Leader Acceptance

& Effectiveness

Leadership

Decline

Leader

Emergence

Typical Leadership ProcessRole of demographic variables, cognitive

ability (verbal), Big 5 personality factors such

as Extraversion and Consciensciousness,

Self-monitoring

Self-Monitoring (Form of Social Intelligence)

• Awareness of how one is being received by others (cognitive, perceptual process)

• Ability to alter one’s behavior (if necessary) depending on how one thinks they are being received (adaptability)

1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people. 2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. 3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like. 4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe. 5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information. 6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people. 7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues. 8. I would probably make a good actor. 9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music. 10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am. 11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone. 12. In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention. 13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons. 14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me. 15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be having a good time. 16. I'm not always the person I appear to be. 17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor. 18. I have considered being an entertainer. 19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else. 20. I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting. 21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations. 22. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going. 23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should. 24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end). 25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.

Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974)

~ Some Leadership Traits ~

Traits associated with leader effectiveness

• Consciensciousness

• Extraversion

Leader skills related to effectiveness

• Technical skills

• Conceptual skills

• Interpersonal skills

Types of Power

• Reward [Based on the ability to administer rewards and benefits e.g., raises, promotions, positive performance evaluations]

• Coercive [Based on the ability to administer punishments to subordinates]

• Legitimate [Authority based on one’s official title or position e.g., CEO, General, Police Officer]

• Expert [Possession of a given body of knowledge and/or skills. Can often be rather limited in scope]

• Referent [Identification, attraction, or respect for someone. Common for Charismatic leaders]

Referent Expert Legitimate Reward Coercive

Unlikely

Possible

Likely

Commitment

Compliance

Resistance

Typical Reactions to Power

Leadership Behaviors

Consideration Style (expressing warmth,

caring concern for workers)

Structured Style(organized, planned,

use of deadlines)

Factors

• Ability level of employees

• Number of subordinates

• Difficulty of job

• Best for a leader to use both styles when appropriate

Consideration:

• Is easy to get along with _____.• Explains actions to group members• Usually treats everyone in the same manner• Let's followers know of changes in advance• Puts group ideas into operation

Structure:

• Informs subordinates about what is expected• Clarifies roles among group members• Makes decisions regarding work methods• Advocates the use of standardized procedures• Sets specific goals and monitors performance  

Measurement of Leader’s Behaviors

(Based on the Leader Behavior Descriptive Questionnaire; LBDQ)

_______ I encourage my team to participate when it comes decision making time and I try to implement their ideas and suggestions.   _______ Nothing is more important than accomplishing a goal or task.   _______ I closely monitor the schedule to ensure a task or project will be completed in time.   _______ I enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures.   _______ The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it.   _______ I encourage my employees to be creative about their job.   _______ When seeing a complex task through to completion, I ensure that every detail is accounted for.   _______ I find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time.   _______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and journals about training, leadership, and psychology; and then putting what I have read into action.   _______ When correcting mistakes, I do not worry about jeopardizing relationships.   _______ I manage my time very efficiently.   _______ I enjoy explaining the intricacies and details of a complex task or project to my employees.   _______ Breaking large projects into small manageable tasks is second nature to me.   _______ Nothing is more important than building a great team.   _______ I enjoy analyzing problems.   _______ I honor other people's boundaries.   _______ Counseling my employees to improve their performance or behavior is second nature to me.   _______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and trade journals about my profession; and then

implementing the new procedures I have learned.

Leadership Questionnaire(From the perspective of leaders)

Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model[A Model of Decision Making]

Autocratic

A1: Use available information; makes sole decision

A2: Get employee to acquire some information; makes sole decision

ConsultativeC1: Leader gets individual input regarding a decision; makes sole decision

C2: Leader get group input regarding a decision; makes sole decision

Group G2: Total group decision-making; leader is an equal member in the group

Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model (cont.)

General Criteria for Selecting Decision-Making Strategy

A) Time (e.g., immediate decision vs. ample time available)

B) Decision Quality (e.g., routine decision vs. high quality decision required)

C) Group Acceptance (of the decision itself and the process used)

Participative Decision-Making

Pros:

• Increases cooperation and communication

• Enhances employee identification & acceptance of decisions

• Can lead to better quality decisions

• Gives employees better understanding of decision complexity and issues

Cons:

• Takes more time to make decisions

• Who to involve in decision-making (e.g., employee knowledge & motivation issues)

• What decisions to involve employees in making (all, some) and who decides

• Incentives for employees (increased costs?)

Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)

Leader

Subordinates

Evaluation of subordinates on:

• Ability

• Trust

• Responsibility

In-Group

[e.g., better job duties, greater rewards, more visibility, treated with warmth and caring by the leader, greater access to information]

Perceived similarity

Gender

High Quality of Leader-Member

Exchange

~ Employee Outcomes ~

High

SatisfactionPerformance ratingsOrganizational commimtmentRole clarity

Low

Role conflictTurnover intentions

~ LMX Outcomes ~

Rate traits of typical males

Rate traits of typical females

Rate traits of typical of leaders

Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits

~ Female Traits and Leadership ~

• 12 Fortune 500 companies are run by women (2011)

Source: http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2011/womenceos/

Female Representation in Business

• In 2007, 23% of university presidents are female, more than double the 9.5% in 1986, but only 2% more than 2001

• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United States

Female Representation in Academics

Women in the US Senate (N = 20; 2013)

Barbara Mikilski

Dianne Feinstein

Barbara Boxer

Debbie Stabenow

Maria Cantwell

Parry Murray Susan Collins

Mary Landrieu

Lisa Murkowski

Amy Klobuchar

Jeanne Shaheen

Kirsten Gillibrand

Kelly Ayotte

Claire McCaskill

Kay Hagan

Tammy Bladwin

Deb Fischer Heidi Heitkamp

Mazie Hirono Elizabeth Warren

Country Leader

Germany Chancellor Angela Merkel

Liberia President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf

India President Pratibha Patil

Argentina President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchne

Bangledesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed

Iceland Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir

Lithuania President Dalia Grybauskaite

Costa Rica President Laura Chinchilla

Trinidad and Tobago Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar

Australia Prime Minister Julia Gillard 

Slovakia Prime Minister Iveta Radicová 

Brazil President Dilma Rousseff

Mali Prime Minister Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé

Kosovo President Atifete Jahjaga

Thailand Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra (recently removed from office)

Denmark Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt

Switzerland President Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf

Jamaica Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller

South Korea Park Geun-hyeSource: http://www.filibustercartoons.com/charts_rest_female-leaders.php

Current Female Heads of State Worldwide

Gender

Female Male

Regular Fast Regular Fast

Unattractive

Attractive

Rated on various factors (e.g., ability, integrity, likeability)

• Key is perception of levels of femininity. If highly feminine, not seen as very capable.

Female Attractiveness and Corporate Success

X

Females as CEOs --- increase in stock price

But, it depends on industry

Price goes up higher if female CEO is head of female-dominated business, otherwise small decrease in stock price (Cooke & Glass, 2011)

Survey of over 60,000 direct reports

No gender preference for one’s own boss

“Ideal” boss:

54% -- No Preference

13% -- Female Preference

33% -- Male Preference

Gender and Leadership: Recent Findings

• Small but significant preference for opposite-sex bosses• Increased preference for stereotypical female leader characteristics (sensitive, supportive) vs. direct, forceful. Study by Elesser & Lever, 2011)

More Recent Findings

Analyzed 99 data sets from 58 journal publications, 30 unpublished dissertations or theses, five books and six other sources (e.g., white papers)

86% of the samples from studies conducted in the United States or Canada

Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S. & David J. Woehr, D. J. (2014) Gender and Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of Contextual Moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology

Basic Results ---

• Ratings by others indicated that women were perceived as more effective leaders than men in middle management, business and education organizations

• Women were viewed as more effective in senior-level management positions

• Men rate themselves as significantly more effective than women rate themselves

Israeli Army Study

Low Expectatio

n Label

High Expectatio

n Label

Training

Overall Performance

Ratings of leaders by subordinates

• Leadership as a limited resource; allocated to those who will lead to best results

Path-Goal Theory

Leader is seen as important in providing a path for employees to attain desired goals

• Directive [leader tells subordinates how to perform tasks; provides guidelines and structure]

• Supportive [leader shows caring and concern for subordinates’ well- being]

• Participative [leader involves subordinates in decision-making]

• Achievement-oriented [leader sets specific and challenging goals; promotes high work-related aspirations and goal attainment]

Leadership Behaviors (must be able to use all four types when necessary. Use varies with such factors as employee ability, work environment, group size)

Path Goal (cont.)

What can leaders do to help employees attain goals?

1) Remove obstacles/problems to gain attainment

2) Provide valued incentives to employees

3) Clarify paths to goals (e.g., use of feedback)

Job Rewards Satisfaction

Leader Rewards Acceptance of Leader

Effort Performance

Performance RewardsMotivation

~ Implicit Leadership Theory ~

Key: The perception of leader behaviors and prototype matching process

Prototype of effective leadership

Intelligent High Verbal SkillsFairGood interpersonal skills

Observed Leadership Behaviors

Intelligent High Verbal SkillsFair

Prototype matching

Leader Evaluatio

n

My boss is a good leaderRating Behaviors (using global impressions)

Question: Does your bosss have good social skills?Answer: Yes, he’s a good leader so he must have good social skills

~ Transformational Leadership ~

Basic Dimensions

Idealized Influence (charasmatic, establishing visions, role-modeling)

Inspirational Motivation (providing challanges, goal sharing, go beyond self-interests)

Intellectual Stimulation (encouraging creative problem solving, critical thinking, flexible)

Individualized Consideration (encouragement and support, empowerment)

Benefits: Leader effectiveness, high procedural justice perceptions, high trust, more organizational citizenship behaviors

Possible negative(s): Dependence on leader

~ Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership Approaches ~

Transformational Transactional

Behaviors Inspirational, empowering

Use of reinforcements (e.g., rewarding

desired behaviors)

Goals Group/organizational interests

Employee self interest

Desired change

Major, innovative Regular, routine

Combination of both styles is common (or needed)

~ Impact of Culture on Leadership ~

Are there cultural difference in such things as leader expectations, acceptable leader behaviors and/or traits, leader’s use of incentives (e.g., leadership prototypes)?

Are some leadership styles, behaviors universally accepted and effective?

Japanese Sample Prototype

DisciplinedIntelligentTrustworthyEducatedResponsible

U.S. Sample Prototype

PersistentIndustriousHigh Verbal SkillsGoal-OrientedDetermined

No single trait emerged in the Top 5 of the eight countries surveyed.

Eastern

Western

“... the function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more followers.” --- Ralph Nader

~ Interdependence of Leaders and Followers ~

Some Basic Points

• Leadership is a process, not a person

• Process is dynamic and reciprocal (not top down)

• Situational context is crucial (e.g., demands, resources)

• Importance of follower characteristics (needs, expectation, perceptions) and their responses

• Flexibility in leader behavior (style must match the requirements of a given situation such as time frame, group acceptance, decision quality)

• Know their subordinates and provide incentives that match their needs and desires

• Treat subordinates fairly

• Set realistic and challenging goals

• Leaders need to be perceived as important in order for employees to get rewards

• Guarantee that employee job performance leads to getting desired rewards

Summary of Some Key Leadership Factors