Learner Language: Vocabulary & Phonology

Learner Language:Vocabulary & Phonology

Amalia Caruso & Karen Murphy

Structure

1. Vocabulary

2. The Aspects of a Word

3. Frequency

4. Strategies for Meaning

5. Strategies for Acquisition

6. A brief History of L2 Acquisition Phonology

7. Learner Problems

8. Teaching Pronunciation

1. Vocabulary

“Of all error types, learners consider vocabulary errors the most serious“

“[L]exical errors are the most common among second language learners“

“[N]ative speakers find lexical errors to be more disruptive than grammatical errors“

source: Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language

Acquisition. An Introductory Course. 2nd ed. London: LEA, 372.

1. Vocabulary

is everywhere

can disturb communication

connected to phonology, orthography, morphology, grammar, etc.

1. Vocabulary1.1 English in Numbers

It is estimated that the vocabulary of English ranges from 100,000 to 1,000,000 words (dependant on the way one counts the words)

An educated speaker of English is believed to know at least 20,000 words

Most everyday conversation requires about2,000 words

80 – 90% of most non-technical texts is made up by2,000 to 3,000 words (the most frequent ones)

1. Vocabulary1.2 L1-Learners vs. L2-Learners

L1 acquisition in children

(first 1,000 or 2,000 words)

L2 acquisition in older learners

L1 spoken in environment exposed to far smaller samples of language

helpful contexts not always very helpful

less difficult words more difficult, meanings may not be easily guessed

1. Vocabulary1.3 Vocabulary Tests (Meara)

“The first step in knowing a word maysimply be to recognize that it is a word”

http://www.lextutor.ca/tests/yes_no_eng/test_1/

items which look like English words but are not

estimate vocabulary size

effective even for advanced learners as number of chosen non-words is also taken into account

2. The Aspects of a Word

“A word is more than its meaning!”

form: written or spoken grammatical properties

category, (im-)possible structure, idiosyncratic grammatical information

lexical properties word combinations, appropriateness

Meaning general & specific

3. Frequency

as long as students receive natural input from course books and teachers they will be getting the most common words automatically

but it is often the edited texts and classroom conversations which do not have these natural properties

(e.g. vocabulary is listed according to alphabetical order with brief translation into L1)

(cf. Cook)

3. Frequency

with which a word is seen, heard and understood

up to 16 encounters to establish it in memory

even more to use it in fluent speech & to understand it immediately

(cf. Nation)

4. Strategies for Meaning4.1 One-Syllable & Borrowed Words, Cognates

List 1 List 2 List 3

Friend Hamburger Government

More Coke Responsibility

Town T-shirt Dictionary

Book Walkman Elementary

Hunt Taxi Remarkable

Sing Pizza Description

Box Hotel Expression

Smile Dollar International

Eye Internet Preparation

Night Disco Activity

(source: Lightbown, P.M. & Spada, N. p.98)


List 1: One-Syllable Words

among most common words but not likely to be known without former instruction

or exposure to English form and pronunciation give no clue to meaning many exposures in order to establish them in

memory


List 2: Borrowed Words

international vocabulary

might be known to people who have never learned English, as well

borrowed words


List 3: Cognates

Infrequent

but known on sight or learned after single exposure

resemblance to their translation equivalent in other languages


Cognates

misinterpretation possible

recognition not always easy

in general, more accessible in written than in spoken language

4. Strategies for Meaning4.2 Other Strategies

guessing from situation or context

using a dictionary

making deductions from the word-form

5. Strategies for Acquisition5.1 Acquisition through Reading?

some theorists suggest that one can learn vocabulary with little intentional effort (“Reading for pleasure”)

has a positive impact on learning, but doubtful:

one has to know 95% of the words in a text in order to get the meaning of a new word (cf. Laufer)


one has to encounter a new word many times (cf. Nation)

certain types of words are very rare in narratives (cf. Gardner)

certain types of books forbid the acquisition of words important for academic needs


more successful with focused attention through activities and productive tasks (cf. Hulstijn

Laufer)

more effective with good learning strategies, as well (cf. Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown)

5. Strategies for Acquisition5.2 Other Strategies

repetition and rote learning

organizing words

linking to existing knowledge

reviewing

6. A brief History of L2 Acquisition Phonology

Not as much research on phonology as on other components of language

Audiolingualism: techniques aimed at perception and production of the distinction of single sounds

Critical period hypothesis: native-like pronunciation = unrealistic for L2

Communicative language teaching: little attention, if included: emphasis on rhythm, stress and intonation

7. Learner Problems7.1 The basic Trouble: L1 Influence

Languages differ in sounds & their structuring into syllables as well as intonation

Degree of L1/L2 difference influences L2 phonology

More difference = longer period to achieve fluency Chinese vs. German or Dutch

Affects other areas of language, too


Can you think of typical mistakes foreigners from a specific

country make?


Some examples: Korean L1: problem hearing & producing /l/

and /r/ sound Sounds not distinct in Korean

Spanish L1: “I e-speak e-Spanish” No consonant clusters starting with “s” at the

beginning of words in Spanish French L1: stress on last syllable

Normal in French

7. Learner Problems7.2 In Detail: Phonemes

Phoneme: sound that distinguishes meaning in a particular language

Languages differ in their choice of phonemes Typical pronunciation material: hearing and

repeating sentences with high concentration on particular phoneme Emphasis on practice rather than

communication Tries to build up new pronunciation habits

7. Learner Problems7.2 In Detail: Phonemes

Problem: Phoneme itself is not responsible Distinctive features of phonemes differ (e.g. voice,

aspiration) Learner needs to learn both Harder to learn distinctive features (esp. of known

phoneme) than a new phoneme Learner stages:

Presystematic stage Transfer stage Approximative stage

7. Learner Problems7.3 In Detail: Syllable Structure

Which of the following do you believe to be possible and which impossible English words?

Pfunging Plin Pzan Prush Trilly Tnuc


Language specific rules how syllables are made up English: compulsory vowel preceded or followed by

one or more consonants

Main L2 trouble: consonant combinations Even if consonants of both languages are the

same combinations may differ

L2 learners try to make syllables fit their L1 Interlanguage solution


Epenthesis: insertion of extra vowel to make English fit L1 (e.g. Korean, Arabic)

Korean: “kelass” for class Japanese “sutoraki” for strike

Simplification: deletion of consonants out of words if not allowed in L1

Cantonese: “Joa” for Joan

7. Learner Problems7.4 In Detail: Voicing (VOT)

Voice onset time: the moment voicing starts Systems differ Example: stops

English voiced: before or almost simultaneous to moment of release

English unvoiced: after release Spanish: before release Spanish unvoiced: almost simultaneous to

release Spanish speaker may interpret voiced as unvoiced

7. Learner Problems7.5 Universal Processes

Occur in later stages of L2 acquisition (Major, 1986)

Early stages: stronger L1 interference

Simplification happens almost regardless of L1

Devoicing of final consonants

Epenthesis depends on structure of L1 but seems available to all L2 learners


Recent studies: can make difference when focus lies on suprasegmentals rather than segmentals (Hahn, 2004)

Typical: Ad-hoc correction of single words in isolation Learning must include: pronunciation rules,

syllable structure & precise VOT control Relationship reception/production of sounds is

complex


Evelyn Altenberg (2005) Learners good at writing pseudowords NOT so good at production

Faults need to be related to students current interlanguage

Learner stage orientation: Beginners: emphasis on single words Intermediate: relate to L1 Advanced: L2 sound system separate

8. Teaching Pronunciation8.1 Standards

Controversial issue Intelligibility rather than native-like ability

Strong foreign accent can still be comprehensible (Munrow/Derwing, 1995)

Teachers should be aware that some sounds will never improve (treat them differently to the ones that will)

Remember: success rate depends on learner’s motivation

8. Teaching Pronunciation8.2 Influential Factors

Student’s L1

Amount and type of exposure to L2

Degree of L1 use

Ethnic orientation and sense of identity

8. Teaching Pronunciation8.3 Standard Teaching Techniques

Phonetic Script Disputed whether conscious awareness

converts into ability to speak Imitation Discrimination of sounds

Minimal pair exercises: no context Consciousness raising

Training ears to hear things better (cf. Cook) Communication

Real life problems

8. Teaching Pronunciation8.4 Intonation

Intonation shows: grammatical points, discourse connections, speakers’ attitudes

Helps intelligibility L2 intonation similar to L1: few problems New patterns: own strategies of students Mostly: practice and repetition Better: awareness for nature of intonation Dickerson (1987): L2 intonation instruction is indeed

very helpful

Sources

Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition. An Introductory Course. 2nd ed. London: LEA.

Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. 3rd ed. New York: OUP.

Lightbown P.M. & Spada, N. (2006). How Languages are Learned. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP.

And finally:

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Learner Language: Vocabulary & Phonology