Learned behavior:1. It is behavior with what can be called as conditional voluntary force i.e. voluntary force that becomes involuntary because of repeated use. 2. Human behavior is the best example for Learned behavior. However, even animals use this to some extent 2. It needs voluntary force and since human beings can generate it to the maximum extent it is highly evolved in them. 3. It is based on reasoning and therefore is very brittle. 4. The movements are designed t be so slow that any one can execute them. 4. It is conditional behavior and thus gets abolished in presence of a change and therefore is highly stressful 5. It is independent of the status or average skill of the individual and thus anyone can learn it. For the same reason it is illogical. 6. Being independent of the status it is unemotional and thus makes life robotic 

Instinctive behavior:

1. It is the behavior with involuntary force and therefore is based on logic. Since it is very fast it appears to be thoughtless. 2. It is behavior under ideal conditions. 3. The behavior is dependent on the average skill of the individual. and thus can be emotional. However, emotional behavior is not instinctive. It is natural behavior. 4. The movements are faster than in learned behavior because unlike learned behavior it is not designed for every one 5. It is highly evolved in animals because involuntary force is the main force they have. 6. It is stress fee because it is used under ideal conditions. In presence of change the behavior too changes to some extent. 

Learning Theories/Adult Learning Theories

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Overview

2   Andragogy

3   Multiple Intelligences

4   Conditions/Environment

5   Experiential learning

6   Anxiety and the Adult Learner

7   Jarvis’s Learning Process and Adult Learning Theory

8   Case studies & workplace examples

[edit]Overview

Typical adult learning theories encompass the basic concepts of behavioral change and

experience. From there, complexities begin to diverge specific theories and concepts in an

eclectic barrage of inferences. Up until the 1950’s basic definitions of learning were built around

the idea of change in behavior (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). After this point more complexities

were introduced “such as whether one needs to perform in order for learning to have occurred or

whether all human behavior is learned ” (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, p. 249).

Jean Piaget states that there are "four invariant stages of cognitive development that are age

related" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 139). According to the authors, Piaget contends that

normal children will reach the final stage of development, which is the stage of formal operations,

between the age of twelve and fifteen. As cited by Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Arlin (1975,

1984), established from the work of Gruber (1973)on the development of creative thought in

adults, has attempted to identify a fifth stage of development, in addition to Piaget's formal

operations. "She [Arlin] contends that formal thought actually consists of two distinct stages, not

one, as Piaget proposed" (p. 141). Arlin (1975) proposes that Piaget's fourth stage, formal

operations, be renamed the problem-solving stage. According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999),

Arlin's hypothesized fifth stage was the problem-finding stage. This stage focuses on problem

discovery. Though Arlin's proposed fifth stage produced more questions than answers, it opens

the door to understanding the learning needs of adults; to be approached as thinkers.

According to a literature review by Ross (2002), humanism, personal responsibility orientation,

behaviorism, neobehaviorism, critical perspectives, and constructivism are all important facets of,

and perspectives on, adult learning theory. The most common treatments of the research of these

areas of self-directed adult learning are learning projects, qualitative studies, and quantitative

measures. Collins (1991) explores adult learning as the interactive relationship of theory and

practice. In basic terms, the adult learner studies a particular theory and then puts it into practice

when presented with the opportunity to do so. Thus, the understanding of an adult learning theory

can prompt practice and practice can prompt adult learning theory revision.

Adult learning theories in and of themselves have very little consensus amongst them. There is

great debate on an actual determined amount of theories that are even possible, as well as

labeling those theories into groups like Hilgard and Bower’s (1966) stimulus-response and

cognitive theories as large categories of their eleven theories. Another groups dynamic labels

theories as mechanistic and or organismic (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Overall it seems that

the theory of adult learning is broken down into two elements; 1) a process that creates change

within the individual, and 2) a process to infuse change into the organization.

Malcolm Knowles might well be considered the founding father of adult learning. He contrasted

the “concept of andragogy, meaning “the art and science of helping adults learn,”…with

pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn” (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 272).

Knowles’ original studies and writings arose from the assumption that there are significant,

identifiable differences between adult learners and learners under the age of eighteen. Primarily,

the differences, according to Knowles, relate to an adult learner being more self-directing, having

a repertoire of experience, and being internally motivated to learn subject matter that can be

applied immediately – learning that is especially “closely related to the developmental tasks of his

or her social role” (p. 272).

[edit]Andragogy

Knowles (1968) popularized this European concept over thirty years ago. Andragogy, (andr -

'man'), contrasted with pedagogy, means "the art and science of helping adults learn" (Knowles,

1980, p. 43). Knowles labeled andragogy as an emerging technology which facilitates the

development and implementation of learning activities for adults. This emerging technology is

based on five andragogical assumptions of the adult learner:

1. Self-Concept: As a person matures, he or she moves from dependency to self-

directness.

2. Experience: Adults draw upon their experiences to aid their learning.

3. Readiness: The learning readiness of adults is closely related to the assumption of new

social roles.

4. Orientation: As a person learns new knowledge, he or she wants to apply it immediately

in problem solving.

5. Motivation (Later added): As a person matures, he or she receives their motivation to

learn from internal factors.

These five assumptions dovetail with the thoughts and theories of others. Merriam and Caffarella

(1999) point to three keys to transformational learning: experience, critical reflection and

development. The aspect of experience (the second assumption to andragogy) seems like an

important consideration in creating an effective learning opportunity for adults. The learning

opportunity needs to be relevant and applicable to a person’s set of experiences. Argote, McEvily,

and Reagans (2003) point to experience as an important factor in one’s ability to create, retain

and transfer knowledge.

Critical reflection is the second key to transformational learning and part of andragogy’s self-

directed learning. Reflection/think time is yet another essential principle to creating an effective

learning experience for adults. Garvin (1993) shares the importance of fostering an environment

that is conducive to learning including time for reflection and analysis. Adult learners need time to

contemplate the ramifications of the learning experience to their experience and responsibilities.

The third key to transformational learning is development (corresponding to the third assumption

of andragogy). Merriam and Caffarella state that “the ability to think critically, which is mandatory

to effecting a transformation, is itself developmental” (p. 330). If development is the outcome of

transformational learning, then an effective adult learning opportunity needs to be created that will

take personal development into consideration

Andragogy assumes the following about the design of learning:

1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.

2. Adults learn through doing.

3. Adults are problem-solvers.

4. Adults learn best when the subject is of immediate use.

According to Knowles ( 1984, Appendix D) an example used to apply the principles to personal

computer training:

1. Explain why certain skills are taught (functions, commands).

2. Task oriented instead of memorizing. Tasks should be common tasks .

3. Take diversity into play. Acknowledge different learning levels and experience.

4. Allow adults to learn on their own and from their mistakes. ( M.Knowles)

Some would contend that Knowles only introduced a theory of teaching rather than a theory of

adult learning. In commenting on this thought, Merriam and Caffarella (1999) referring to Hartree

suggest, "that it is not clear whether Knowles had presented a theory of learning or a theory of

teaching, whether adult learning was different from child learning, and whether there was a theory

at all-perhaps these were just principles of good practice" (p. 273). It is further contended that

Knowles did not establish a proven theory, rather he introduced a "set of well-grounded principles

of good practice" (Brookfirle, 1986, p. 98).

“Within companies, instructional methods are designed for improving adult learners’ knowledge

and skills. It is important to distinguish the unique attributes of adult learners so as to be better

able to incorporate the principles of adult learning in the design of instruction” (Yi, 2005, p. 34).

Within this context, adult learning is aimed at not only improving individual knowledge and skill,

but ultimately it is the goal to improve the organizational performance by transfer of learning

directly to work applications. Yi suggest three methods to foster learning in adult organizations:

Problem-Based Learning which seeks to increase problem-solving and critical thinking skills;

Cooperative Learning, which builds communication and interpersonal skills; and Situated

Learning, which targets specific technical skills that can be directly related to the field of work (Yi,

2005). Each of these methods support the assumptions about how adults learn; specifically they

are more self-directed, have a need for direct application to their work, and are able to contribute

more to collaborative learning through their experience.

[edit]Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner represents those theorists who have dismissed the idea of one type of

intelligence as typically measured by today’s psychometric instruments. He posited that there

were seven (later eight) types of intelligences (Gardner, 1993):

1. Linguistic intelligence

2. Logical-mathematical intelligence

3. Spatial intelligence or the ability to form a mental model of the spatial world and to

maneuver within it using this model.

4. Musical intelligence.

5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or the ability to solve problems using one’s body as

performed by athletes, dancers and other craftspeople.

6. Interpersonal intelligence or the ability to understand other people.

7. Intrapersonal intelligence or the ability to understand one’s self.

Gardner (1993) maintains that the first two are the types of intelligence commonly measured by

IQ tests, and which are commonly accepted as “intelligence.”

Gardner later added an eighth intelligence to his taxonomy, Naturalist Intelligence, which he

defined as “expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous species -- the flora and

fauna -- of his or her environment” (Gardner, 1999, p. 48) Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory can be

viewed as an interpretation of intelligence as information processing. Li (1996) provides us with a

useful summary of Sternberg’s theory. He tells us that: “In Sternberg's general theory, there are

three subtheories: the componential subtheory, the experiential subtheory and the contextual

subtheory, each divided into subdomains of concern. The contextual subtheory deals with the

context of intelligence. Intelligence in the real world requiring adaptation, selection, and/or

shaping the environment. Measurement of contextual intelligence would relate to the issue of

social perception, culture fairness, and cultural relativeness. The experiential subtheory deals

with the issue of novelty and automatizing of processing. It is related to the notion of learning and

the dynamic interplay between controlled and automated processing in the competition for

cognitive resources. Finally, there is the componential subtheory, which is subdivided into (a)

metacomponents, (b) performance components, and (c) knowledge acquisition components,

which are directly related to learning” (p. 38)

[edit]Conditions/Environment

Some research suggests that situational circumstances constitute an environment that promotes

or discourages learning. Those circumstances may be created by organizational structure,

positive or negative environmental situations, or time constraints. Child and Heavens (2003)

suggest, "The learning capabilities of organizational members are, at least in part, socially

constructed by national, occupational, or other institutions" (p. 310). They further suggest that

internal boundaries are established by specialities or departments within the framework of

organizations that hinder cross-boundary learning.

In following the thread of environmental issues within organizations supporting or hindering

learning, Starbuck and Hedberg (2003) suggest that positive outcomes are much more apt to

result in a positive and successful learning experience. They contend, "Pleasant outcomes

(successes) reinforce Stimulus-Response links whereas unpleasant outcomes (failures) break

Stimulus-Response links. As a result, pleasant outcomes are much more effective at teaching

new behaviors" (p. 331). This concept follows the transformational leadership theory providing

positive opportunities for individuals to grow within the framework of organizational life. However,

it may be contended that learning through failure (i.e. experiments which do not result in the

anticipated outcomes) may provide a more thorough and circumspect understanding of the given

topic or issue under examination, although this method will generally involve a longer learning

curve. --The license to fail is often the surest key towards successful learning which an

organization may provide.

Weber and Berthoin Antal (2003) suggest, "A key question is how long organizational learning

processes take and whether the duration can be externally influenced" (p. 353). They further

contend that learning processes that require practice are much slower than those that do not

require practice. Time consideration is an important element in considering the process of

learning within an organization that must meet specific deadlines or has a client base that needs

to be managed continuously. The conditions may not be suitable for an elaborate training or

educational program. Organizations must consider time pressure as a tool that can encourage

learning and speed up processes. However, Weber and Berthoin (2003) contend, "Time pressure

can both accelerate and slow down learning processes...is experienced as motivating or

threatening...if the sense of threat becomes too excessive, however, learning can be slowed or

made impossible altogether" (p. 355).

In 1998, the American Psychological Associations Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force

Report on Psychology and New Technologies broadened the definition of media psychology and

included eLearning and distance learning in among array of theoies of learning to be included in

research on adult learning. Learning psychologist and media psychology pioneer, Bernard Luskin

expanded the understanding of "e" learning beyond electronic to included sensory response in

this type of learning whan he interpreted the "e" to mean education, excitement, enthusiasm,

enjoyment and energetic, among other perceptions attached to media in the adult learning

enviorinment. This expansion added twenty-first century thinking into the theoretical framework

comprising theories in adult learning.

[edit]Experiential learning

Experiential Learning Theory emphasizes the role that true experiences play in the learning

process. It is this emphasis that distinguishes itself from other learning theories. Cognitive

learning theories emphasize cognition over affect and behavioral learning theories deny any role

for subjective experience in the learning process.

Scholars in the field of education have two contrasting views when it comes to the concept of

experiential learning. The first view defines experiential learning as a sort of learning which

enables students to apply newly acquired knowledge in a relevant setting. The relevant setting

can be a sponsored institution of learning with trainers, instructors, teachers, or professors to

guide the lesson. The other school of thought defines experiential learning as "education that

occurs as a direct participation in the events of life" (Houle, 1980, p. 221). Thus, learning is not

achieved in a formal setting, but in the practice of reflection of daily experiences. Kolb furthers the

second definition of experiential learning by developing a model which details learning process

through experiences. Kolb and Fry's (1975) experiential learning model is a continuous spiral

process which consists of four basic elements:

1. Concrete experience

2. Observation and reflection

3. Forming abstract concepts

4. Testing in new situations

Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observation and reflections. These

reflections are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for

action can be drawn (Kolb & Fry).

According to Kolb and Fry (1975), the adult learner can enter the process at any one of the

elements. The adult learner moves to the next step once he or she processes their experience in

the previous step.

[edit]Anxiety and the Adult Learner

An interview with psychologist Edgar Schein, Coutu suggests that more often than not,

organizations fail at transformational learning. They rarely fundamentally change the behaviors

within the organization. Schein dismisses the notion that learning is fun, especially for adults. He

equates adult learning within organizations with that of the brainwashing techniques he observed

while studying prisoners of the Korean War (Coutu, 2002). Organizations must find a method to

deal with the anxiety adults experience when they are forced to “unlearn” what they know and

learn something new (Coutu, 2002, p. 6). Schein discusses two kinds of anxiety: learning anxiety

and survival anxiety. It is in this manner that he draws the parallel to brainwashing; that is

“learning will only happen when survival anxiety is greater than learning anxiety” (Coutu, 2002, p.

6). Each of these anxieties could be managed, for example learning can be constructed in a

“safe” environment where the consequences of failure are minimal. Survival anxiety can obviously

be increased by threatening job loss, a lack of security, or recognizing competitive elements of

the market.

[edit]Jarvis’s Learning Process and Adult Learning Theory

One of the most significant qualities unique to adult learning as compared to that of children,

teens, and traditional college students is life experience. That experience offers adult learners a

meaningful advantage in the learning process. The sum of those experiences provides many

reference points for exploration, new application, and new learning.

Merriam & Caffarella (1999) review Jarvis’s Learning Process in a wider discussion of adult

learning. These authors quote Jarvis (1987a, p. 16) who suggests, “All learning begins with

experience.” Real learning begins when a response is called for in relation to an experience. If an

individual is unchanged by a situation, Jarvis questions whether real learning has taken place. He

proposes that new experiences need to be experimented with, evaluated, reflected upon and

reasoned about for the most effective change and therefore learning to take place. Jarvis

continues, suggesting that these post experience behaviors culminate in the best and highest

form of learning where change and increased experience have happened. Jarvis’s model offers

an excellent learning model that can assist both facilitators and learners in advancing education

and learning situations.

A few questions come to mind in light of Jarvis’s theory. Does Jarvis’s model reflect a deeply

postmodern worldview where experience is either ultimate or paramount? How might this

worldview expand or narrow learning theory? Does Jarvis’s model seem to accept the maxim that

‘experience is the best teacher’? We can of course qualify this statement by asking whether there

is any learning which does not consist of experience in some form, whether in the classroom, on

the playground or on the battlefield.

Is it possible that some hurtful and negative life experiences could be avoided if a person learned

from another person who has already encountered and experienced a significantly negative life

situation? Learning from an older or more experienced mentor provides an incredibly valuable

learning forum and support network. Listening, and learning from a mentor’s successes, failures,

or mistakes can help expand one’s knowledge base and shorten learning cycles experience

alone would require. It seems that living largely out of one’s personal experiences also short-

circuits meaningful, relational connections that expand one’s horizons and better equip one to

succeed in this world and avoid so many of its pitfalls. Yet, it may be reasonably argued, that

personal experience provides the most integral and visceral form of learning (and I state this as

no objective fact, but rather personal opinion, contrary to how articles are generally written in

"Wikeality").

[edit]Case studies & workplace examples

The adult learning experience presented itself in all of its glory and contradictions through a

curriculum review taking place in a school setting. The objective was to examine the current

school curriculum and evaluate it for strengths and weaknesses. The purpose for this review was

to both align the curriculum with current practice and augment the curriculum to enhance student

learning. Interestingly, the teachers involved in this process seemed to exhibit all the qualities of

adult learners mentioned previously: learning through projects, applying self-direction to the

process, challenging the process for purpose, and some approached the process with much

anxiety. Engaging in the process illustrated that adult learning is individual and there were as

many approaches to adult learning as there were people involved in the process.

At GM, there are several examples of learning opportunities in manufacturing operations that

fulfill the key criteria of adult learning. That is, they provide adults with the need to know why they

are learning something, usually via a review of competitive analysis and the importance of the

topic to our improved competitive position. Secondly, they are often done in a workshop-type

format, where adults can learn through doing. Next, the format typically will cover an application

that will have immediate use and will require the students to bring their experiences to the class

to assist and involve themselves with problem solving. Typical courses or learning opportunities

cover safety issues, quality improvements, and productivity improvements as they apply to

specific departments in the plant. In these workshop-style classes, actual problems are brought to

the class for the students to learn and practice problem-solving skills. The outcomes and

recommendations are then immediately applied in the regular operations.

At Medical Protective, adult learning has been promoted and encouraged among the entire

community. Some learning is required for work-related functions, but other types of courses are

intended to benefit professional development. Motivational factors, such as monetary incentives,

courses being paid for, recognition, and the hope of advancement have encouraged all

employees to participate in a learning course. By utilizing various information technologies,

knowledge programs can be accessed online, downloaded to a PC, or printed off for manual

review, depending on the need of the individual learner. Medical Protective employees are

constantly adapting to the changing IT environment in the market around them, and are using

these systems to become more efficient, knowledgeable workers.

Forces influencing Learning and working

Typical general influencing factors in organizational learning

The factors for gathering and managing knowledge are many and diverse within a learning

organization. Three of the typical general issues or influencing factors in learning organizations

are context, history, and survival. The idea of context is intrinsically tied to socially constructed

elements. Lane (2001) discusses this factor saying, “assumption of most organizational learning

theory is that learning is socially constructed, that is, what is learned and how learning occurs are

fundamentally connected to the context in which that learning occurs” (p. 704). How the culture,

or context, of an organization functions is part of an influencing factor on the type of learning

organization it will be.

One key aspect of organizational learning to remember is that an organization should not lose out

on its learning abilities when members of the organization leave. The concept of organizational

memory means that effective learning organizations should not only influence the current

members, but also future members due to the experiences, beliefs, and norms that are

accumulated along the way. Creating a learning organization is only half the solution to a

challenging problem (Prahalad & Hamel, 1994). Equally important is unlearning some of the past

that has not moved the company forward on a path of healthy growth.

Developing a work culture that values creativity and encourages innovation is imperative to an

organization that desires to learn and produce new ideas or products (Kiely, 1993; Prather, 2000;

Sternberg, 2003; Thompson, 2003). In an early article, Shallcross (1975) shares the role of the

leader in creating an open environment to new ideas - “the role of the leader in creativity training

is one of providing a climate that is nonjudgmental, of helping each individual to realize personal

uniqueness and the uniqueness of others” (p.626). Suh (2002) concurs with the importance of

managerial encouragement for the innovating thinking of the worker in the areas of planning,

learning, and production.

Amabile (1998) points to six general categories of effective management practice in creating a

learning culture within an organization: (1) providing employees with challenge; (2) providing

freedom to innovate; (3) providing the resources needed to create new ideas/products; (4)

providing diversity of perspectives and backgrounds within groups; (5) providing supervisor

encouragement; and (6) providing organizational support.

Second is the issue or factor of history. The implications of past endeavors and attempts at

growth or learning will affect the long-term view of learning overall within that organization. Lane

(2001) wrote, “A related aspect of the process of learning is a view of the organization as an

embodiment of past learning. The concept of memory as the storehouse of either individual or

organizational knowledge is further explicated by reference to the there term ‘mental models’…

guide the acquisition and organization of new knowledge” (p. 702). The ability of an organization

to assimilate and diffuse both new and old information will determine the longevity of developing a

learning organization through healthy means.

Lastly, the issue of survival is the basic premise for becoming a learning organization. Ortenblad

(2002) says, “according to the critical literature most or all organizational learning theorists

indicate that survival is an important object for learning” (p. 95). This concept is basic to human

nature, survival of the fittest. In order for an organization to exist long term, it must learn more

than just new fads or moments of knowledge, it must learn consistently over time for this is a

learning organization.

Neilson and Pasternack (2005) provide a convincing example of this survival anxiety in their

account of Caterpillar’s change from what they term to be an over-managed organization to a

resilient organization. Komatsu’s early 1980’s attack on Caterpillar and the first losses in

Caterpillar’s history were anxiety provoking to the point that excessive bureaucracy, centralized

authority and a highly political culture were jettisoned successfully.

[edit]Human resource factors influencing organizational learning

Organizations vary greatly in all aspects. Establishing an understanding of what influences

organizational learning for the vast majority of organizations is extremely valuable. This would

allow individuals in many different organizations to benefit from examining some key factors that

would increase organizational learning in their setting.

Lohman (2005) found the factors of initiative, positive personality traits, commitment to

professional development, interest in the profession, self-efficacy and love of learning enhanced

the motivation for informal organizational learning. Conversely, an unsupportive organizational

culture, others who were unwilling to participate, lack of time, and lack of proximity with

colleagues negatively impacted this organizational learning.

Shipton, Dawson, West, and Patterson (2002) investigated the manufacturing environment and

found that only two of five variables were associated with organizational learning: approach to

human resources management and quality orientation. Profitability, environmental uncertainty,

and structure were not significantly related to organizational learning. Albert (2005) found that top

management support and involvement of consultants also facilitated organizational learning and

change.

A European study showed that lack of motivation, extra work, unclear roles, lack of confidence,

perception of role, insufficient learning culture, lack of innovation, lack of time, and lack of

resources negatively impacted organizational learning (Sambrook & Stewart, 2000). From the

positive perspective, motivation, enthusiasm, involvement, clarity and understanding of role,

increased responsibility, perception as a strategic partner, a developed learning culture, senior

management support, organization re-structure, job redesign, and investment in human

resources, and the learning environment made a significant difference in organizational culture.

[edit]Time factors influencing organizational learning

Weber and Berthoin Antal (2003) describe six key dimensions of time that influence

organizational learning: the organization’s time perspective and orientation to time, time pressure,

simultaneity, synchronization and windows of opportunity, learning cycles and life cycles, and

history (p. 354).

Time perspective 

Within an organization, individuals, groups, departments, or functions, may all hold very

different perspectives of time and the implications time horizons hold for the necessity of

learning. Therefore, it is important that the top leadership of the organization clearly

determine the time orientation for the organization as a whole, such that decision-making

and learning take place in a manner consistent with the organization-wide time

orientation and perspective.

Time pressure 

Time pressure can influence learning from within the organization (top-down, bottom-up,

peer-to-peer) as well as from external sources such as competitors, suppliers, customers,

and communities. Time pressures can actually slow learning, as in the case when the

organization is threatened by internal or external forces that paralyze the organization for

fear that taking action could risk undesirable consequences. Likewise, learning and

performance can be accelerated, for example, by the threat of deadlines or competitive

maneuvers in the market.

Simultaneity 

External events and opportunities happen simultaneously and at a pace so frenetic that

no organization can take advantage of all of them, given finite resources and levels of

knowledge. This aspect of time presents a risk to organizations that they will lose control

over the timeframes of those activities they pursue.

Synchronization and windows of opportunity 

This dimension refers to the sequence of events or the specific windows of time when

organizations are best positioned and open to learning. The sequence refers to knowing

which learning activities are best for certain times. Simply put, the right activity or learning

moment at precisely the right time will lead to more effective learning. Windows of

opportunity are relevant because there are times when organizations may be better

positioned to embrace learning, for example during periods when the perceived threat to

their survival is greater than the difficulty of learning.

Learning cycles and life cycles 

Just as individuals learn through observation, experience, reflection, and transference to

other situations, so too do organizations incorporate learning cycles into their culture and

behaviors. The success of an organization often depends on how quickly the learning

cycles can take place. The life cycle of the organization also has implications for

organizational learning. For example, the age of an organization - especially the older

that it is, can lead to difficulty when adopting new practices and new learning because

these organizations can become set in their ways. At times an older organization will

battle "legacy" behaviors and cultural norms that are contrary to change and learning and

adoption of new practices.

History 

Weber & Berthoin Antal (2003) state, "History has an identifying effect for organizations"

(p. 358). How an organization has applied learning in the past can be used to apply to

learning opportunities in the future. The history, or identity, of an organization is in part

built on the collective learning of individuals and groups within the organization over time.

It is this historical dimension of time that actually captures all of the others and presents

them as a composite of the effects of time on the organization’s ability to learn. Weber

and Berthoin Antal (2003) state that “the influence of history on the organization can be

positive as well as dysfunctional" (p. 358). Organizations can use to their advantage and

potential success their collective and stored knowledge. However, they must beware of

obsolescence that may come with strict adherence to past practices and procedures,

without the consideration of new learning and opportunities.

Individuals, when given time, opportunity, and resources are

quite often capable of implementing change 'expediently' when

compared to teams or organizations. The lag in time that so

often hinders organizational change is called 'organizational

inertia' – a situation Starbuck and Hedberg say can arise from

“slow sense-making processes and ineffective information

systems...[or when] individuals learn without their organizations

also learning” (Dierkes, et al., 2003, p. 335). One possible

resolve to this dilemma is the Japanese concept of Kaizen – an

applied system for implementing continuous improvement

through small steps (Maurer, 2004). If we conceive of

organizational learning as a necessary means for continuous

improvement, then it is not a far stretch to also realize that

learning – taken in small, applied steps, makes sense. Starbuck

and Hedberg state that “continuous improvement, the daily

challenging of status quo, supports the notion that everything

can be improved….[and that] evolutionary learning in small steps

seems to work better than does revolutionary learning,

[especially] during periods of repeated success” (Dierkes, et al.,

2003, p. 337).

[edit]Group factors influencing organizational learning

Factors that influence group learning are explored by McConnell

and Zhao (2004). In their study, they designed a diagram to

show group learning in by integrating factors together. The first

step was group planning. The planner has to be very clear about

the learning task and the objectives. The learning community has

elements that must be considered such as "creativity, norms,

belief, and status"(p.7). Factors that must be considered

"interaction, communication, negotiation, skills, strategies,

feedback, leader, role play, brainstorming, and motivation"

(p.7).Lastly in evaluation , the following factors must be

considered, " performance, effectiveness, outcomes,

contributions, history, experiences, and productivity" (p.7).

[edit]Follower factors influencing organizational learning

Though shallow on the surface, Maxwell's (1993) definition of

influence substantiates the effect influence can have within an

organizational structure, particularly as it relates to lower level

employees affecting organizational change. Maxwell states,

"Leadership is influence" (p. 1). Peter Drucker, as cited in

Goldsmith, Morgan, and Ogg (2004), states, "‘the great majority

of people tend to focus downward,' writes Peter Drucker. 'They

are occupied with efforts rather than results. They worry over

what the organization and their superiors owe them and should

do for them'" (p. 19). What is missing in this mindset is the ability

to affect, or influence, change within an organization regardless

of position. Goldsmith, Morgan, and Ogg (2004), state,

"Organizations in all fields suffer when key employees cannot

effectively influence upper management" (p. 20). These authors

go on to suggest 10 guidelines for affecting change in an upward

fashion:

1. When presenting ideas to upper management, realize

that it is your responsibility to sell---not [upper

management's] responsibility to buy.

2. Focus on contribution to the larger good, not just the

achievement of your objectives.

3. Strive to win the big battles. Don't waste your

ammunition on small points.

4. Present a realistic cost-benefit of your ideas. Don't just

sell benefits.

5. "Challenge up" on issues involving ethics or integrity.

6. Realize that your upper managers are just as human as

you are.

7. Treat upper managers with the same courtesy that you

would treat partners or customers.

8. Support the final decision of the team.

9. Make a positive difference.

10. Focus on the future--let go of the past (pp. 20-24).

[edit]The board of directors as an influence in organizational learning

Another area of influence is the Board of Directors. Tainio, Lilja,

and Santalainen (2003) suggest, "Boards represent the interests

of the firm's shareholders...they have the power to hire, fire, and

compensate senior executives and to provide high level

counsel.; By performing these tasks, boards can facilitate or limit

organizational learning" (p. 428). The insurgence of shareholders

involvement is due largely to the mismanagement of many high

profile companies in the 1990s, according to Tainio et al. (2003).

This insurgence in board activity and influence on organizations

has prompted significant changes in organizational learning. In

turn, the situation has redefined the role of boards in many

organizations. Tainio et al. (2003) suggest, "There is actually a

fine line between managing a company and contributing ideas

for managing a company" (p. 432). Boards who have become

more active do not manage the nitty-gritty of daily operation, they

press organizations to maintain high standards, closely watch

goals and planning, and take a more active role in management

succession (Tainio et al., 2003).

[edit]Case studies & workplace examples

The factors for influencing organizational learning were evident

in a significant change that took place in a school setting. The

administration presented a challenge to the high school: students

were apathetic in living what they acknowledged to be true; find

a way to help students apply what they are learning. A relative

newcomer to administration, the high school principal began

talking with his teachers, students and other administrators and

listening to the feedback. Out of this came a program which

meant restructuring the whole high school week. Each

Wednesday afternoon, the entire high school was going to

participate in small group interaction and then go out into the

community for community service. The school was able to

secure four mini-buses dedicated for transportation during this

time period. This program has re-vitalized the high school. The

program has been embraced by the majority of students and the

remaining students are facing positive peer pressure to grow and

change. The key to success was presenting the challenge, giving

the decision-makers the freedom to innovate, providing the

resources necessary including time and transportation, listening

to the diversity of perspectives, encouraging the principal with all

the roadblocks that presented themselves, and committing to the

program as an organization. (Amabile, 1998)

Organizational culture holds profound implications upon those

organizations who wish to increase their effectiveness through

organizational learning. Burke (1985) quotes Schein who

theorizes that organizational culture is the "basic assumptions

and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization, that

operate unconsciously, and that define in a basic 'taken for

granted' fashion an organization's view of itself and its

environment" (pp. 6-7). These assumptions and beliefs are

learned responses to a group's problems of internal integration.

They come to be taken for granted because they solve those

problems repeatedly and reliably. "This deeper level of

assumptions is to be distinguished for the 'artifacts' and 'values'

that are manifestations or surface levels of culture, but not the

essence of the culture" (Burke, 1992, p. 10-11).

When persons within organizations operate in and unconscious

manner due to the organizational culture, one can readily see

how attempting to develop organizational learning in a

suspicious, distrusting environment could be highly difficult.

Developing organizational culture that prizes learning, growth,

and knowledge sharing must be tackled in order to promote

organizational learning. Subtle and undermining forces in an

organizational culture can sabotage attempts at improving

components of the organization, or even attempts at

organizational culture change. Leaders must be in touch with the

pulse of their organizational culture prior to or while seeking to

implement change.

Leaders do well to understand the history of their organization. In

the process of making significant changes, one cannot fully or

adequately understand the culture, relationships, nor underlying

forces at work. In a local church organization with modest length

of history, this author found it highly beneficial to do an elongated

review of the full history of the nonprofit organization.

Understanding our roots and driving values and forces across

the years deepened our appreciation for our history in honest

fashion.

Individuals who had been involved for several decades helped

us appreciate our strengths and passions while candidly

assessing difficulties and even failures. While listening to

individuals share their individual, family, and organizational

stories, we gained valuable insight into the past and some of the

personalities who influenced for good or ill the culture of the

organization. While understanding one’s history does not

assume understanding of culture, it does at least help people

gain a sense of where they fall within the history of the

organization. While assessing the successes and becoming

aware of failures, individuals and the whole of the participating

persons discover more deeply the values, mission, and driving

forces of the organization. In this instance, recalling previous

instances of entrepreneurial behavior and resulting successes

helped people to be open to new changes and new direction for

the local church. Such success stories lessened the fears of

change, while creating positive inclinations toward change in the

future.

Gagné's Five Learned Capabilities

The classification of learning according to Robert Gagné includes five kinds of learned capabilities: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitudes, and motor skills. The Gagné taxonomy is perhaps the most popular of the many learning taxonomies in the field of instructional design (Reigeluth, 1983). It's popularity can be attributed best for its ability to clearly distinguish between abstract and concrete definitions of learning (Seels & Glasgow, 1990).

Motor Skills refers to bodily movements involving muscular activity. Examples might be: Starting a car, shooting a target, swinging a golf club.

Attitude is an internal state which affects an indiviudal's hoice of action toward some object, person, or event. Examples might be: Choosing to visit an art museum, writing letters in pursuit of a cause.

Verbal Information include: 1) Labels and Facts and 2) Bodies of Knowledge.

1) Labels and facts refer to naming or making a verbal response to a specific input. The response may be naming or citing a fact or set of facts. The repsonse may be vocal or written. Examples: Naming objects, people, or events. Recalling a person's birthday or hobbies. Stating the capitals of the United States.

2) Bodies of Knowledge refers to recalling a large body of interconnected facts. Example: paraphrasing the menaing of textual materials or stating rules and regulations. Example: Paraphrasing the menaing of textual materials. Stating rules and regulations.

Cognitive Strategy is an internal process by which the learner controls his/her own ways of thinking and learning. Example: Engaging in self-testing to decide how much study is needed; knowing what sorts of questions to ask to best define a domain of knowledge; ability to form a mental model of the problem.

Intellectual Skills include 1) Discrimination 2) Concrete concept 3) Rule using and 4) Problem solving. These are the four levels within the intellectual skills domain that Gagné identified as his taxonomy.

Discrimination is making different responses to the different members of a particular class. Seeing the essential differences between inputs and responding differently to each. Example: Distinguishing yellow finches from house finches on the basis of markings; having to tell the differences between gauges on an instrument panel.

Concrete concept is responding in a single way to all members of a particular class of observable events. Seeing the essential similarity among a class of objects, people, or events, which calls for a single response. Example: Classifying music as jazz, country western, rock, etc.; saying "round upon seeing a manhole cover, a penny, and the moon.

Rule using is applying a rule to a given situation or condition by responding to a class of inputs with a class of actions. Relating two or more simpler concepts in the particular manner of a rule. A rule states the relationship among concepts. Examples: It is helpful to think of rules or principles as "if-then" statements. "If a task is a procedure, then use flowcharting to analyze the task." "If you can convert a statement into an 'if-then' statement, then it is a rule or principle."

Problem solving is combining lower level rules to solve problems in a situation never encountered by the person solving the problem. May involve generating new rules which receive trial and error use until the one that solves the problem is found.

Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional DesignBy Peter J. Patsula, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul. 1999

Introduction

The following tutorial consists of five learning modules. Each module describes a learning theory and how that learning theory can be applied to improving online teaching and training materials. Each module features:

1. a description of a well known learning theory;2. a practical example of how the theory and related strategies can

be applied to a particular instructional objective or web-design problem; and

3. a list of related pedagogical and web-design strategies as researched in the literature.

This tutorial has been designed for MDDE 621 students studying in the Masters of Distance Education program at Athabasca University.

System Requirements

This tutorial is best viewed on a SVGA screen (800 by 600 pixels) using Netscape Communicator 4.0, Internet Explorer 4.0, or later versions of these browsers. RealPlayer G2 software and a sound card is also recommended.

Acknowledgement

The following tutorial was inspired by and borrows heavily from Greg Kearsley’s The Theory Into Practice Database (1994) which is available online at http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/.

Learning Theory #1: 

Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory

A) Description

Although Gagne’s theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, "the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Kearsley, 1994a). Gagne’s theory is very prescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training (Gagne 1962, as cited in Kearsley, 1994a).

In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

verbal information intellectual skills cognitive strategies motor skills attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning level requires "different internal and external conditions" (Kearsley 1994a) i.e., each learning level requires different types of instruction. Kearsley provides the following example:

for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:

stimulus recognition response generation procedure following use of terminology discriminations concept formation rule application problem solving

The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level" (Kearsley 1994a). This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes (as cited in Kearsley 1994a):

1. gaining attention (reception)2. informing learners of the objective (expectancy)3. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)4. presenting the stimulus (selective perception)5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)6. eliciting performance (responding)7. providing feedback (reinforcement)8. assessing performance (retrieval)9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

B) Practical Application

Gagne’s nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these instructional events, Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

1. Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction.2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be

learned.3. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

EXAMPLE

The following example applies Gagne's nine instructional events:

Instructional Objective: Recognize an equilateral triangle (example from Kearsley 1994a).

Methodology:

1. Gain attention - show a variety of computer generated triangles

2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"

3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle5. Guide learning - show example of how to create equilateral6. Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different

examples7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect8. Assess performance - provide scores and remediation

9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilateral triangles.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

1. Provide a variety of learning activities. Instructional designers should anticipate and accommodate alternate learning styles by "systematically varying teaching and assessment methods to reach every student" (Sternberg 1994, as cited in Ross-Gordon 1998, 227). They should also provide alternate offline materials and activities, as well as, present "alternate points of view and interpretations" (Fahy 1999, 237) so that the learner is free to "[criss-cross] the intellectual landscape of the content domain by looking at it from multiple perspectives or through multiple themes" (Jonassen et al., 1997, 122).

2. Use Bloom’s "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain" to increase retention. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain (1956, as cited in Fahy 1999, 42-43) is similar to Gagne’s hierarchy of intellectual skills. Bloom outlines the following cognitive activities organized from least to greater complexity:

- knowledge- comprehension- application- analysis- synthesis- evaluation (making judgements)

In the following example, Bloom’s taxonomy is used to illustrate different objectives related to learning objectives for studying nails (Fahy 1999, 43):

Knowledge – Know enough about nails to be able to explain what they are and what they are used for. Be able to recognize a nail as a fastening device from a non-fastening devices.

Comprehension – Be able to identify a nail and distinguish it from other fastening devices.

Application – Be able to use a nail to fasten something competently, and actually do so.

Analysis – Be able to determine what kind of nail and nailing technique would be required for most effective use of the device for a specific purpose.

Synthesis – Be able to compare nails to other fastening devices, and to compare various types of nails and nailing techniques for their specific qualities and characteristics in specific situations.

Evaluation – Be able to assess examples of the use of nails for fastening, and different nailing techniques, and to pass judgement as to which were more effective, more artistic, more secure, more skillful, more workman like, etc.

Learning Theory #2:

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

A) Description

Bruner's constructivist theory is based upon the study of cognition. A major theme in this theory is that "learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge" (Kearsely 1994b). Cognitive structures are used to provide meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information given.

According to Bruner, the instructor should try and encourage students to construct hypotheses, makes decisions, and discover principles by themselves (Kearsley 1994b). The instructor's task is to "translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding" and organize it in a spiral manner "so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned."

Bruner (1966, as cited in Kearsley 1994b) states that a theory of instruction should address the following aspects:

1. the most effective sequences in which to present material

2. the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner

B) Practical Application

Bruner’s constructivist theory can be applied to instruction, as Kearsley (1994b) surmises, by applying the following principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

EXAMPLE

The following example is taken from Bruner (1973, as cited in Kearsley 1994b):

The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized.

Instructional Objective: Recognize and define a prime number. Methodology:

1. Ask the student to get a handful of pennies, beans, or any other countable object.

2. Show the students 6 pennies. Show that six pennies can be organized into two groups of three, three groups of two, or one group of six.

3. Ask the student to count out 8 pennies and organize the pennies into as many EQUAL groups as they can.

4. Show answer.5. Ask the student to count out 18 pennies and organize the pennies

into as many EQUAL groups as they can.6. Show answer.7. Ask the student to count out 7 pennies and organize the pennies

into as many EQUAL groups as they can.8. Show answer.9. Ask the student to count out 13 pennies and organize the pennies

into as many EQUAL groups as they can.10. Show answer.11. State that 7 and 13 are prime numbers, while 6, 8, and 18 are not.

Ask the following questions: What is a prime number? What is the rule or principle for determining whether a number is prime or not?

12.Explain the principle that when a certain number of pennies can only be grouped into one equal row or column, then that number is called a prime number.

13. Show a selection of numbers or examples of different groups of coins. Ask the student to identify which ones are prime.

14. Show answer.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

1. Attract, hold and focus attention so students can learn principles. Fahy (1999, 59) lists the following ways to attract attention:

To draw attention, use novelty, differences, motion, changes in intensity or brightness, the presence of moderate complexity, and lean and focussed displays. NOTE: Merill cautions against the overuse of attention-getting strategies, especially on the computer. "Screen motion and animated movement are very powerful in attracting and holding attention. The program should therefore not require the user to read while watching an animated display" (1989, as cited in Fahy 1999, 60).

To increase attention and maintain learner focus, create moderate uncertainty about what is about to happen next or what the eventual outcome of a presentation will be.

To sustain attention, maintain change and variety in the learning environment.

To focus attention, teach learners to interpret certain cues such as specific colors, sounds, symbols, fonts, screen or display arrangement, underlining, etc.

To focus attention, use captions in pictures, graphics and illustrations.

Improve retention by sequencing screens and presenting related materials together. In designing materials of all kinds sequence is important. "Material presented together will be associated in the learner’s memory" (Fahy 1999, 79) and more easily recalled especially if repetition is used. Fahy believes that "events ideas, words, concepts and stimuli in general which are not organized in some meaningful way are harder to understand and remember than those which are embedded in some organizational context" (p. 60). Fahy also advises that when sequencing consider that the first and last displays in any sequences are especially important. "Introductions and summaries are key learning opportunities" (p. 61).

Provide structural cues to avoid information vertigo. Jones and Farquhar (1997, 241) recommend arranging information "in a non-threatening manner through techniques such as chunking, overviews, advance organizers, maps, and a fixed-display format." They also advise that "the consistent placement and style of section titles is [an] important cue to the structure of information."

Learning Theory #3:

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

A) Description

Bandura's social learning theory "emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others" (Kearsley 1994c). It has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura 1973, as cited in Kearsley 1994c) and psychological disorders. Bandura states:

Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from

observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (1977, as cited in Kearsley 1994c).

The processes underlying observational learning are as Kearsley (1994c) explains:

1. attention2. retention (including cognitive organization and motor rehearsal)3. motor reproduction (including physical capabilities, self-

observation of reproduction, and accuracy of feedback)4. motivation (including external and self reinforcement)5. observer characteristics (such as sensory capacities, arousal

level, perceptual set, and past reinforcement).

B) Practical Application

In applying Bandura’s Social Learning theory, Kearsley (1994c) suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels, or images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

"Strategies consistent with social learning theories include mentoring, apprenticeship, on the job training, and internships" (Ross-Gordon 1998, 217). Each involves learning in a social situation whereby novice learners model more experienced teachers or coworkers. Kearsley (1994c) provides the following example of social learning:

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as

attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.

EXAMPLE

The following example illustrates how participatory observation can be used to help students learn and apply the Law of Reflection. This example is directed towards students being able to model the cognitive processes of experts (an extension of Bandura's Social Learning theory; see cognitive modeling strategy).

Instructional Objective: Recognize that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.

Methodology:

1. Show a 6' x 12' pool table, a cue ball, an object ball, the cue stroke of an expert pool shark, and three possible points of impact (aim). Ask the learner to guess what point the expert pool shark is hoping to hit the object ball and sink it after four banks. 

2. Show answer.3. Show an irregularly shaped miniature golf putting green, a golf ball, the

putting stroke of a world famous golfer (e.g., Tiger Woods, Gary Player), and three possible points of impact (aim). Ask the learner to guess what point the expert golfer is hoping to hit the golf ball to get a hole-in-one.

4. Show answer.5. Show a room consisting of highly polished mirror-like stainless steel walls,

a sniper (James Bond) with a laser sight, a direction of aim, and three possible targets (Bandura, Carroll, or Vygotsky). Ask the learner to guess who the sniper is aiming at.

6. Show answer.7. Ask the learner to guess what the pool shark, expert golfer and

sniper are thinking when they stroke the cue, putt the ball, or aim the rifle. Provide several possible choices of insights into their cognitive reasoning.

8. Show an incident light ray hitting a mirror at an angle of 45 degrees. Ask the student to guess what the angle of reflection will be.

9. Show answer and state the Law of Reflection: "the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection."

10. Provide another example of this law (define terms).11. Discuss the similiarities between the reflection of light rays

off mirrors and the reflection or motion of billard balls on billiard tables.

12. Provide a few quiz questions.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

1. Teach students how to model cognitive processes as well as behaviors using real-world problems. Jonassen (1998) defines two types of modeling: behavioral modeling of the overt performance and cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes. Behavioral modeling "demonstrates how to perform the activities" while cognitive modeling "articulates the reasoning that learners should use while engaged in performing the activity" (p. 12). Jonassen reasons that "conventional teaching focuses on answers, which are often artificially 'tidy,' lacking the complexity and messiness of the real world" (Fahy 1999, 54, citing Jonassen 1998). He suggests using "authentic problems" to make student learning experiences "more appealing, engaging, and meaningful."

2. Provide similar examples and comparisons to aid perception and recall. "Objects, ideas, or events displayed together in space and time are often stored together in memory and grouped together in recall. This is the Law of proximity in perception and contiguity in memory" (Fahy 1999, 60). 

3. Use show me buttons. When learners need help, provide them with a "Show Me" or a "How Do I Do This?" button (Jonassen 1998, 12). Hyperlink to this button a visual or animated example of the desired performance. 

4. Use worked examples as a method for modeling problem solving. "Worked examples include a description of how problems are solved by an experienced problem solver. Worked examples enhance the development of problem schemas and the recognition of different types of problems based on them" (Jonassen 1998, 12, citing Sweller & Cooper 1985). 

5. Use repetition with variety. Repeating a variety of examples or problems with solutions is more effective for long-term retention than rote or verbatim reproduction. Paraphrasing, rephrasing, and reworking is more useful than the repetition or regurgitation of information (Fahy 1999, 62).

Learning Theory #4: 

Carroll’s Minimalist Theory

A) Description

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the design of computer documentation" (e.g., Nowaczyk & James, 1993, van der Meij, & Carroll, 1995, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). It is based upon studies of people learning a wide range of computer applications including word processors and databases.

As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:

1. All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained.2. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and

knowledge.3. Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible.4. Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising.5. Training materials and activities should provide for error

recognition and use errors as learning opportunities.6. There should be a close linkage between training and the actual

system because "new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specific preexisting goals and expectations" (Carroll 1990, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

The critical idea behind Carroll's Minimalist theory is that course designers must "minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment" (Kearsley 1994d).

B) Practical Application

In applying Carroll’s Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:

1. Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.2. Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of

training by allowing users to fill in the gaps themselves3. Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction4. Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of

sequence.

EXAMPLE 1

The following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how to use a word processor (Carroll 1990, chapter 5, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

Applying the principles of Carroll's Minimalist theory, a 94-page training manual is replaced by 25 cards. Each card is self contained and includes a meaningful task and error recognition information. The cards do not provide complete step-by-step specifications but only key ideas or hints about what to do. Kearsley reports that "in an experiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned the task in about half the time with the cards."

EXAMPLE 2

The following example illustrates the redesign of a Web page using Carroll’s Minimalist theory and other related web design strategies:

Problem: Below is a screen shot of The WINDeX Search Engine located at http://windex.daci.net. This site allows software developers to submit shareware and freeware to be stored in their database. This page however has four serious design flaws: (a) the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of the screen; (b) "The Windex Index" image banner runs a lake ripple Java applet which is highly distracting; (c) the lake ripple Java applet significantly increases the time it takes to download the page; (d) the white text on a blue background is difficult to read, especially considering that the site uses four colors for text: red, blue, white and black.

Solution: (a) Carroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right away on meaningful tasks. Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that in web-design, important information should be kept on the top of the page. Considering this advice, to improve this

web page, the banners should be designed to occupy less space and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users don't have to scroll as much. (b) (c) (d) Carroll advises that web-design should minimize the extent to which instructional materialsobstruct learning. Gillani & Relan (1997) advise that frames should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Similarly, Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999) advises that Web pages should reduce clutter and download in 30 seconds or less with a 14.4 modem. Considering this advice, to improve the design of this web page, the Java applet should be removed as it greatly increases the time to download the entire page without adding to its usability. Furthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is just plain "annoying." Content that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice" should also be removed or shrunk in size. Furthermore, the range of text colors should be reduced and a more suitable background chosen to improve readability.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

1. Keep important information at the top of the page. When learners come to a page, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Good web-design demands that you give your learners the information they want right away and in a hurry. Large graphics at the top of a page may be aesthetically pleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable space to be considered instructionally useful (Jones and Farquhar 1997). 

2. Keep frames simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Guay advises that "cognitive bandwidth should be minimized to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message" (as cited in Fahy 1999,

191). He also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of the page" (p. 191). Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that background to a display should not compete with or obscure the text. Simiarly Gillani & Relan 1997, 236 maintain that "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitive overload." Thus, multimedia components should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning." 

3. Keep pages short so learners don’t have to scroll. Research on the Web suggests that "users do not like to scroll" (Nielsen 1996, as cited in Jones & Farquhar 1997, 243). Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999, 191) agrees with this and advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." West (1998, as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) similarly advises that "the requirement for the user to scroll down in Web-based documents should be kept to a minimum, as many users will not scroll more than 3 times before abandoning a site." West also estimates that readers give only between 7 and 15 seconds to assess the probable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be noted that "the problem with making pages short is that people may choose to print out certain pieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. This [problem can be solved] by combining all of the pages into a single document that is labeled as such" (Jones and Farquar, 1997, 243). A print button can be provided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off-screen reading. 

4. Keep pages uncluttered by extracting unnecessary elements. Broadbents’ theory of single-channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is not possible to process two channels simultaneously"(Hsia 1968, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arrive at the central nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam, and lead to poorer retention of material (Broadbent 1958, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32). Guay (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) recommends that "each page should be uncluttered, readable, and balanced."

5. Pages should download in 30 seconds or less with 14.4 modem. Guay advises that "physical bandwidth should be minimized to ensure acceptable access and response times" (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). Special consideration should

be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video to make sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Guay also suggests that tagging graphics (in HTML) with vertical and horizontal size can speed download. Commercial graphics tools such as Adobe ImageReady 2.0 can also reduce graphics size by among other things reducing the color pallet. 

6. Screen excess information. Good design, as Carroll recommends, must reduce excess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede (1996, 13) maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with low-level information" and as a result, "teachers [must] frantically race through required material, helping students memorize factual data to be regurgitated on mandated, standardized tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for today’s workplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incoming information." He adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to harvest patterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 6).

7. Structure materials as topical modules. This "simplifies selective reuse of course materials" (Butler 1997, 422).

8. Strive for quality not quantity. Rockley (1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 196-197) gives the following advice for the planning and management of Web-based resources:

Design small. Make what you have effective, then add to it. Don’t attempt to do everything at once.

Keep effects simple. Assure effects ADD to the message/content.

Map out the whole site. Both for development and maintenance. Plan for growth. Anticipate and direct it. Get feedback from users. And pay attention to it. Test any outside links regularly. Don’t’ link to sites which do not

appear to be will maintained or stable. Give only one person edit privileges. Only one person should

have site maintenance responsibilities. Don’t post any part of a site while it is still under

construction. Everything on your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put up announcements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features.

Learning Theory #5: 

Vygotsky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development

A) Description

Vygotsky's theory of social cognitive development is complementary to Bandura's social learning theory. Its major thematic thrust is that "social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition" (Kearsley 1994e). Most of the original work of this theory was done in the context of language learning in children.

An important concept in Vygotsky's theory is that "the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the 'zone of proximal development' (Kearsley 1994e). He defines the 'zone of proximal development' as having four learning stages. These stages "range between the lower limit of what the student knows and the upper limits of what the student has the potential of accomplishing" (Gillani and Relan 1997, 231). The stages can be further broken down as follows (Tharp & Gallimore 1988, 35):

Stage 1 - assistance provided by more capable others (coaches, experts, teachers);

Stage 2 - assistance by self; Stage 3 - internalization automatization (fossilization); and Stage 4 - de-automatization: recursiveness through prior stages.

Another notable aspect of Vygotsky's theory is that it claims "that instruction is most efficient when students engage in activities within a supportive learning environment and when they receive appropriate guidance that is mediated by tools" (Vygotsky 1978, as cited in Gillani & Relan 1997, 231). These instructional tools can be defined as "cognitive strategies, a mentor, peers, computers, printed materials, or any instrument that organizes and provides information for the learner." Their role is "to organize dynamic support to help [learners] complete a task near the upper end of their zone of proximal development [ZPD] and then to systematically withdraw this support as the [learner] move to higher levels of confidence."

B) Practical Application

In applying Vygotsky's theory of social cognitive development, Kearsley (1994e) suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

1. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.2. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given

age.

APPLICATION

Gillani and Relan (1997, 232) contend that "the interactive nature of frames in interdisciplinary instructional design has the potential of implementing cognitive theories as its theoretical foundation."

Based on David Ausubel's idea of advance organizers "as a cognitive strategy that links prior knowledge structure with new information" (1968 as cited in Gillani and Relan 1997, 232), as well as, Vygotsky's idea of instructional tools and the four learning stages as defined by his 'zone of proximal development', Gillani and Relan proposed an instructional design model having four phases:

advance organizer phase, modeling phase, exploring phase, and generating phase.

Gillani and Relan argue that it was not until the introduction of frame technology introduced with Netscape Navigator 2.0 that these four phases could realistically be applied to instructional design. They say:

Basically, frames enable the Web designer to create multiple, distinct, and independent viewing areas within the browser’s window . . . each frame then becomes a window that can have its own URL (Uniform Resource Locator), scrollbar, and links to frames in the same document or other documents. Such internal connections among the frames of a browser enable the designer to create interactive links that can update and control the content of other frames (p. 232).

Gilanni and Relan proposed the following model made up of four distinct frames, with the Instructional Model Frame having four distinct phases:

Vibrant Frame Instructional Model Frame

[Advance Organizer] [Model] [Explore] [Generate]

Navigation Frame[button][button][button][button]

Presentation Frame

 

 

Vibrant Frame – The small top left area frame above the navigation frame determines the underlying theme for content. Each time the user clicks on it, a new theme will appear which changes the thematic nature of instruction. For example, this frame could be used to provide multiple versions of content (e.g., frames, no frames, modules, no modules). This frame could also be used to show QuickTime movies. It should be noted that proper use of this frame adds a considerable investment in instructional design. 

Instructional Model Frame - The top right frame, includes four buttons representing the four stages of learning as proposed by Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development: Advance Organizer, Modeling, Exploring, and Generating. Each button in this frame updates and controls the content of the navigation frame. 

Navigation Frame – The left frame just below the Vibrant Frame is the Navigation Frame. Depending upon which button is clicked in the Navigation Frame, determines the content of the Presentation Frame. 

The Presentation Frame – The main central frame displays dynamic instructional content as selected from the navigation frame.

Two examples which illustrate design features of Gillani and Relan's instructional model are shown in the following links to screen shots, one of Sookmyung Women's UniversityContinuing Cyber Education Program, and the other of the home page of this tutorial:

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

1. Simplify navigation. Szabo (1998) defines navigation as "the process of acquiring information from a rich multimedia data base that has no obvious organizational pattern" (p. 6). Guay (as cited in Fahy 1999, 191-192) advises that navigation should be intuitive, clear, flowing. "Poorly thought out hypertext is a navigational nightmare of tangled mazes, infinite loops, cul-de-sacs, and dead links. So don’t start linking without thinking." Similarly Dede (1996, 13) argues that "without skilled facilitation, many learners who access current knowledge webs will flounder in a morass of unstructured data." 

2. Create effective menus. Well-designed menus help learners develop an accurate mental model of the structure being searched. To design more effective menus, Szabo (1996, 55) advises: (a) avoid using conflicting or confusing orienting devices, as disorientation interferes with the learning task; (b) develop organizational systems that are highly visual, interactive, and intuitive; (c) use embedded menus as a search aid, but make sure these menus actually meet learning needs and do not create disorientation; and(d) keep menus shallow but meaningful; use icons supplemented by text. 

3. Include indexes, table of contents, and search capabilities. Fahy (1999, 188) advises that navigation, for instructional purposes, can be aided substantially if the following functions and capabilities are designed into WebPages: 

index - of contents of the site;glossary - of terms, vocabulary, etc., with pronunciation; related links page - to enable further study, but to avoid unnecessary browsing;searching - using an efficient engine; online help - to ensure no user is left without assistance;bookmarking - to simplify return to specific parts of the site; andnotebook - to allow recording of notes, including cut-and-paste from on-line materials. 

4. Clearly identify content with appropriate headings and titles. The title of the site should reflect its purpose and audience. 

5. Place most important information on the top-left. Important information should go to the top-left. The lower-left is the least noticed area of the page/screen (Rockley 1997 as cited in Fahy 1999, 145).

Conclusion

To make online teaching and training materials more effective, an agency should first establish suitable learning goals and objectives. Since the priority of instruction is to "benefit" or "instruct" the learner, instructional designers should then strive to facilitate the learning process i.e., make learning easier. This can be accomplished by applying proven learning theories and pedagogical practices, as well as, practical web-design strategies and guidelines, to their instructional design:

However, "program planners need to exercise caution in assuming that adult development theories apply [equally] to females, racial, ethnic minority adults, individuals with disabilities, or others" (Ross-Gordon 1998, 225). They must also bear in mind that the limitations of the Web as a teaching and training vehicle and that it can potentially be a major cause of wasted time. To its disadvantage, the Web is (Fahy 1999, 181-182):

Easy to get lost in (users can get confused bouncing around from one link to the next)

Unstructured Non-interactive (although this is changing) Complex (the amount of information on the Web is mind-

boggling) Time-consuming (because it is non-linear and invites

exploration. NOTE: Research by Thaler [1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 181] shows that "employees in a 1997 survey reported spending an average of 90 minutes per day visiting sites unrelated to their jobs").

To sum up the future of the Web as an educational tool, McDonald (1996 as cited in Fahy 1999, 182) provides us with the following insights. He claims that the Web will only become a useful educational tool when it exhibits the following characteristics:

Ease of use: the Internet must become as easy to use as a telephone

Accessibility: learners and teachers must have access to the Internet as convenient as the telephone

And solves the following three problems:

Lack of speed Absence of security A relatively small number of users

Summary of Five Learning Theories

1. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory is based on a hierarchy of intellectual skills organized according to complexity that can be used to identify prerequisites necessary to facilitate learning at each level. Instruction can be made more efficient by following a sequence of nine instructional events defined by the intellectual skills that the learner is required to learn for the specific task at hand.

2. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory asserts that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas based upon their current knowledge. Instruction can be made more efficient by providing a careful sequencing of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already know and go beyond the information they have been given to discover the key principles by themselves. 

3. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors and attitudes of others. Instruction can be made more efficient by modeling desired behaviors of functional value to learners and by providing situations which allow learners to use or practice that behavior to improve retention. 

4. Carroll’s Minimalist Theory advises that course designers must minimize instructional materials that obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity. Instruction can be made more efficient when the amount of reading is minimized and learners are allowed to fill in the gaps themselves.

5. Vygostky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development reasons that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Instruction can be made more efficient when learners engage in activities within a supportive environment and receive guidance mediated by appropriate tools.

Quiz/Review

A: MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which theorist does the following statement apply to: "nine instructional events can serve as the basis for designing instruction"?

a) Bandurab) Brunerc) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

2. Which theory uses the concept of spiral organization?

a) Conditions of Learning Theoryb) Constructivist Theoryc) Minimalist Theoryd) Social Learning Theorye) Theory of Social Cognitive Development

3. Which theorists originated the Minimalist theory and the Social Learning theory?

a) Bandura and Brunerb) Bruner and Gagnec) Carroll and Bandurad) Gagne and Carrolle) Vygotsky and Caroll

4. Which theory is most applicable to computers and online instruction?

a) Conditions of Learning Theoryb) Constructivist Theoryc) Minimalist Theoryd) Social Learning Theorye) Theory of Social Cognitive Development

5. Which theory advocates mentoring, apprenticeship, on the job training, and internships?

a) Conditions of Learning Theoryb) Constructivist Theoryc) Minimalist Theoryd) Social Learning Theorye) Theory of Social Cognitive Development

6. Which theorist offers advice similar to infomercial motivational speaker Anthony Robbins? 

a) Bandurab) Brunerc) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

7. Which theorist is closely connected to the ideas of Bandura?

a) Broadbentb) Gillani and Relanc) Jonassend) Bloome) Dede

8. Which theorist advises allowing learners to fill in the gaps themselves?

a) Bandurab) Brunerc) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

9. What is the most important principle of the Theory of Social Cognitive Development?

a) Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

b) Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge.c) Advance organizers help link prior knowledge.d) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.e) Instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.

10. Allowing students to discover principles by themselves is most  important to which theorist? 

a) Bandurab) Brunerc) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

APPLICATION QUIZ

The following is a screen shot of Sandy's Business Assistance and Training home page located at http://www.abat.ca. Sandy is an MDDE 621 student and requested feedback on her site. Her site has been designed reasonably well but can be improved. How would you improve the design of this site?

Answer: By applying the principles of Vygotsky's mediated tools, Gillani and Relan's (1997) Interactive Web-based Instructional Model, Carroll's Minimalist theory, and other related web design strategies emphasizing the importance of ease of navigation and simplicity of design, the following suggestions can be made:

Clearly identify content with appropriate headings and titles. In following this guideline, the "Welcome" title has been replaced by a more appropriate heading bringing attention and focus to the site. The menu title "Who are we" has been replaced with "Who we are" so the syntax of the menu structure is consistent. 

Each page should be uncluttered, readable and balanced. The banner located in the "Vibrant Frame" area is unclear. The graphics in the "Presentation Frame" area could also

be sharpened and made more vivid. Fuzzy photos are harder to process and lead to unnecessary cognitive activity. 

Simplify navigation. The links located in the "Instructional Model Frame" area are somewhat confusing. Carroll's Minimalist theory of minimalism suggests that the "home" page link is unnecessary and should be removed. This link can more effectively be moved to the logo, along with the tag "Home Page." Since the most important information should go on the top left, the menu item "services" has been moved closer. The menu items have also been rearranged to more accurately reflect the structure and importance of each menu item in the site, to give the viewer a more accurate representation of the contents.

Reinforcement theoryReinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequences of the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior. Any behavior that elicits a consequence is called operant behavior, because the individual operates on his or her environment. Reinforcement theory concentrates on the relationship between the operant behavior and the associated consequences, and is sometimes referred to as operant conditioning.

BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT THEORYBehavioral theories of learning and motivation focus on the effect that the consequences of past behavior have on future behavior. This is in contrast to classical conditioning, which focuses on responses that are triggered by stimuli in an almost automatic fashion. Reinforcement theory suggests that individuals can choose from several responses to a given stimulus, and that individuals will generally select the response that has been associated with positive outcomes in the past. E.L. Thorndike articulated this idea in 1911, in what has come to be known as the law of effect. The law of effect basically states that, all other things being equal, responses to stimuli that are followed by satisfaction will be strengthened, but responses that are followed by discomfort will be weakened.B.F. Skinner was a key contributor to the development of modern ideas about reinforcement theory. Skinner argued that the internal needs and drives of individuals can be ignored because people learn to exhibit certain behaviors based on what happens to them as a result of their behavior. This school of thought has been termed the behaviorist, or radical behaviorist, school.

REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT, AND EXTINCTIONThe most important principle of reinforcement theory is, of course, reinforcement. Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The specific behavioral consequence is called a reinforcer. An example of positive reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforcer). The administration of the positive reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future.

Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and repeated. An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts effort to increase sales in his or her sales territory (behavior), which is followed by a decision not to reassign the salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforcer). The administration of the negative reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future.

As mentioned above, punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors being exhibited. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable behavioral consequence in order to reduce the occurrence of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is one of the more commonly used reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially negative side effects of punishment. An example of punishment might be demoting an employee who does not meet performance goals or suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules.

Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may alternately serve to reduce a wanted behavior, such as when a positive reinforcer is no longer offered when a desirable behavior occurs. For example, if an employee is continually praised for the promptness in which he completes his work for several months, but receives no praise in subsequent months for such behavior, his desirable behaviors may diminish. Thus, to avoid unwanted extinction, managers may have to continue to offer positive behavioral consequences.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENTThe timing of the behavioral consequences that follow a given behavior is called the reinforcement schedule. Basically, there are two broad types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and intermittent. If a behavior is reinforced each time it occurs, it is called continuous reinforcement. Research suggests that continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to establish new behaviors or to eliminate undesired behaviors. However, this type of reinforcement is generally not practical in an organizational setting. Therefore, intermittent schedules are usually employed. Intermittent reinforcement means that each instance of a desired behavior is not reinforced. There are at least four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio.

Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement occur when desired behaviors are reinforced after set periods of time. The simplest example of a fixed interval schedule is a weekly paycheck. A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement does not appear to be a particularly strong way to elicit desired behavior, and behavior learned in this way may be subject to rapid extinction. The fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement applies the reinforcer after a set number of occurrences of the desired behaviors. One organizational example of this schedule is a sales commission based on number of units sold. Like the fixed interval schedule, the fixed ratio schedule may not produce consistent, long-lasting, behavioral change.

Variable interval reinforcement schedules are employed when desired behaviors are reinforced after varying periods of time. Examples of variable interval schedules would be special recognition for successful performance and promotions to higher-level positions. This

reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioral change that is resistant to extinction.

Finally, the variable ratio reinforcement schedule applies the reinforcer after a number of desired behaviors have occurred, with the number changing from situation to situation. The most common example of this reinforcement schedule is the slot machine in a casino, in which a different and unknown number of desired behaviors (i.e., feeding a quarter into the machine) is required before the reward (i.e., a jackpot) is realized. Organizational examples of variable ratio schedules are bonuses or special awards that are applied after varying numbers of desired behaviors occur. Variable ratio schedules appear to produce desired behavioral change that is consistent and very resistant to extinction.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY APPLIED TO ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGSProbably the best-known application of the principles of reinforcement theory to organizational settings is called behavioral modification, or behavioral contingency management. Typically, a behavioral modification program consists of four steps:

1. Specifying the desired behavior as objectively as possible.2. Measuring the current incidence of desired behavior.3. Providing behavioral consequences that reinforce desired behavior.4. Determining the effectiveness of the program by systematically assessing behavioral

change.Reinforcement theory is an important explanation of how people learn behavior. It is often applied to organizational settings in the context of a behavioral modification program. Although the assumptions of reinforcement theory are often criticized, its principles continue to offer important insights into individual learning and motivation.

Maslow's hierarchy of needsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the

bottom.[1]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943

paper A Theory of Human Motivation.[2] Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his

observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of

humandevelopmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the stages of growth in

humans.

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Hierarchy

o 1.1   Physiological needs

o 1.2   Safety needs

o 1.3   Love and belonging

o 1.4   Esteem

o 1.5   Self-actualization

o 1.6   Self-transcendence

2   Research

3   Criticisms

4   Business

o 4.1   Marketing

o 4.2   International Business

5   See also

6   References

7   External links

Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor

Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of

crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a

cripple philosophy."[3] Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.[4]

Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.[5]

Some have criticized Maslow's pyramid as ethnocentric may stem from the fact that Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs neglects to illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social and

intellectual needs of those raised in individualistic societies and those raised in collectivist societies.

Hierarchy

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most

fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top.[1][6]

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency

needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. With the exception of

the most fundamental (physiological) needs, if these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no

physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most

basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon)

the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term Metamotivation to describe the

motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.

[7] Metamotivated  people are driven by B-needs (Being Needs), instead of deficiency needs (D-Needs).

Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious — they are the literal requirements for human

survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function.

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing

and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual instinct

is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species.

Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and

dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety -- due to war, natural disaster, or, in cases

of family violence, childhood abuse, etc. -- people (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder and

trans-generational trauma transfer. In the absence of economic safety -- due to economic crisis and

lack of work opportunities - these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference

for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings

accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security

Financial security

Health and well-being

Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve

feelings of belongingness. The need is especially strong in childhood and can over-ride the need for

safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies with respect to this aspect of

Maslow's hierarchy - due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning,ostracism etc. - can impact individual's

ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:

Friendship

Intimacy

Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social

group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs,

or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants).

They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these

elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This

need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the

strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of

health for a feeling of control and belonging.[citation needed]

Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents

the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to

gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel

self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or

an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or

glory, which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not

be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but

must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent

one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of

esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the

need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect,

the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter

one ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of

these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness.

Maslow also states that even though these are examples of how the quest for knowledge is separate

from basic needs he warns that these “two hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated”

(Maslow 97). This means that this level of need, as well as the next and highest level, are not strict,

separate levels but closely related to others, and this is possibly the reason that these two levels of

need are left out of most textbooks.

Self-actualization

Main article: Self-actualization

“What a man can be, he must be.”[8] This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization.

This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow

describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that

one is capable of becoming.[9] This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when

applied to individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the strong desire to

become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be

expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions.[10] As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear

understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological,

safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs.

Self-transcendence

Viktor Frankl later added Self-transcendence [11] to create his own version of Maslow's Hierarchy.

Research

Recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs, although the hierarchy

proposed by Maslow is called into question. [12] [13]

Criticisms

In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Brudwell found little

evidence for the ranking of needs Maslow described, or even for the existence of a definite hierarchy

at all.[14] Chilean economist and philosopher Manfred Max-Neef has also argued fundamental human

needs are non-hierarchical, and are ontologically universal and invariant in nature—part of the

condition of being human; poverty, he argues, may result from any one of these needs being

frustrated, denied or unfulfilled.[citation needed]

The order in which the hierarchy is arranged (with self-actualization as the highest order need) has

been criticised as being ethnocentric by Geert Hofstede.[15] Hofstede's criticism of Maslow's pyramid as

ethnocentric may stem from the fact that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs neglects to illustrate and expand

upon the difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in individualistic societies

and those raised in collectivist societies. Maslow created his hierarchy of needs from an individualistic

perspective, being that he was from the United States, a highly individualistic nation. The needs and

drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-centered than those in collectivist

societies, focusing on improvement of the self, with self actualization being the apex of self

improvement. Since the hierarchy was written from the perspective of an individualist, the order of

needs in the hierarchy with self actualization at the top is not representative of the needs of those in

collectivist cultures. In collectivist societies, the needs of acceptance and community will outweigh the

needs for freedom and individuality.[16]

Maslow’s hierarchy has also been criticized as being individualistic because of the

position and value of sex on the pyramid. Maslow’s pyramid puts sex on the bottom rung

of physiological needs, along with breathing and food. It views sex from an

individualistic and not collectivist perspective: i.e., as an individualistic physiological

need that must be satisfied before one moves on to higher pursuits. This view of sex

neglects the emotional, familial and evolutionary implications of sex within the

community.[17][18]

Critical Analysis of Need Theories74rate or flag this page

 By Rizwan Amjed

 

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Searching is fast and easy with Google's web browser.It is a good practice to create a critical analysis of the “Need Theories”. I read the theories of need includingØ  McClelland's Theory of NeedsØ  ERG TheoryØ  Maslow's Hierarchy of NeedsAfter thoroughly reading of these theories I have some conclusion as well as some critics on these theories. Let me share these points will all my fellows and my instructor, hopefully it will help me as well for you to understand and look into the other side of these theories.

I will start my discussion from “Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs”. It is the first theory devised by Abraham Maslow which categories the human need into five different categories. This theory gave motivation and vision to other theories to devise.The first critics on this theory is that it shows that only one need is satisfied at a time and you can’t to move to other need before fulfilling the first need. The second critic is that culture plays their vital role in an organization where this hierarchy fails because they prefer their culture to the hierarchy of Maslow.“ERG Theory” gave a new insight and sketched a new design of human need. He simply reduced the hierarchy of Maslow into three levels Existence, Relatedness and Growth. In this theory the different levels of need are exist simultaneously which differentiate if from the Maslow’s theory.The first critics on this theory is that keeping in mind the organization perspective it is difficult for a manager to recognize that which need is dominating in the employee. The second critic is that I will call this theory of progressive needs instead of rigid.McClelland's Theory of Needs explained that human needs differed with the passage of time; he cannot stick to a single need in his whole life. Therefore he listed the human need likeERG Theory into three categories such as achievement, affiliation, or power.According to my point of view McClelland's Theory of Needs is the best theory keeping in mind human need and the business perspective because the employee will prefer those organizations where he can express his knowledge, experiences and skills in a proper way and in a good environment so that he may achieve his mission as well as vision.

On the other hand the owners of the firms/organizations will prefer to higher those employees whom they wished to work in their organization so that they may achieve the vision and mission of the firm and generate the maximum profit for the organization.

Now question arises what kind of the need is dominating in the employees at that time?The answer is very simple that Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). It will help the organization so that he may find the desired need of the employee and assign them the objectives which relates to their needs, because it will prove fruitful for both the owner as well as employees.

 

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Final Conclusion

Before concluding final remarks I again read all the theories carefully and then I am going to make final conclusion.

All the need theories explained their own school of thoughts in a different and reasonable approach, but Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs got the primary importance because it is the pioneer in need theories and this theory give insight other scientist so that they may share their ideas and find out the demerits in this theory and develop that kind of theory which is free from all kinds of demerits and perfect for an organization.Such an attempt was made by both ERG Theory and McClelland's Theory of Needs,both the scientist attempt was good because ERG Theory listed the need into three categories

like Maslow where as McClelland's Theory of Needs also contained a list of need but it showed that a human need differ in different period of life.So, in short I am in the favor of McClelland’s Theory of Needs keeping in mind the organization as well as individual perspective because in this theory it is tried to recognize which need is dominating in an employee at a particular time of life so that it will proof helpful for both the employee as well as organization.

Management > McClelland

McClelland's Theory of Needs

In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power. A person's motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs. McClelland's theory sometimes is referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory.

Achievement

People with a high need for achievement (nAch) seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their acheivements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers.

Affiliation

Those with a high need for affiliation (nAff) need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations.

Power

A person's need for power (nPow) can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power.

Thematic Apperception Test

McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a tool to measure the individual needs of different people. The TAT is a test of imagination that presents the subject with a series of ambiguous pictures, and the subject is asked to develop a spontaneous story for each picture. The assumption is that the subject will project his or her own needs into the story.

Psychologists have developed fairly reliable scoring techniques for the Thematic Apperception Test. The test determines the individual's score for each of the needs of achievement, affiliation, and power. This score can be used to suggest the types of jobs for which the person might be well suited.

Implications for Management

People with different needs are motivated differently.

High need for achievement - High achievers should be given challenging projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback.

High need for affiliation - Employees with a high affiliation need perform best in a cooperative environment.

High need for power - Management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others.

Note that McClelland's theory allows for the shaping of a person's needs; training programs can be used to modify one's need profile.

Expectancy Theory – In animal experiments Tolman and his associates trained subjects to learn a maze with a preferred food as a reward. They observed that if they switched to a less preferred reward, the rats displayed disgust. Tolman attributed this to acquisition of expectancies in response to the signs or stimuli of a particular situation. The problem was, he never defined expectancy even though it was a powerful element in his system. 

Tolman identified at least six types of learning. 1. Learning by cathexes – connecting or associating basic drives with desired goals with the end result of developing preferences for certain types of food, drink, sex-objects, etc. 2. Equivalence beliefs – sub-goals leading to major ones acquire similar attractiveness as the end goals. 3. Field expectancies – Acquisitions of sets of gestalts (internal maps) enable the individual to route himself based on these internal maps. 4. Field cognition modes – learning is influenced by the ways that perceptions, memories, and inferences function. 5. Drive discrimination – learning to discriminate between competing or more refined drives 6. Motor patterns- learning and refinement of sensory – motor skills. 

Tolman wanted to disprove Thorndike's Law of Effect and replace it with his own set of 3 laws. 1. Law of Motivation – learning is propelled by gaining final successes or avoiding final failures. It is these that give purpose to the learning activity. 2. Law of Emphasis – Learning consists of building up patterns and gestalts and then selecting or emphasizing particular responses which emerge that tend to favor getting to the ultimate final success. The organism emphasizes certain behaviors over others because they grant better pleasure or survival value. 3. Law of Disruption – violent stimuli either physical (such as electrical shock) or emotional coming in sequence with the right or wrong responses will tend to disrupt learning. 

Summary 

Tolman was similar to the behaviorists in his emphasis on objectivity and measurement. He differed in that he did not believe reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur. Problems with his work were that he poorly defined many terms that he used in his fundamental theories, and that is difficult to make predictions from an expectancy point of view because of lack of determining the nature and strength of expectations before hand and when or how expectations may change. 

Expectancy Theory OverviewThe Expectancy Theory of Motivation is one of the process theories. It provides an explanation of why individuals choose one behavioral option over others. "The basic idea behind the theory is that people will be motivated because they believe that their decision will lead to their desired outcome" (Redmond, 2009). "Expectancy theory proposes that work motivation is dependent upon the perceived association between performance and outcomes and individuals modify their behavior based on their calculation of anticipated outcomes" (Chen & Fang, 2008). This has a practical and positive benefit of improving motivation because it can, and has, helped leaders create motivational programs in the workplace.  "This theory is built upon the idea that motivation comes from a person believing they will get what they want in the form of performance or rewards.  Although the theory is not "all inclusive" of individual motivation factors, it provides leaders with a foundation on which to build a better understanding of ways to motivate subordinates" (AETC, 2008). Expectancy theory is classified as a process theory of motivation because it emphasizes individual perceptions of the environment, and subsequent interactions arising as a consequence of personal expectations.

The theory states that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they believe that:

There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance. Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward. The reward will satisfy an important need.

The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile (Lawler, Porter. L., Vroom, 2009).

Tolman's Behavior and Motivation Theory

 

Edward Tolman was a cognitive behavioral psychologist who studied motivation and learning. He was born in Newton Massachusetts in 1886.  He was introduced to Gestalt psychology while studying in Germany. Tolman used rats for his experiments on learning. One of these experiments led to the theory of latent learning. This theory describes learning with no obvious reward for the learner. Tolman also began to develop the theory of behavior and motivation. He theorized that a motive drives a person’s to behave a certain way until some intrinsic need is met. Until the need is met the person will continue to behave in the same manner. This was the start of the motivation theories. Vroom would add to Tolman’s work with the Expectancy theory later in history (VanderZwaag, 1998).

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

  

Victor H. Vroom, Professor, Yale University

The expectancy theory of motivation was suggested by Victor H. Vroom, an international expert on leadership and decision making. He was named to the original board of officers of the Yale School of Management when it was founded in 1976. Vroom has focused much of his research on dealing with motivation and leadership within an organization. One of the most influential books on the subject of motivation was written by Vroom in 1964, called Work and Motivation. He has served as a consultant to a number of government agencies, as well as more than 100 major corporations worldwide, including General Electric and American Express. He is currently a professor in the Yale School of Management at Yale University.

Vroom's Expectancy Theory addresses motivation and management. The theory suggests that an individual's perceived view of an outcome will determine the level of motivation. It assumes that the choices being made are to maximize pleasure and minimize pain, as also seen in the Law of Effect, "one of the principles of reinforcement theory which states that people engage in behaviors that have pleasant outcomes and avoid behaviors that have unpleasant outcomes" (Thorndike, 1913). He suggests that prior belief of the relationship between people's work and their goal as a simple correlation is incorrect. Individual factors including skills, knowledge, experience, personality and abilities can all have an impact on an employee's performance.

Vroom theorized that the source of motivation in Expectancy Theory is a "multiplicative function of valence, instrumentality and expectancy." (Stecher & Rosse, 2007) He suggested that "people consciously chose a particular course of action, based upon perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs as a consequence of their desires to enhance pleasure and avoid pain" (Vroom, 1964).

Vroom's Expectancy Theory is based on these three components:

Expectancy:Expectancy can be described as the belief that higher or increased effort will yield better performance. This can be explained by the thinking of "If I work harder, I will make something better".Conditions that enhance expectancy include having the correct resources available, having the required skill set for the job at hand, and having the necessary support to get the job done correctly.

Instrumentality:Instrumentality can be described as the thought that if an individual performs well, then a

valued outcome will come to that individual. Some things that help instrumentality are having a clear understanding of the relationship between performance and the outcomes, having trust and respect for people who make the decisions on who gets what reward, and seeing transparency in the process of who gets what reward.

Valence:Valence means "value" and refers to beliefs about outcome desirability (Redmond, 2010). There are individual differences in the level of value associated with any specific outcome. For instance, a bonus may not increase motivation for an employee who is motivated by formal recognition or by increased status such as promotion. Valence can be thought of as the pressure or importance that a person puts on an expected outcome.

Vroom concludes that the force of motivation in an employee can be calculated using the formula: Motivation = Valence*Expectancy*Instrumentality

           

                                                      

Scaffolding upon some of Vroom's original work, Porter and Lawler developed a theoretical model suggesting that the expenditure or an individual's energy or efforts will be determined by the level of expectations that a specific outcome may be obtained and the degree to which that outcome is valued by someone (Pinder, 1984). This theory became known as expectancy theory, or VIE theory (valence, instrumentality, and expectancy). The following information is concerned with exploring the components of expectancy theory, analyzing the research dedicated to the theory, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and discussing the factors that explain motivational behavior in the workplace.  It will be examined to demonstrate the application of expectancy theory in practical terms.  Each of these elements will be instrumental in better understanding one of the more popular theories for explaining and influencing motivational behavior, particularly in the workplace.

Vroom also believed that increased effort will lead to increased performance, given the person has the right tools to get the job done. The expected outcome is dependent upon whether or not the person has the right resources to get the job done, have the right skills to do the task at hand, and they MUST have the support to get the job done. That support may come from the boss, or just being given the right information or tools to finish the job.

Although many people correlate high performance with high rewards, many times the theory is limited because rewards are not always directly correlated with performance in many

organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as position, effort, responsibility, education, etc 

It is important to remember that there is a difference between incentives and motivators. Incentives are non-material objects. They are manipulated by managers and leaders to get employees to do desired tasks. Incentives may work, if the incentive is something the employee desires to work towards. But, if the incentive is taken away, the behavior may not sustain. Motivation theories need to accentuate motivation and not incentives for this reason Motivation implies that people make decisions about their own behavior and what motivates them

The locus of control is different for incentives and motivation. Motivation is intrinsic control where incentives are extrinsically controlled by people in the organization(Mathibe, 2011).

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Expectancy Theory Components

As previously described; Expectancy Theory has three major components:

1. Expectancy2. Instrumentality3. Valence       

These components work together to establish our Motivation force (MF). The diagram below shows the elements involved in each component of MF; while the second diagram illustrates the relationship of each component.

Diagram 1

 

(Scholl, 2002)

Diagram 2

(Swenson, date unknown)     

Expectancy (E→P)

"The relationship between Effort and Performance is known as the E-P linkage" (Isaac, 2001).  "The expectancy component of expectancy theory is the belief that one's effort (E), will give the expected performance (P) goal" (Scholl, 2002).  Expectancy is slated as the first component of the VIE theory; illustrating that in order for a person to be effectively motivated, that individual needs to perceive that their personal expenditure of effort will result in an acceptable level of performance.  The concept of perception is very important throughout this theory, as it concludes that in order for a person to be motivated into putting effort towards a task, they need only to believe that their effort will result in a certain level of performance, or that a certain level of performance is attainable.   An example would be, "If I salt the sidewalk, will it be safer to walk on?"  There are variables that affect an individual's expectancy perception.  These variables include self-efficacy (a person's belief in their ability to perform successfully), goal difficulty (how attainable is this goal), and control (does the person actually have control over the expected outcome). 

Because VIE Theory involves perceptions, and expectancy is a belief about the future rather than a concrete existence in the environment, peoples’ beliefs can vary greatly (Redmond, 2010). This means that while one person perceives their efforts to lead to a great accomplishment, another person may believe their same effort will not lead to much accomplishment at all. This difference in perceptions is due to many factors. Two factors that can affect expectancy are ability and interest (Redmond, 2010). "Lack of ability or interest will decrease a person’s expectancy.  With proper training and a high interest level, people will have an increased level of expectancy.  Employers, for example, need to keep this in mind as they create ideas to motivate their employees.  By encouraging employees and building self-efficacy, managers can increase employee expectancy" (Redmond, 2010).

A key question to ask to determine expectancy is:

What is the strength of the relationship between the effort I put forth and how well I perform?

Additional examples of determinations of expectancy include (Scholl, 2002):

If I spend most of tonight studying, will it improve my grade on tomorrow's math exam?

If I work harder than everyone else in the plant, will I produce more? If I practice my foul shot more, will my foul shooting improve in the game? If I make more sales calls, will I make any more sales?

The following video gives great insight in its presentation of the Expectancy Theory.

CLICK HERE  to watch a presentation on Expectancy Theory

Instrumentality (P→O)

The second component in the Expectancy Theory equation is Instrumentality.  Instrumentality is the perception that a given performance level is related to a given outcome.  In other words, a person's belief that a given output will facilitate a given reward (outcome).  A person will only perform at a certain level if they believe that the performance will lead to a given expressed outcome.  The relationship is represented by the P-O linkage (Isaac, 2001).  The instrumentality component of expectancy theory is the person's belief that if they can meet performance expectations, they will receive "a great reward" (Scholl, 2002).  An example of instrumentality of expectancy theory would be, "If I complete more work than anyone else, will I get a promotion before they do?"  The variables affecting instrumentality are trust (in leaders), control, and policies (how formalized are rewards systems in written policies?) (Scholl, 2002).

Something is considered to be instrumental if it is conditional upon something else, or is believed to directly result into a particular outcome (Redmond, 2010).  Remembering the influential element of perceptions and beliefs, what people believe to be an outcome may not be the actual outcome resulting from their performance. "If people do not see a connection between their performance level and a possible outcome, they are less likely to be motivated" (Redmond, 2010).

A key question to ask to determine instrumentality is:

What is the strength of the relationship between the things I do and the rewards I get from my actions?

Examples of determinations of instrumentality (Scholl, 2002):

If I get a better grade on tomorrow's math test will I get an "A" in math? If I produce more than anyone else in the plant, will I get a bigger raise? A faster

promotion? If my foul shooting improves will I have a shot a team MVP? If I make more sales will I get a bonus? A greater commission? If I make more sales will I believe that I am the best sales person or be recognized by

others as the best sales person?

Valence V(R)

Valence is the final component of VIE theory.  Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward.  It is important to note that valence is not the actual level of satisfaction that an individual receives from an outcome, but rather it is the EXPECTED satisfaction a person receives from a particular outcome (Redmond, 2010).  This “value” is based

in individual differences.  The value a person places on an expected outcome or reward is directly related to who they are; their needs, goals, and values/preferences.  This subjective value is based on the individual's perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs.  "The level at which an individual values an outcome is described as it's valence" (Gerhart, Minkoff, Olsen, 1995).  

A key question to ask to determine valence is:

How valuable do I perceive the potential reward(s) to be?

Examples of determinations of valence (Scholl, 2002):

How much I really want an "A" in math? Do I want a bigger raise? Is it worth the extra effort? Do I want a promotion? How important is it to me to be team MVP? Do I need a sales bonus? Is the extra time I spend making extra sales calls worth the

extra commission? Is it important to me that I am the best salesperson?

Motivational Force

When expectancy, instrumentality and valence are met, a “motivational force” occurs.  This force exerts internal pressure on an individual to be motivated.  The larger the force, the more a person will be motivated to obtain the outcomes of the job (Redmond, 2010).  In order for motivational force to be high, valence, instrumentality and expectancy must also be high.  If any one of those is low, motivation will be low (Redmond, 2009). 

For example, "if a person is indifferent to the outcomes or perceives them as negatively valent, there is no reason to work hard to attain them " (Redmond, 2010).  Therefore, since valence is negative or low, then motivation will also be negative or low.  For each action, expectancy, instrumentality and valence can be assessed and a motivational force computed (Redmond, 2010).

Expectancy theory or "VIE theory" is based on the premise that motivation occurs when three specific conditions are satisfied: effort, performance and outcome.  Think of motivation as a chain where each link represents a condition, and the intersection of each link represent its components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.  Within the chain, a person expects their effort to result in some level of performance (expectancy).  The perceived or expected outcome of their performance level will be considered instrumental to the outcome (instrumentality).  Finally, a person will place subjective value on their belief about the outcome (valence).  This value will determine how satisfactory the outcome is to them.

Among the many factors that influence expectancy, such as ability or interest, perception is perhaps the most significant factor.  Perception is the engine that drives the belief of effort, performance and outcome.  Thus, if any one condition is perceived that it will be low, motivation will be low - just as the bond between links affects the chain.  Because beliefs can vary, however; a subjective probability formula that is multiplicative in nature is used to more accurately measure expectancy and arrive at a predicted motivational force (represented as a number).  The higher the number, the higher the motivation, with each component having its own probability range.

VIE Formula

The VIE formula is represented (within a range) as MF = E(V x I) [3]

The range is represented in Table 1 below:

Table 1: VIE Ranges

Component  Range  Range Definition 

Expectancy 0 to 1 0 = belief she could not perform successfully 1 = firm belief she could perform successfully

Instrumentality 0 to 1 0 = no relationship between performance and outcome 1 = outcome dependent on performance

Valence -1 to +1 -   = avoidance of outcome  0  = indifference +  = expected outcome would be satisfactory

A motivated employee is thus the product of the perceived level of satisfaction, the confidence to achieve, and the rewards that the employee hopes to receive on achieving the set goals.  In other words, valence * expectancy * instrumentality = motivation (Iyer, 2009).

Expectancy is a person's strength of conviction in regards to the ability to attain goals.  People who desire the rewards that management is expected to bestow upon them, on account of superior performance, should have strong convictions regarding their ability to deliver.  An employee who is not positively oriented with respect to the perceived consequences of the attainment of goals, will have a zero valence.  Employees should feel that the efforts that he/she would like to put into work would yield the desired results.  It is ultimately a question of how confident one feels about oneself.  A self-proclaimed achiever may be immensely confident of the ability to perform astoundingly high, while a skeptic may have an entirely different perspective.  An employee who feels that the efforts will not yield the desired results, in terms of achieving the set targets, will have a low probability of expectancy.  Probability of an event can assume values between 0 and 1.  How well an employee scores on this scale of confidence will have a direct bearing on the employee's level of motivation (Iyer, 2009).

*Motivational Force (MF)= Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valance

When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest motivational forces (MF).In terms of the above Motivational Force equation, when anyone of these products are zero then the whole equations becomes zero. If a person does not have one of the three products, then overall motivation is lacking.

To conclude this section, let's consider the following example which highlights the understanding that thought process towards motivation is based on individual factors, and perceptions:

Example 1

 

  Sales Department Example Let's consider one initiative to motivate staff, the offer of promotion within a sales department if certain sales targets are met. For one member of staff this is highly attractive (Valence = + 0.9), but due to their portfolio of clients, and unsuccessful past sales performance, they perceive achievement of the outcome, e.g. the sales target, almost impossible (Expectancy = 0.1). By applying the formula we see that the motivational force will be : F = V x E F = 0.9 x 0.1 = 0.09 Alternatively, another member of staff finds the possibility of promotion reasonably attractive (Valence = + 0.6), and based on their portfolio of clients, and successful past sales performance, they feel reasonably confident that they will achieve the sales target set (Expectancy = 0.8). Here we see that the motivational force is far stronger in comparison: F = V x E F = 0.6 x 0.8 = 0.48 

Example Source: http://www.examstutor.com/business/resources/studyroom/people_and_organisations/motivation_theory/5-vroomsexpectancytheory.php 

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Research on Expectancy Theory"Since it is a popular motivational theory in I/O Psychology, many studies have been conducted in the United States, as well as other countries" (Matsui & Terai, 1975), to test the efficacy of the expectancy theory using between-subjects design and within-subjects design.  In between-subjects design studies, groups of people are asked questions about their expectancies, instrumentalities and valences with a motivational force score computed for each person.  The motivational force score is combined with performance ratings given by supervisors for a total force score.  "This type of study distinguishes between the most motivated, and the least motivated employees" (Redmond, 2009).

Within-subjects design, by contrast, studies how one individual is motivated by different tasks.  In this study, a person is given different tasks and is provided a force score for each to determine which task the person is more highly motivated in.  Because Vroom developed the expectancy theory to account for varying motivation across tasks, the within-subjects design studies are considered better suited for testing the theory (Redmond, 2009).  For each person, a correlation is computed between predictions of effort made by the theory and actual amounts of effort expended on tasks (Redmond, 2009).

From the research that has been conducted to test the theory, overall results suggest that the theory can be useful as a predictor of the choices people will make when given different tasks, and remains a popular theory in the workplace.  The strongest support in favor of this research was shown for valence, instrumentality, and expectancy as individual components, which showed higher correlations and predictions resulting for within-subject design studies, rather than the motivational force score or the total force score (Redmond, 2009). 

Jay Caulfield, from Marquette University, used expectancy theory as a framework for his research study.  This study was to investigate the motivational factors that may contribute to students providing anonymous feedback to teachers. “Expectancy theory has been more effective in predicting motivation when the subject being studied had more discretion in performing a task” (Caulfield, 2007).  Since the evaluation process is completely anonymous, it makes sense that expectancy theory is a good choice for predicting student’s motivation for filling out the evaluations in the first place.  The purpose of using Vroom’s expectancy theory now, was to determine the outcome the students believed would be attained by providing these evaluations (Caulfield, 2007).  The results of the study indicated that “students’ motivation was dependent upon the importance to them of improving the value of the class and of future classes, and the expectation that their formative feedback would lead to increased value for them, their peers in the classroom and for students in future classes” (Caulfield, 2007).  The findings conclude that it is important that the teachers stress that the evaluations are very important tools for improving the learning and teaching experiences in the present, and the future.

Another research example involves business students nearing their masters’ degree certifications at Carnegie-Mellon University.  The purpose of the study was to predict the appeal of potential employers using a questionnaire to evaluate which goals people believed to be most important.  Goals included “chance to benefit society, freedom from supervision, and high salary”.  After establishing the rank of individual goal preferences, the individuals evaluated three companies of interest to determine the degree to which each student believed they would be able to satisfy his or her goals.  After combining these two variables, an instrumentality-goal index was calculated for each company and was given an attractiveness rating. The results of the study noticeably indicate that companies seen as providing a means towards attaining important goals were most attractive.  This study showed that 76 percent of students chose the company that had the highest instrumentality score.  This study exemplifies how Vroom’s research results are consistent with his theory.  Years later, after following the actual employment, similar supporting evidence was also found (Miner, 2005).

Another research study in expectancy tested the hypotheses that the behavior of some individuals are determined by personal expectancies while the behavior of other individuals are determined by social norms. The researchers took two groups of people and gave one group personal expectations about their behavior. The other group was given information on what the social norms were for the time being. The researchers found that strong expectancy behavior correspondence was given for those individuals who were aware of personal expectancies but who were not knowledgeable about social norms. For those individuals who were attuned to social norms, their behavior corresponded with such (Miller & Grush, 1988).

During 2009 another research study was conducted by Richard Johnson at the University of Toledo’s Criminal Justice Department in order to explain patrol officer drug arrest activity and find ways to influence work output. (Johnson, 2009) The researcher developed four hypothesis based on the expectancy, instrumentality, valence, and overall motivation described in the Expectancy Theory. The first hypothesis was officers will make more drug arrests if they are given direct expectations to do so. Second, officers who have the proper capabilities through sufficient training and equipment will make more arrests. Thirdly, officers who have the opportunity by way of their shift or time between calls will make more arrests. And finally, officers who perceive that their department and supervisors will provide more rewards if they make more drug arrests will more likely be more productive. (Johnson, 2009) The data was collected through self reporting surveys with various response rates. The dependent variable in the study was the individual drug arrest rate of each respondent. The independent variables were drawn from and grouped based on the results of the survey. They included, management priority for expectancy, having adequate equipment for capability, opportunities, and for valence either rewarded or not rewarded because

of the variety of what an officer perceives as a reward. (Johnson, 2009) The data was input into a correlational analysis with varying results. There was a significant effect between management’s expectations and the number of drug arrests. Under capability, there was significant effect between perceptions of being properly equipped and arrests but the correlation was negative and therefore unexpected. Opportunity did show a significant effect as well but the single greatest predictor of drug arrest rate related to the rewards perceived to be available. (Johnson, 2009) The overall purpose of the study was to explain the variation in arrest rate between officers by relying on evaluating organizational factors. The results seem to indicate that each part of the Expectancy Theory plays a role, but the overall best predictor was the end rewards or valence of the overall expectancy. 

Expectancy theory has been researched and studied in various ways. According to the Oxford handbook of motivation, expectancy theory is “more often used as an organizing framework for generating and testing context-specific hypotheses. For example, researchers have applied expectancy theory to guide the development of models to explain Work Motivation 4 variations in DUI arrests among police officers (Mastrofski, Ritti, Snipes, 1994), efforts by middle managers to champion issues for senior executives to pursue (Ashford, Rothbard, Piderit, Dutton, 1998), home runs hit by major league baseball players (Harder, 1991), and strategic decisions in competitive markets (Chen & Miller, 1994)” (Grant & Shin, 2011).

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Expectancy TheoryStrengths

When using the expectancy theory within organizations/institutions, an evaluation can be made in regard to two factors that lead to valence (the reward):  the expectations of the individual and the belief that their actions will lead to the reward.  To utilize the expectancy theory accurately, the within-subject research method is used to evaluate the motivations of the employee. This method of the expectancy theory calculates the difference in motivational levels between tasks of one individual, and that of another. 

To use within-subject designs, participants are given many different tasks to complete. For each task the researcher computes a force score. This score is used to predict the choices that individuals make among the different tasks. Using these predictions of effort, researchers compute correlations based on the predictions and the actual amount of effort exerted by individuals (Redmond, 2010). The strength of the within-subject designs reflects the fact that Vroom developed the VIE theory to determine different motivational levels across various tasks performed by an individual, rather than looking at differences in motivation between different subjects(Redmond, 2010). Validity studies show that the average validity coefficients for within-subjects designs ranges in the .50’s and .60’s (Redmond, 2010).

Expectations are influenced by incentives and rewards. With proper goals set, this will trigger a motivational process that improves performance.  According to Vroom (1995), a person’s

motivational force can be equated to the level of expectancy multiplied by the instrumentality multiplied by the valance. If any one of these factors is scored as a zero, then the motivational score will also be zero (Penn State World Campus, 2011). This can easily be seen in situations where a person believes the amount of effort exerted on a task will not result in the desired reward, in cases where the level of performance will not yield the desired results or that the reward will not have the desired value as expected, the individual’s motivational level will be zero (Penn State World Campus, 2011).  On the other hand, when all the components of the equation are high, the motivational force will also be high (Penn State World Campus, 2011).   

By utilizing expectancy theory, organizations are able to understand the importance of demonstrating appreciation for their employees' work, and as a result, their employees will perform stronger, and show more loyalty towards the organization.  

Weaknesses

A major weakness of expectancy theory is using between-subjects designs. Because VIE theory was developed to account for differences within the individual and not across different subjects, looking at these differences does not give valid results. Validation studies have shown that between-subjects designs result in lower prediction validities. The average validity coefficients for between-subjects designs ranges in the .30’s and .40’s (Redmond, 2010). This is clearly lower than validity coefficients for within-subjects designs.

The weaknesses of between-subject design can be seen in the differences each person places on the effort, performance and value of rewards. Because this design is quantitative, the comparisons between individuals are hard to measure. Another weakness can be seen in the organizational applications of the theory. In some company’s the rewards some employees receive might not be seen as attractive as many people change their idea of a desired reward. What may have been a good incentive at one point in time, may no longer hold its value to that individual anymore ( Penn State World Campus, 2011).

Expectancy theory, by nature, only focuses on the extrinsic motivational factors and the conscious decisions employees make about their performance.  Many employees and leaders are not motivated solely by extrinsic factors, such as a paycheck, bonus, or public recognition.  As a result, "the concept of instrumentality is found to be ambiguous and difficult to operationalize" (Wabba & House, 1974).  Therefore, it is critical for managers and leaders in an organization to really understand what motivates their employees before attempting to utilize the expectancy theory model.  The model might best be used in conjunction with other models of motivation, such as the Hierarchy of Needs and Reinforcement Theory, in order to ensure leaders are able to effectively motivate their employees to achieve a higher level of performance. During situations like these, managers may change the type of rewards to ensure they continue to fit the motivational needs required to obtain the desired behavior.

Empirical research studies have been conducted that demonstrate that expectancy theory "ignores the rationality assumptions underlying this choice behavior" (Wabba & House, 1974).  The assumptions that are made within this theory show that individuals' motivations are consciously chosen.  The concept of this assumption is that people contemplate their actions to achieve the rewards, or in other words, it assumes that people consciously know what rewards are in their own best interest.  It is also assumed that the contemplation is designed to capitalize on rewards and evade losses.  Along these lines, an argument can be made that many individuals might demand a reward system that is based on a short-term time horizon, while forgoing a long-term reward system, even though the long-term system might deliver more valence.  Due to the fact that not all motivations are derived consciously, this theory cannot apply to all individuals.    

Another potential weakness of the expectancy theory is that it assumes all necessities are in place, which is not always the case.  Employees need to have the ability, the resources and the opportunity to perform their job well.  An example of this would be the role genetics can play as a biological limiting factor of performance (Walker, 2003).  Just as an athlete might lack the genetic potential to perform at an income producing level, so to an employee might lack the genetics required to reach a desired level of performance.  In this case, knowing what will motivate the employee may not help since the scarcity of available resources makes it difficult to complete their job.  The upside of this weakness is it will illuminate areas the employers may need to revisit and make decisions regarding the resources available and/or the employees performing the tasks.

The expectancy theory “falls short of explaining how employees update and change their beliefs over time (Mitchell & Biglan, 1971). For example, valence beliefs can change as employees realize that their actual satisfaction with an outcome is different (e.g., lower or higher) than the satisfaction that they anticipated (e.g., Wilson & Gilbert, 2005)” (Grant & Shin, 2011).   When employers are utilizing the theory in the workplace being cognizant of the fact that peoples needs and wants change allows them the opportunity to reevaluate the effectiveness periodically. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Application of Expectancy Theory in the WorkplaceOrganizational Applications: Expectancy

A leaders' ability to understand expectancy as related to the E-P linkage can be extremely useful in the workplace.  There are five distinct components for a leader to keep in mind concerning this linkage.  First, a leader needs to present a reasonably challenging assignment to the employee. It has been shown that unchallenging work leads to boredom, frustration and marginal performance.  Challenging work allows for self-confidence, education, ability development, training, skills and experience, among other things.  Second, a leader must consider the follower's ability. Because people differ on experience, knowledge, training, skill, educational level and so forth, tasks need to be assigned based on the individual's level of competence.  If an individual feels they are not capable to complete the tasks assigned, the E-P linkage will be weak. A competent leader needs to provide the necessary skills to the individual in order for them to be successful.  Third, leaders must recognize that followers differ greatly regarding their levels of self-esteem in regards to completing a task.  Confidence will play a significant role in the follower’s ability to perceive their effort as capable of reaching a desired performance output.  Fourth, a leader needs to determine and specify which outcomes constitute acceptable performance, and which do not. The outcomes need to be communicated clearly with precised goals that need to be accomplished. Both the follower and the leader need to reach a mutual agreement on the behavior that represents a successful outcome for each of them.  Concrete levels of performance allow the follower an accurate assessment of the strength associated with the E-P linkage.  Fifth, a leader should recognize that expenditure of effort for many followers leads to satisfaction on the job (Brown & Peterson, 1994).  Most individuals want to feel useful, competent, involved and productive.  The workplace provides a vehicle to fulfill these needs.  A leader that is aware of these distinct aspects of human perceptions, as they relate to expectancy, can effectively understand and facilitate the E-P linkage for each of their employees (Isaac,

2001).  Managing these elements effectively allows a leader to strengthen the expectancy of each of their followers.

Organizational Applications: Instrumentality

The strength performance output (instrumentality) linkage will be contingent upon three beliefs of the follower.  First, a follower needs to be able to trust that a leader will be able to deliver the outcome promised.  It is the outcome (given that the outcome is valued by the individual) that drives the motivational state according to the expectancy theory.  A followers ability to trust that a leader can and will follow through with an outcome greatly effects the P-O linkage.  Instrumentality is rooted in the belief that the performance rendered will result in the outcome promised.  Second, leaders need to make sure followers receive fair treatment in a predictable manner.  This is not to suggest that people should be treated exactly the same.  As we know from this theory, people vary based on individual differences.  However, this factor does suggest that treatment needs to be considered fair.  The outcome of treatment a follower receives from a specific performance needs to be consistently applied.  A follower should come to understand that a particular action is associated with a particular type of treatment.  This understanding reinforces the P-O linkage (Isaac, 2001).  A leader’s ability to manage the behavior associated with these beliefs will determine how his workersperceive Instrumentality.

Organizational Applications: Valence

With valence, there are two issues a leader should concern himself with.  First, the attractiveness or value of outcomes differs amongst individuals.  A leader needs to be able to identify the value of each outcome from the perspective of the follower.  There are several types of rewards that can induce heightened motivational states for individuals.  These rewards range from money, to praise, to appreciation, to time off, and so on.  Many motivational outcomes are of little or no cost to a company, and these types of rewards become highly valuable motivational tools (Gerhart, Minkoff, Olsen, 1995).  Once a valuable outcome is identified, the motivational force equation can be established.  Second, leaders must put a lot of effort into the alignment of the followers’ personal goals and those of the organization.  It is extremely important that the goals of the individual worker are assimilated into the goals of the organization.  The pairing of these goals is crucial to workplace motivation.  If the follower perceives that their goals are congruent with the goals of the organization, the follower's motivational force associated with receiving outcomes of high valence are aligned with the furthering of organizational interests.  A leader’s ability to do this will greatly enhance both their understanding of valence, as it pertains to individual followers, as well as give them the ability to use this understanding to motivate workers on the job.

Knowing what factors motivate employees can have positive implications for businesses.  Some of these include reduced employee turnover, improved morale and higher productivity.  The expectancy theory suggests, however, that people are motivated by different things.  Some people are motivated by external rewards, such as a paycheck, paid vacation, or a great benefits package, while others may have more intrinsic motivators, such as recognition, or a sense of

belonging.  A few simple ways to discover what motivates an individual would be to either ask them directly, or through a less confrontational method of administering a questionnaire, or survey.  When the questionnaire method is selected, it can be administered to all company employees and can better facilitate isolating certain variables within the company overall.  These isolated variables will bring about improved desired outcomes, such as improved morale and higher productivity.  One example of this may include certain external rewards, such as an increase in pay, or some type of monetary bonus.  Some other examples might include: providing specialized training for an employee who feels they are lacking the ability and confidence to complete a function in a satisfactory manner, or acquiring a piece of equipment that would improve the efficiency of the employees production.  By isolating selected variables, a reward system can be more effectively designed, and can make it possible to determine whether or not the rewards implemented are effecting positive change. The comprehensive reward system should include several different types of rewards so individuals at all levels of the organization with differing motivational drives can strive towards something they perceive as valuable while the organization is continuing to meet its goals and progress.

Utilizing the VIE formula will also allow leaders to set motivating objectives for employees (e.g., a high achiever might not be motivated to work hard if the work he/she is performing is mundane.  Giving the person harder work, or additional responsibilities might motivate him/her to achieve a higher level of performance).  The company will be better off, as more and more employees are motivated to achieve a higher level of performance.

Additionally, the workplace can involve more participants than company and employee alone.  Labor unions are sometimes considered participants, and can also play an important role in the workplace. Many of such unions have looked into forms of expectancy and expectancy-value theory to build and understand their membership.  Much like a company wants to learn what motivates their employees (whether it be intrinsic or extrinsic factors), unions want to know what draws workers to join unions or to vote them out (decertify).  Over time, workers ideas of unions change, based on different situations and adjustments in work environment.  Unions can benefit from understanding what drives these changes, and can learn how to make adjustments to the workers perceptions and expectations of unions.  If a worker perceives that joining a union will be of low cost to them (low effort), then the worker might decide that they have the means to join.  For instance, if a union is already in place (instrumentality), and what the union offers in pay and/or benefits is perceived as valuable (valence), the worker will be more motivated to join or remain a member of a union (Barling, Fullagar, Kelloway, 1992).     

Michael Orey

Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, University of Georgia

Review of Information Processing

Contents

 [hide]

1   Introduction

2   Sensory Registers

3   Short-term Memory

4   Long-term Memory

5   References

6   Instructional Scenarios

o 6.1   Language Learning

o 6.2   Teacher Practice

7   Bibliography

8   Additional Resources

9   Citation

Introduction

Figure 1. The Inspiration web above shows how Information Processing can be likened to the model of a

computer. The Sensory Register would include input devices like CDs. Short Term Memory includes the Central

Processing Unit. Long Term Memory would be viewed as the hard drive or storage. By Tiffany Davis, Meghann

Hummel, and Kay Sauers (2006).

Information processing (IP) is a cognitive processing theory (see, Ashcraft, 1994). While other

theories in this e-book are learning or instructional in nature, IP theory seeks to explain how the

mind functions. Learning components such as rehearsal and elaboration are associated with IP;

however, most emphasis is placed on understanding how information is processed rather than

how learning happens.

Another aspect of this theory is that it is explicitly analogous to a computer's processor. The basic

IP model has three components: sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) or working

memory, and long-term memory (LTM). The corresponding components of the computer are input

devices or registers, the CPU, and hard drive storage, respectively. This metaphor is superficially

valid, but as it is taken to its limits, the mechanical comparison breaks down. However, knowing

that this model is a cognitive processing model and knowing that the model is based on an

explicit metaphor with a computer is helpful in understanding IP theory.

Let's start with the model and an example. As I write this, I see my cup on my desk. Let's follow this image through the system. The model is depicted below and shows the cup being processed. In the narrative that follows, I will refer back to this cup as it is being cognitively processed.

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The illustration above represents my coffee cup example. Light reflects off the cup and into the eye. The image is

then transferred through the optic nerve to the sensory register. From the sensory register, the image is moved into

Short-term Memory (STM) as information about the cup is drawn from Long-term Memory (LTM). The process of

elaboration occurs when information is retrieved from the LTM in order to link to the new information. I would like to

thank Liyan Song for her work on the Flash model shown above.

Sensory Registers

The best understood of the sensory registers (SRs) are for hearing (echoic) and seeing (iconic).

Very little is known about tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), and gustatory (taste) SRs. In the cup

example, light reflecting off the cup hits my eye; the image is transferred through my optic nerve

to the sensory register. If I do not attend to it, it fades from this memory store and is lost. In fact,

my cup is on my desk most of the day, and I see it without really "seeing" it many times during the

day. Each memory stage has four attributes: representation, capacity, duration, and cause of

forgetting. For the visual sensory register, for example, representation is iconic-- limited to the

field of vision, and lasts for about 250 milliseconds. The main cause of forgetting is decay.

Representation in the auditory register is echoic (based on sound); its duration is 2-3 seconds, it

is only limited to the sounds we actually can hear and decay is the primary cause for forgetting.

As previously mentioned, much less is known about the other three register types.

Short-term Memory

Short-term memory (STM) is also known as working memory, and is where consciousness exists.

In the cup example, if I attend to the cup, it will be moved into STM. At this point, it is difficult to

talk about the cup in STM memory without referring to long-term memory (LTM). For example, I

might attend to the cup and think, "That's my cup. It has coffee in it. I poured that coffee 3 hours

ago." Each of those statements draws on LTM. I know it is my cup because it is the one that a

potter friend of mine made for me. I know it has coffee in it, because I remember getting it this

morning. I know that I poured that cup at 9:00 am. The statement that the coffee is 3 hours old

required me to look at the current time, and retrieve from LTM that subtracting the current time

from pouring time tells me how old the coffee is. Performing the subtraction used no STM

processing space, because experience in doing arithmetic allows me to do this automatically.

STM is where the world meets what is already known, and where thinking is done. You perceive and attend to stimuli; that information is then actively processed based on information stored in LTM. In terms of the characteristics of this memory stage, the representation is echoic. It is limited to 5-9 items, and it lasts only about 20 seconds. Interference is the principal cause of forgetting. The most important of these characteristics is the 5 to 9 items. A common example of this is calling information for a phone number. After the operator gives you the number, you begin repeating it to keep it in STM. This repetition is termed rehearsal. Rehearsal can also be used to get information into LTM, but it is very inefficient. Rehearsal primarily serves a maintenance function; it can be used to keep information in STM. In the phone number example, if someone interrupts you to ask you a question while you are rehearsing the number, responding interferes with rehearsal, and the phone number is lost. You must call information again.

See a video of a short-term memory scenario  Caption: Nikki is listening to the radio station when

the DJ calls her name and announces that she has 2 minutes to call. The prize includes tickets to

the Yankee game and a dinner date with her idol Derek Jeter. As the telephone number is

announced on the radio, she pulls over to call. She has about 20 seconds to retain the number in

her short term memory. She rehearses the number by repeating it over and over in an effort to

transfer from short term to long term memory, but is interrupted by signs and commercials with

numbers. The end of the clip is left open for the audience to decide whether or not she

remembers the number and wins the date with her idol. Video created by Michelle Sampson,

Michelle Venable-Foster and Melissa Madsen (2004).

Long-term Memory

The final stage in the IP model is long-term memory (LTM), which is typically termed call memory.

LTM is everything we know and know how to do. For most cognitive psychologists, the world of

LTM can be categorized as one of three types of memory: declarative, procedural or episodic.

Declarative knowledge can be defined as knowledge needed to complete this sentence.

"Knowing that..." By contrast, procedural knowledge is, "Knowing how..." These two types of

knowledge,account for most of what is learned in work and school. The remaining type of

knowledge is episodic which might also be called anecdotal. This is memory for specific events in

one's life: a memory of your first kiss or of your graduation. The personal stories in our lives

comprise episodic memory. While this makes for a neat tautology, some have suggested that it is

incomplete.

Figure 2. This Inspiration web illustrates that Long Term Memory consists of declarative knowledge ("I know

that...even numbers end with the digits 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8!"), procedural knowledge ("I know how& to pronounce and

comprehend new vocabulary!"), and episodic knowledge ("I remember when& I graduated from high school!"). By

Tiffany Davis, Meghann Hummel, and Kay Sauers (2006).

Pavio (1980) has asserted that memory for images differs from memory for words. He offers a

dual coding hypothesis asserting that when we see an image, both the image and a label for that

image are stored in memory. He has extended the hypothesis, suggesting that dual codes may

exist for the other senses as well. For example, the smell of an orange is stored along with its

label, "orange."

Others have suggested that there are mechanisms that control thinking and learning. These

control processes are called metacognition. Metacognition often takes the form of strategies. For

example, learners attempting to master a complex topic might choose to use a strategy such as

drawing pictures to help them understand the complex inter-relationships of the various

components of the topic. Strategic readers might stop and mentally summarize what they have

just read in order to ensure comprehension.

The 1970s saw great expansion of understanding of human learning. It became clear that there

was no one method of teaching that ensured successful learning. Many researchers, especially in

the field of second language (L2) acquisition, recognizing this fact, turned their attention to

learners, attempting to answer the question, "Why is it that some learners succeed in learning

regardless of the methods used to teach them?" Joan Rubin (1975) and H.H. Stern (1975)

formulated lists of the characteristics and strategies that "good" language learners use in their

study; Rubin and Thompson (1982) offered guidance to foreign language students on how to

make themselves better learners. Extensive study of this notion of learning strategies in the

1980s led Michael O'Malley and his associates (1985) to formulate a list of 24 strategies used by

English as a Second Language (ESL) students in their study. Perhaps most important, the

strategies were classified into three categories, as follows:

Metacognitive strategies is a term borrowed from IP theory. These strategies, according to

O'Malley et. al. (cited in Brown,1987), "indicate an 'executive ' function...that involve planning for

learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring...and evaluating

learning (p. 94)..." Metacognitive strategies might include using advance organizers, self-

planning, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation.

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In the caption, Kelsey is having problems taking notes from the teacher's lectures. Kelsey does her best at taking

notes but when it comes time to study, her notes from the lecture are so poorly written that she becomes confused

and frustrated and thus gives up on studying her notes. Since 50% of the test comes from the lecture material in

class, Kelsey's test grades are declining dramatically. Kelsey, adamant about making high grades, seeks counsel

from the teacher on how she can improve her note taking skills. The teacher introduces Kelsey to the Cornell Note

Taking method. He explains that she should divide her paper into three sections. One section of the page should

be labeled MAIN IDEAS, one section of the page should be labeled DETAILS, and one section should be labeled

SUMMARY. The teacher explains to Kelsey that she should write words such as terms and major topics under the

MAIN IDEAS section, and then under the DETAILS section she should put the definitions of the terms or the

supporting information about the major topics. The teacher stresses that the linked information in the MAIN IDEAS

section and the DETAILS section should be lined up. The teacher then explains to Kelsey that when she goes to

study she should fold the paper so that the MAIN IDEAS section is only visible on one side and the DETAILS

section visible on the other. The teacher then explains how she can quiz herself on the notes taking by reading the

information in the MAIN IDEAS section and give the definition or supporting information in the DETAILS section.

Last the teacher explains that once she feels comfortable about the information in the notes she should write a

summary of the information in the SUMMARY section. During the next several lectures Kelsey applies the Cornell

Note Taking method during the teacher's lectures. Kelsey then studies her notes just the way her teacher

instructed her to do. When Kelsey received her grade from the test she had applied her new note taking skills on,

she was very pleased. She had received an A. By Mari-Amanda Grigsby, James Holden, Aron Scott Foster, and

Lucas Amaral (2006).

Cognitive strategies are more task-specific, and often refer to "direct manipulation of the learning material itself (Brown, 1987)." Examples of cognitive strategies are note-taking, repetition, guessing meaning from context, or using mnemonic devices.

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The animation illustrates the use of cognitive strategies to help solve a mathematic equation. The FOIL method,

when used as a mnemonic, will take the student through the appropriate steps to solve the problem. The student

has used a cognitive strategy to recall the mnemonic that is most useful in this situation. By Mari-Amanda Grigsby,

James Holden, Aron Scott Foster, and Lucas Amaral (2006).

Socioaffective strategies refer to strategies that use association with or input from teachers or peers.

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Mr. Stoll's Science class is learning about simple machines. The caption depicts a scenario that Mr. Stoll has

created for his class. Mr. Stoll takes his class outside to an open field behind the school and gives them a task of

moving a 400 lb. object 25 yards using only materials found in the field. The class searches and all they can seem

to find are large logs. Eddie suggests that the class puts the logs together, then the 400 lb. object on top and roll

the weight the 25 yards. The logs will act like the wheels on a truck. The class now grasps the concept of this

simple machine. By Mari-Amanda Grigsby, James Holden, Aron Scott Foster, and Lucas Amaral (2006).

O'Malley and his colleagues have gone on to suggest that these strategies can be overtly taught

to learners, facilitating one of the most important goals of learning, learner autonomy.

Finally, there is another viewpoint that offers the notion of concepts. For example, there exists a

concept called "bird," which can be reduced to declarative statements such as: "It has feathers,"

"It has wings and flies," "It lays eggs," and the like. The concept of "bird" can also include our

episodic experiences with birds--the parakeet I had when I was a child, the sparrow I found dead

by the fence one morning, etc. It can also include the hundreds of images that we have seen of

birds, as well as all instances of real birds we have seen. All of this collectively is what we know

of as "bird." It is the concept of bird, the tightly woven collection of knowledge that we have for

birds.

In the end, there are five types of knowledge in LTM--declarative, procedural, episodic, imagery,

and strategic knowledge; there also exists one collective type called conceptual knowledge. For

the LTM stage, the representation is semantic (based on meaning). Capacity and duration are

considered unlimited in LTM, and the cause of forgetting is failure to retrieve.

The final issue regarding the IP model is how information gets into LTM. This primarily takes

place through a process called elaboration. When I think about teaching learners, I need to know

what they already know so that they can relate the new information to their existing knowledge.

This is elaboration. While teachers can do some of that for learners, elaboration is an active

process. The learner must be actively engaged with the material that is to be learned. This does

not necessarily mean that the learner must be physically active; rather, it implies that they should

be actively relating this new piece of information to other ideas that they already know. LTM is

often regarded as a network of ideas. In order to remember something, ideas are linked, one to

another until the sought-after information is found. Failure to remember information does not

mean that it has been forgotten; it is merely the procedure for retrieval has been forgotten. With

more elaboration, more pathways to that piece of information are created . More pathways make

retrieval of the information more likely. If it is found, it is not forgotten.

References

Basic Principles of LearningPsychology Article SeriesClassical Conditioning; Learning by Association, Operant conditioning: Learning from the consequences of behavior, Observational learningContents

Definition of Learning

Classical Conditioning; Learning by Association

Operant conditioning: Learning from the consequences of behavior

Observational learning

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Definition of Learning 

In psychology the term learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about

through experience – that is, through interactions with the environment.

 

Classical Conditioning; Learning by Association 

 

Classical conditioning changes reflex behavior that would occur only in response to specific stimuli- like

salivation to the presence of food to events which are occurring repeatedly before the stimuli event. The

general example cited is that of a dog which is given food after a bell is sounded. Hence after few

repetitions, the sound of the bell makes the dog salivate in expectation of the food.

 

Association: the key Element in Classical Conditioning

 

 

 

Operant conditioning: Learning from the consequences of behavior 

We call learning from the consequences of behavior, operant conditioning.

 

Thorndyke formulated the law of effect which states that the consequence of a response determines whether

the response will be performed in the future.

 

Positive Reinforcement

In positive reinforcement, the consequences of a behavior are positive, so the behavior is engaged in more

frequently.

 

 

 

Observational learning 

We cannot explain the acquisition of all things (learning) through classical and operant conditioning. Other

learning models are proposed in psychology.

 

One way of acquiring knowledge that has been widely studied is learning through observation (or learning

through modeling or learning by imitation). Closely akin to observation learnng is learning by receiving

instructions from someone else (teacher) and reading textbook. The cognitive psychologists would say that

in our information processing we have the benefit not only of the knowledge stored in our own memories

but, through language, of all the knowledge possessed by our fellow human beings and indeed the wisdom

of the ages recorded in our libraries (Kaman and Segal, 1992) .