Learning: Principles and Applications

Chapter 9

Examples of Learning1. The cessation of thumb sucking by an infant.2. The acquisition of language in children.3. A computer program generates random opening moves for its first 100

chess games and tabulates the outcomes of those games. Starting with the 101st game, the computer uses those tabulations to influence its choice of opening moves.

4. A worm is placed in a T maze. The left arm of the maze is brightly lit and dry; the right arm is dim and moist. On the first 10 trials, the worm turns right 7 times. On the next 10 trials, the worm turns right all 10 times.

5. Ethel stays up late the night before the October GRE administration and consumes large quantities of licit and illicit pharmacological agents. Her combined (verbal plus quantitative) score is 410. The night before theDecember GRE administration, she goes to bed early after a wholesome dinner and a glass of milk. Her score increases to 1210. Is the change in scores due to learning?

6. A previously psychotic patient is given Dr. K’s patented phrenological surgery and no longer exhibits any psychotic behaviors.

7. A lanky zinnia plant is pinched back and begins to grow denser foliage and flowers.

8. MYCIN is a computer program that does a rather good job of diagnosing human infections by consulting a large database of rules it has been given. If we add another rule to the database, has MYCIN learned something?

9. After pondering over a difficult puzzle for hours, Jane finally figures it out. From that point on, she can solve all similar puzzles in the time it takes her to read them.

10. After 30 years of smoking two packs a day, Zeb throws away his cigarettes and never smokes again.

Learning DefinedLearning refers to the relatively

permanent change in a person’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his (or her) repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the person or other animal (e.g., fatigue, drugs, etc.).

- Hilgard and Bower

Classical ConditioningIvan Pavlov is known

for coining the term conditioning-discovered by accident

In classical conditioning a person’s old response becomes attached to a new stimulus

Pavlov studied this in dogs-food, salvation, bells

Classical ConditioningTuning fork was the neutral stimulus (does not

initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response

Food was the unconditioned stimulus (an event that leads to a certain, predictable response)

Salivation was the unconditioned response (occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented)

Eventually the tuning fork became the conditioned stimulus (once neutral event that elicits a given response after training)

The salivation then becomes the conditioned response (learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus)

Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning

helps animals and humans adapt to the environment

Classical conditioning is most reliable and effective when the conditioned stimulus was presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

Have you been classically conditioned?????

Classical ConditioningGeneralization occurs when an

animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS without prior training

Discrimination-the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli

Classical conditioning is subject to change-extinction: gradual disappearance of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS

Car Accident

Classical ConditioningWatson and Rayner used

conditioning in a case called Little Albert-fear rats by using a loud sound

You go out to eat and you try something new (ie snails). Then you go to a loud concert. Later you get violently ill, causing you to have a taste aversion to that new food.

Case StudyPlease get with a partner and open up your book to page 249

With your partner read the case study on “Little Albert” and answer the questions

9-point scale from 1 = dislike extremely through 5 = neutral to 9 = like extremely

For the first four questions, dream up a bowl of your favorite soup, one that would score an unqualified 9.

1. Now imagine that the soup was served to you in an ordinary bowl, but had been stirred by a thoroughly washed, used flyswatter. How much would you like to eat that soup?

2. If that flyswatter were brand new, how much would you like to eat the soup?

3. If the soup was first stirred with a thoroughly washed but used comb, how much would you like to eat it?

4. If the soup was served in a thoroughly washed, used dog bowl, how much would you like to eat it?

Now fantasize about your favorite cookie, again one that would rate a 9.

5. How much would you like to eat this cookie if you’d dropped it on the grass first?

6. How much would you like to eat it if a waiter had taken a bite first? An acquaintance? a good friend?

Clearly, the association principle is everything when it comes to food. The idea that something disgusting has been near a favorite dish puts most people off, even when the food is germ-free. Here are Rozin’s results.

1. Eighty-two percent of Rozin’s participants rated the “clean-flyswatter soup” a 4 or less; they would dislike eating it.

2. Fifty-eight percent disliked this bowl of soup. Since the flyswatter is brand new, it has less of an association with insects. However, the idea that the soup had been stirred by an object that might meet a fly in the future was enough to make some people pass it up.

3. Seventy-six percent disliked this soup. Presumably, the thought of human hair is slightly less disgusting than insect contamination.

4. Seventy-one percent disliked soup served in a dog bowl. 5. Only 34 percent would want to pass up this cookie. There’s no

assurance of perfect cleanliness, but grass itself has few negative associations for most

of us. 6. Eighty-four percent would reject this cookie after a waiter had

taken a bite. Only 31 percent would refuse it after an acquaintance had taken a bite, and just 16 percent, if a friend had taken a bite.

AssociationFindings by Cialdini

◦Dr. Robert B. Cialdini is Regents’ Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University. He is best known for his book on persuasion and marketing, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion.

Examples of Common Conditioned Responses

UCS CS UCR CR

Drill Dentist/sound of drill

Tension Tension

Catchy jingle or slogan

Product (soda) Favorable feeling Favorable feeling

Speeding ticket Flashing police car lights

Distress Distress

Let’s ReviewWhat is the difference

between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus?

How are generalization and discrimination related to classical conditioning?

Under what conditions might a conditioned response become extinct?

Robert has been receiving chemotherapy. After each session, Robert vomits. A year later, Robert’s cancer has gone into remission, however, the mere sight of a treatment room causes Robert to become sick and vomit. This only happens in the chemotherapy room.

We have 10 examples. Create a chart on your paper to complete these examples.

Not all examples will have something in the final column.

UCS UCR CS CR Extinction/Generalization/Discrimination

Receiving Chemotherapy

Robert vomits

Sight of a treatment room

Sick and vomit

Only happens in the chemotherapy room (Discrimination)

1. Whenever you see a scary movie you feel scared. Whenever you watch a scary movie, you always eat a box of thin mints. Now you find that just seeing thin mints makes you feel scared.

2. Every time you take a shower, someone in the house flushes the toilet causing the water to turn cold. As a result, you become cold. Now every time you hear a toilet flush, you get cold. The same thing happens when you hear a faucet run.

3. In order to treat bedwetting, a pad that is sensitive to dampness is placed under the sheets. When the pad becomes wet, it sounds an alarm and you wakeup. Eventually, you don’t need the alarm to wake up; rather, your full bladder will wake you up.

4. Your significant other often yells at you and makes you feel bad. When you see this person they make you very angry so you decide to end the relationship. You meet another person who looks like your ex. Although they seems nice, you find yourself hating them for no reason every time you are around them.

5. It is springtime and the pollen from the flowers causes you to sneeze. Soon, when you see a flower, you sneeze.

6. Jack goes to the doctor to have blood taken. When the needle is inserted, Jack feels pain. Now, when Jack sees a doctor he becomes uncomfortable. As it turn out, Jack feels the same way whenever he sees someone in a white lab coat.

7. Tim has a fluffy down pillow. Often, feathers stick out of the pillow and they tickle Tim’s nose causing him to sneeze. Now, each time Tim rests his head on the pillow, he sneezes. This only happens when Tim sleeps on his own pillow.

8. When you see food, you become very hungry. Now, each time you walk into your kitchen, you become hungry. After a while, you find yourself becoming hungry anytime you walk into a kitchen.

9. Your good friend, Joe, orders a meatball pizza. He loves meatball pizza! He also decides to order a beer. After dinner, Joe becomes very sick. Now, every time Joe sees a meatball pizza, he gets a sick feeling in his stomach. This only happens when Joe sees a meatball pizza.

10. You meet Jenny who is an excellent cook. She cooks great meals and you enjoy them. After having her bring your meals to you, you find that you like her as much as you like the food. You only feel this way around Jenny.

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

1. Always a specific stimulus (UCS that elicits the desired response

1. No identifiable stimulus; learner must first respond, then behavior is reinforced

2. UCS doesn’t depend upon learner’s response

2. Reinforcement depends upon learners behavior

3. Learner responds to its environment 3. Learner actively operates on its environment

Operant ConditioningOperant conditioning-learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence

Operant conditioning is the study of how voluntary behavior is affected by its consequences

In his book The Power of Reinforcement, Stephen Ray Flora illustrates the superiority of reinforcement over punishment even in teaching children the spelling of a simple word: Teacher: “Spell ‘cat’.” Student: “k-a-t.” Teacher: “No, wrong.”In this example, suggests Flora, the teacher punishes both the student’s incorrect spelling and effort. The student is provided no incentive to continue and may be at risk for developing learned helplessness. Teacher: “Spell ‘cat’.” Student: “k-a-t.” Teacher: “Nice try! That is very close! Please try again.”In this interaction, the teacher identifies the incorrect spelling and reinforces the effort. The student is likely to try again. However, the teacher has not identified what part of the answer is incorrect. The student’s next spelling might be “k-a-c,” “c-e-t,” or “k-a-f.” Slow progress may frustrate both teacher and learner. Teacher: “Spell ‘cat’.” Student: “k-a-t.” Teacher: “Nice try! That is very close! Can you think of another letter that makes the ‘ka’

sound?” Student: “c”? Teacher: “That’s right! Now, spell ‘cat’.” Student: “c-a-t!” Teacher: “Super! Now spell ‘cat’ again.” Student: “c-a-t.” Teacher: “Great! ‘C-a-t’ spells cat. Give yourself another point.”In this final example, the teacher (1) prompted the student to spell, (2) identified the incorrect spelling and reinforced the child’s effort, (3) identified the location of the error and encouraged error correction, (4) reinforced error correction and prompted spelling again, (5) reinforced the correct spelling a second time and repeated the correct spelling. “As this example illustrates,” concludes Flora, “even teaching the spelling of a simple word may require many embedded instructor-provided reinforcements. Effective teaching of any subject requires copious reinforcement embedded in a lesson coupled closely to student behavior.”

Operant ConditioningSkinner is associated with operant conditioning-behavior is influenced by a person’s history of rewards and punishments-rats solve puzzles for food

Food was the reinforcement (stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated-positive or negative

Skinner Box

Operant ConditioningPrimary Reinforcer-stimulus

that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water

Secondary Reinforcer-stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer

Operant conditioning is heavily influenced by timing and frequency

Which type of reinforcement(s)?Positive, Negative, bothPrimary or Secondary

1. “Good Work” is written on your English paper

2. Candy is given to the winner of Bingo3. Food is stuck in your teeth so you floss4. A bird pecks in the dirt to get a worm5. Increases the frequency of behavior they

follow 6. People tell you that you stink when you

come inside from smoking7. Value must be learned8. Increases the frequency of behavior when

they are removed

Operant ConditioningBehavior that is reinforced every time if occurs is on a continuous schedule of reinforcement

Behavior that is reinforced intermittently is on a partial schedule of reinforcement-more stable and last longer

Operant ConditioningFixed Ratio Schedule is when reinforcement

depends on a specified quantity of responses-paid for every 10 pizzas made

Variable Ratio Schedule is when the number of responses needed for a reinforcement change from one time to the next-playing a slot machine

Fixed Interval Schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement-picking up your pay check

Variable Interval Schedule : a pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement-pop quizzes in class

Which type of reinforcement schedule?

9. You give your dog a treat occasionally when he sits on command.

10. Only every five minutes will a rat get food for hitting a lever.

11. Your little sister gets a new toy for every five times she makes her bed before school.

12. The chicken may get seed every five times, or every seven times, or any one time he pecks the keyboard.

13. A rat gets a treat for pressing a lever after five minutes goes by and then not again until 8 minutes goes by and then not again until 2 minutes goes by.

14. A squirrel gets an acorn every time he gets in the toy car.

Operant ConditioningShaping is a process in

which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones

Response chain: learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next-learning to swim

Remote Control Students!!!

Operant ConditioningAversive Control-process of influencing

behavior by means of unpleasant stimuliNegative Reinforcement-increasing the

strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs1) escape conditioning-training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus (after)2) avoidance conditioning-training of an organism to withdraw from or prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it starts(beginning)

Negative ReinforcementIdentify the aversive stimulus and the

behavior that is being strengthened by its removal.

1) Taking aspirin to relieve a headache.2) Hurrying home in the winter to get out

of the cold.3) Giving in to an argument or to a dog’s

begging.4) Leaving a movie theater if a movie is

bad.5) Smoking in order to relieve anxiety.

Operant ConditioningMost obvious form of aversive control

is punishment-unpleasant consequence occurs and decreases the frequency of the behavior that produced it

Escape or avoidance behavior is repeatedPunishment behavior isn’t repeated

Aversive Control creates rage, aggression, fear, avoidance, and doesn’t teach appropriate behavior

To Help with Handout: Flooding - treating phobias in which the patient is

exposed to painful memories or frightening stimuli until he or she ceases to be anxious.

Example: An arachnophobic patient is locked in a room full of spiders after discussing the treatment with her therapist and consenting to it. She is initially terrified, but eventually relaxes when she realizes that nothing bad is going to happen to her.

Systematic desensitization - client is exposed to the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished

Counterconditioning - counterconditioning just means to re-teach the individual or pet to have a pleasant feeling and reaction toward something that he once feared or disliked.

Punishments and Rewards

What are your thoughts? Are punishments and rewards good????

Let’s ReviewExplain how the four

schedules of partial reinforcement work

What is the difference between escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning

How do positive and negative reinforcement affect a teenager’s choice and purchase of clothes? Provide examples in your answer

Social LearningSocial Learning is the

process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others

Cognitive learning focuses on how information is obtained, processed, and organized

Social LearningLearned helplessness-achieved

when rewards come without effort1) Less motivated to act2) Have low self esteem3) May be depressed

Latent LearningModeling is learning by

imitating others-observational learning (imitation) and disinhibition (observing a snake handler can help a person with a snake phobia)

Social LearningImportant elements of learned

helplessness:1) Stability-person’s belief that they are helpless because of a permanent characteristic(bad math test grade=never will be good at math)2) Globality- problem is either specific or global(I’m just dumb)3) Internality-persons fault for failure

Social LearningBehavior modification refers

to the systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings

Token Economy-conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects with can be accumulated and exchanged for valuable rewards

Social Learning – Self Control

How can you help yourself study better?-Set up a personal system of rewards and punishments-Set up a behavior contract

1) Go to a new place2) Work only as long as you are interested

Let’s ReviewHow is a token economy

an example of behavior modification?

How can you improve your study habits through conditioning?

What principles of modeling should parents consider when rewarding and punishing their children?

SteveSteve is an atrocious, annoying, loud-mouthed, guy. He talks about himself all the time, He never listens, He only showers once a week (aka he smells), He frowns all the timeHe thinks worms are one of the best conversation

topics EVER!!!

He can’t get a date to save his life! Your job is to use elements of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning to help teach Steve the appropriate behaviors that will help him get a date.

~BE SPECIFIC about what behavior you are changing, what type of learning you are using and the exact procedure you will follow.