from an instructional design perspective. Performance improvements quarterly, 26(2),

43-71. doi:10.1002/piq

Gredler, M. E. (2008). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice, 6th edition. [VitalSource

Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from

http://legacy.vitalsource.com/books/9781323145135/outline/4

Howell, C. (2005). Democratic Education and Social Learning Theory. Philosophy Of Education

Yearbook, 161-170.

Hurst, M. (n.d). Social cognitive learning theory: Definitions and examples [Video file]. Retrieved from

Study.com website: http://study.com/academy/lesson/social-cognitive-theory-definition-

examples

Learning for the 21st Century (2012, December 30). Use A Learning Theory [Video file]. Retrieved

from Youtube website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xa59prZC5gA&feature=youtu.be

Mergel, B. (n.d). Learning theories of instructional design. Retrieved from

http://http//etad.usask.ca/802papers/nergel/brenda.htm

Stephens, J. (2009, December). Moral development. Education.com, 1-18.

Retrieved from http://education.com/reference/article/moral-development

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 11

Yilmaz, K. (2008, Spring). Cognitivism: its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for

classroom instruction. Educational Horizons,161-172.

Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ798521.pdf

Running head: LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 12

Theory Chart, Part 2CUR/711

Monica R. Woods

Distinguishing Elements to

Question

Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Social Cognitivism

Humanism Moral Development

How does learning occur?

Association between stimuli & response

Structured acquisition of knowledge

Creating meaning from experience; build interpretation from experiences

Social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior

Meet affective and cognitive needs; derive personal meaning

Association between obedience-punishment

What is the role of memory?

Memory plays less of a role; practice or review shows readiness of response

Storage, retrieval & encoding information

Pre-existing knowledge with new experiences

Cognitive, verbal, mastery, coping

Cognitive, learning is internal, self-actualization

Reasoning skills, understanding one’s beliefs

What factors influence learning?

Environmental, the learner

Schema, prior experiences

Environment, social interactions, cultural exposure

Environmental, mnemonics, visual graphics

Environmental, personalized educational decisions and practices

Fear of authority, acceptance by peers

What types of learning are best explained by the

theory?

Building and strengthening use of instructional cues, practice, reinforcement

Reasoning, problem-solving, & information processing

Collaboration, social, inquiry

Rehearsal, visual models, relevant and personal material

Cooperative learning groups, promote positive direction and independence, technology

Cooperative learning groups, problem solving, decision making, and self interest

Who are major Theorists?

AristotleIvan PavlovJohn B. WatsonB.F. SkinnerEdward Thorndike

Lev VygotskyJerome BrunerJean PiagetJohn DeweyRobert Gagne

Lev VygotskyJean PiagetJohn DeweyGiamattista VicoRichard Rorty

Albert BanduraEdwin HoltHarold Chapman BrownNeal E. MillerJohn Dollard

Abraham MaslowCarl RogersJohn DeweyMalcolm KnowlesRollo May

Jean PiagetLawrence KohlbergCarol GilliganH.J. EysenckJustin Aronfreed

(Ertmer and Newby, 2013; Gredler, 2009; Ormrod, 2014; Carter, 2015; Stephens, 2009)

Running head: LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 13

BehaviorismBehaviorists view learning as a process of behavior that is taught and can be modified based on the associated stimuli and consequences of the behavior (Gredler, 2009). Behaviorism is observable actions that change in response to a specific environmental cause resulting in an effect from such behavior (Gredler, 2009).

CognitivismDerived from Behaviorism, Cognitivism refers to the study of the mind in learning. Theorist made a shift in believing that not all learning happened through changing and shaping behavior. Cognitivism focuses on how the mind takes in, processes, and stores information (Ormrod, 2014). Learners in a cognitivist environment are active in their learning while the mind works as a computer processing and storing information (Ormrod, 2014).

ConstructivismConstructivism is learning that takes place in the form of learners building their own knowledge through hands on activities (Baumgartner and Duncan, 2009). Following the constructivist theory, learners draw from prior knowledge current worldviews to discover new ideas and move to new worldviews that can accept new concepts (Baumgartner and Duncan, 2009).

Social CognitivismSocial cognitivists view learning as the acquiring of social skills through watching and interacting with others (Ormrod, 2014). Social cognitivism focuses on the assumption that modeling is a key factor in learning. Social cognitive theory is an internal process that states knowledge learned may be stored cognitively and retrieved at a later time (Ormrod, 2014).

HumanismHumanists view learning as the focus on the whole person and their freedom, dignity, and potential. Humanism is a paradigm or pedagogical approach believing that learning is a personal act to fulfill one’s potential in life (Carter, 2015)

Moral DevelopmentMoral development is a system of beliefs, principles, and values that govern human conduct by prescribing both positive behavior and the negative consequences that accompany negative behavior towards others in a society (Howell, 2005)

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 14

Individual: Theory Chart, Part II 10 Possible Points 9Feed Forward

Make a concentrated effort to connect the learning from one week to the next. See how the information interrelates with the new information of each subsequent week.

Doctoral Paper Grading RubricCriteria Percents Possible

PointsPoints Earned Comment

Depth Of Scholarship 10% 1 1Assignments should represent the learner’s careful, thoughtful efforts to cover the key elements of the topic thoroughly. Content should go beyond mere description or regurgitation. The work should be thematic and based on an analytical framework of the learner’s choosing.Key Elements

You covered the content well and referenced your sources adequately. You were thorough in the information provided. It was comprehensive and research was used to back up the information found.

Your graphics were well done. I especially liked the table that demonstrated how the

theories overlapped.

Word count range: 1500 - 2400 word count for the thesis section of the paper (entire paper). 0.2 0.2

Corrections are clearly identified. 0.2 0.2Included new theorists and theories learned in Week 4. 0.2 0.2

Includes a separate diagram for all six theories. Note how some overlap.

0.2 0.2

Obvious improvement over the first draft to warrant additional points.

0.2 0.2

Originality of ideas and research 15% 1.5 1.5 The paper demonstrated excellent originality of ideas in the development of

the graphic organizer and information presented. This assignment was not only

a revision of last week's paper, but was an extension based on Week 4's additional

three theories.

Demonstrated originality of thought in proposed rationale for information provided.

0.5 0.5

Enlarged upon researched authors’ points of view. 0.5 0.5

Revisions of the chart reflect feedback of peers, resulting in a much clearer diagram from the original.

0.5 0.5

Theoretical and conceptual framework 15% 1.5 1.5

You expanded on the Week 3 theories and theorists in the thesis paper.

Contributed substantive value to the understanding of the information provided 0.75 0.75

Related the theories and theorists to practical applications. 0.75 0.75

Use of literature 15% 1.5 1.5Good use of the literature. You had a

variety of sources, going beyond just the course materials. Good job!

Supported the assertions with peer- reviewed literature. 0.75 0.75

Used appropriate, timely, and adequate literature. 0.75 0.75

Substantive value 15% 1.5 1.1I question your learning because you failed to cite sources of information

learned and the failure to correctly format a direct quote.

Contributed substantive value to the understanding of the concepts discussed based on course learning

0.75 0.55

Presented information in a manner that would convince others of the point of view established. 0.75 0.55

LEARNING THEORY AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES 15

Clarity and logic of presentation 10% 1 1 Use subheadings to help sectionalize the paper and helps with the transitions from one idea to the next.. The organization of

the paper was clear and easy to follow. Work on your introduction and summary sections. They are key elements of all

assignments.

Utilized a strong organizational structure. 0.5 0.5Covered the facts in a logical and consistent manner.

0.5 0.5

Grammar and adherence to APA format 20% 2 1.4 You struggle with when and how to cite your sources when writing. For instance

in the conclusion, the information seemed to be pulled from your readings, but you

failed to cite any sources. I do not believe the ideas you wrote were solely your own, but gleaned from the readings. You also

had copied information directly from a source, yet the formatting did not indicate this. Properly formatting information as a

direct quote is extremely important.

Sentences, paragraphs structures and words used add to the organization of the document. 0.7 0.7

Followed all rules governing grammar, spelling, and standard usage of American English. 0.65 0.5

Followed all formatting guidelines of APA 6th ed.

0.65 0.2

Total Score 100% 10 9