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1 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Latin 3a 2021 Word Study Compilation 1
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2 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Word Study 1
Format has been changed to 11 pt. font throughout, including the title, with no underlines, and spaces
between paragraphs were removed.
Analysis of Misericordia
The word misericordia, misericordiae, is a first declension noun that is commonly translated as
compassion, but can also be translated as pity, sympathy, or mercy. It has a Spanish cognate misericórdia
meaning mercy or pity, and an Italian cognate misericordia, which could be translated as compassion or
mercy. Misericordia could be split up into two separate latin words, misereo which means to feel pity, or
to have pity and cor which most commonly means heart, but could also be translated as mind soul or
spirit. In the next few paragraphs, varying translations of misericordia will be examined in several
different documents.
In a paragraph from The Good Samaritan, a certain Samaritan was making a journey, when he
came across a man who had been stripped and beaten by robbers. As a result, he then felt compassion for
the man and helped him. Samaritanus autem quidam, iter faciens, venit secus eum et, videns eum,
misericordia motus est. et adpropians alligavit vulnera eius, infundens oleum et vinum; et inponens illum
in iumentum suum, duxit in stabulum, et curam eius egit. However a certain Samaritan, making the
journey, came by him and was moved by compassion, approaching him to bind up his wound, pouring in
oil and wine; and setting him upon his mule, led him into an inn, and took care of him (Luke, Vulgate
146-150). In this passage, compassion seems to be the best translation, as it conveys the Samaritan’s
feelings of sympathy as well as his desire to help/care for the man.
On the other hand, in a letter in a collection of Letters written by Cicero, he talks about combat
between men and elephants in a theater, pitying the elephants: amissa fugae spe, misericordiam vulgi
inenarrabili habitu quaerentes supplicavere. After having lost hope of escape, they begged with their
expression searching for mercy of the indescribable general public (Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares 7.1).
In this context, the most sensible translation of misericordia is mercy. This is because it shows that the
elephants want the general public to help them and they want them to stop killing them.
Another passage in which misericordia appears is in the Prodigal Son, when the son returns to his
father after being away: cum autem adhuc longe esset, vidit illum pater ipsius, et misericordia motus est,
et adcurrens cecidit supra collum eius, et osculatus est illum. And rising, he came to his father. However,
when he was still far off, his father saw him, and was moved by pity, and attending to him fell above his
neck, and kissed him (Luke, Vulgate 171-173). Here, misericordia is best translated as pity, this is
because the father feels bad for the son who comes home upset, but does not put himself in the shoes of
his son or feel like he needs to make his son feel better; he just is happy that the son is home.
In conclusion, the word misericordia has several specific meanings - compassion, pity, sympathy,
or mercy.. Further, it can be used to denote a more active feeling, as in wanting to help someone and
feeling what they are going through. Finally, it can serve as a more passive feeling, as in acknowledging
the feelings of another person (or animal) and not wanting to act on it.
3 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Word Study 2
A Paradigmatic Prototype
Many wildlife lovers know that foxes can sprint a maximum velocity of thirty miles per hour, but
did you know that this cute critter has an equally riveting linguistic past? Even though the etymology of
the English term is murky, a much clearer rhetorical genealogy can be established for the word in Latin:
“vulpes,” meaning “fox,” is descended from the Proto-Italic word “wolpeis.” Entering into Latin, the
word became volpes in early use, before the o turned into u and formed the more modern vulpes, which
was used by such great authors as Phaedrus, Vergil, Hyginus, Horace, and Jerome. Although the basic
idea of vulpes is clear between these authors, the actual definition is far harder to tie down, as it
comprises a complex and multi-faceted idea in our deficient mother tongue.
Just like in English, the meaning of a Latin word depends on its context, and vulpes is no
different; depending on the author and placement, it can take on very different senses. The first and most
simple of these is quite literal: to refer to a physical fox. For example, in his Eclogues, Vergil writes,
describing a singing competition, “...and may he yoke foxes” atque idem iungat vulpes et mulgeat hircos,
and may he yoke foxes and milk heifers (Vergil, Eclogues 3.90). In this usage, he is clearly referring to
capturing corporeal wild foxes, which would be no mean feat. He is not the only one to utilize this most
simple use: another more fantastical but still basic use of the word can be seen in Hyginus’ work De
Astronomica. Speaking of the dog which pursued the Teumessian Fox, he writes, “He [Amphityron]
brought it to Thebes when he came, where there was a fox, who, it was said, was able to outrun many
dogs” Quem ille ducens secum Thebas pervenit, ubi erat vulpes, cui datum dicebatur, ut omnes canes
effugere posset, he brought it to Thebes when he came, where there was a fox, who, it was said, was able
to outrun many dogs (Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.35.4). Although this fox possessed supernatural
celerity, the barebones concept is analogous; the term designates a small wild animal with a bushy tail and
red fur.
However, although these two authors chose to use this first meaning of the word, other authors
did not necessarily comply to these constraints. For instance, Phaedrus, who himself took his inspiration
from the ageless Aesop, writes, “A fox sitting in a high tree saw a raven and began to speak to him” celsa
residens arbore, hunc vidit vulpes, deinde sic coepit loqui, a fox sitting in a high tree saw him and began
to speak (Phaedrus, Fabulae 1.13.2). To the zealous zoologist, it is obvious that foxes are incapable of
human speech, but in his creative take on a simple word, the great fabulist of Macedonia pairs a
stereotypical personality with the woodland beast: craftiness, shrewdness, and cheating. Retelling stories
that involve articulate foxes commenting on such things as grapes Fame coacta vulpes alta in vinea, uvam
appetebat, a fox, being brought to a vineyard by his hunger, desired a bunch of grapes (Phaedrus, Fabulae
4.10.1) and masks Personam tragicam forte vulpes viderat, by chance, a fox had seen a tragic mask
(Phaedrus, Fabulae 1.7.1), his choice to cast the lead character as a fox instantly informs the reader that
they are dealing with a soul of cunning and clever nature. Behold, he is not the only one to do this;
Horace follows suit in his rendition of the Fox and the Sick Lion Olim quod vulpes aegrota cauta leoni,
one day, there was a cautious fox who came upon a sick lion (Horace, Epistles 1.73). So, while these two
authors do use vulpes to refer to a real fox, they add a fantastical element to the mix, endowing the beast
with its associated cunning personality and evil flair.
Yet there is a tertiary meaning for vulpes, albeit less intuitive than the first two. Because of
authors such as Phaedrus and Horace, deviousness and underhandedness became so synonymous with the
4 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
animal that vulpes began to be used to refer to a human being who emanated these characteristics.
Writing in 382 A.D., Jerome recounts the words of Jesus as being, “You all say to the fox, ‘Behold I am
driving out and am making people pure today and tomorrow, and on the third day, I will be finished” Et
ait illis: Ite, et dicite vulpi illi: Ecce ejicio dæmonia, et sanitates perficio hodie, et cras, et tertia die
consummor, and say that: truly, and you all say that to the fox: Behold, I am driving out demons, and
today I will be making people pure, and tomorrow, and on the third day I will be finished (Luke 13.32).
The “fox” that Jesus mentions here is King Herod; by His word choice, He does not mean that Herod in
any way resembles an actual fox, but instead is cunning and manipulative, similar to the foxes in the
stories of Phaedrus; the only variation here is that the word refers to a real person who was foxlike in
nature.
Utilizing these examples, an accurate scope of vulpes’ uses can be defined. In most realistic
contexts, the noun is used much as in English - to describe an actual wild fox. If, however, the word is
discovered in a fabulistic contexture, it most often refers to a talking fox who uses deceit and trickiness to
get his way, such as in the fables of Phaedrus. Lastly, it can also refer to someone who embodies these
stereotypical fox characteristics through their wiliness, lies, and guile. This is similar to the English word
outfox, which, rather than referring to an actual fox, is a verb meaning to outwit.
Even after all these etymological acrobatics, however, there is yet another question begging
attention: if English words such as lion and elephant come from Latin roots, why do we not use the word
vulpes as well? The answer to this astute observation can be found in a custom dating back to ancient
times of using nicknames to refer to wild animals rather than the original term. The logic behind this was
that if someone said lion or bear the literal animal in the forest might come bounding out, thinking that it
was being summoned. For this reason, they would call bears “honey-eater” or “the brown one.” Vulpes
was considered to be the true name for fox, and thus it collapsed into disuse throughout the turbulent and
superstitious Dark Ages. Moreover, as the word itself took on more negative connotations, it attached
itself through Germanic descent to an English word that describes an animal far more fearsome and
frightening than a fox: a wolf, the sole English cognate from the original vulpes in Latin. Our own
English fox is a linguistic mystery; scholars surmise that it may have come from the Sanskrit pucchas,
meaning tail; others assert that it could have evolved from the interjections “fuh” or “fih,” noises often
expressing disdain. Even with these theories, our own word for fox seems destined to be forever murkier
than its Latin counterpart, whose evolution is far more certain.
Despite not being often used in conversation, fox is a well-known word in English and is often
taken for granted by native speakers, who will forever remain unsure of their word’s past. To the
Romans, however, vulpes, also meaning fox, had a clear-cut history: it descended from the Proto-Italic
wolpeis and eventually transformed into the later term. In addition, the disyllable boasted a triplex
definition: in its simplest sense it referred to a basic fox; however, some authors also used it to speak of
an anthropomorphic fox, usually one who was sly and sneaky. Lastly, the word could also be used to
describe one who fulfilled these characteristics through their deceit, cunning, and trickery. After the
Roman Empire, however, the word gained taboo status during the Dark Ages, and as it grew more
fearsome, it gradually morphed into the more intimidating wolf, now being used in stories such as Little
Red Riding Hood, where the wolf uses foxlike impersonation to deceive his prey. So, even if fox remains
an eternal etymological enigma, vulpes serves as a paradigmatic prototype for a simple word with a
complex linguistic journey and a manyfold definition.
5 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Bibliography:
Horatius, Quintus Flaccus. Epistularum liber primus. Holles Newcastle, 1743.
Hyginus, Gaius Julius. De Astronomica. K.G. Saur Verlag, 1998.
St. Jerome of Stridon, The Vulgate. Tyndale House Publishers, 2007.
Liberman, Antoly. “Vulpes vulpes,” or Foxes Have Holes. Part I. OUP blog, Mar 16, 2016.
Liberman, Antoly. “Vulpes vulpes,” or Foxes Have Holes. Part II. OUP blog, Mar 23, 2016.
Vergililus, Publius Maro. The Eclogues. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000.
Word Study 3
Format has been changed to 1.15 spacing and the Works Cited immediately following at the end.
Word Study – Cor
Cor is a very common Latin word used by ancient writers. In Confessions, Book Ten Chapter
One, Augustine writes, “Voco iam facere in corde meo coram te in confessione,” which translates, “I
want to do it in my heart in confession before you.” In Chapter Three the phrase, “excitant cor,” means,
“incite the heart.” Also in Book Ten Chapter Three, it is written, “sed auris eorum non estad cor meum,”
which means, “but their ear is not for my heart.” In Book Ten Chapter Six, he writes, “Domine, amo te,
percussisisti cor meum verbo tuo,” which means, “Lord, I love you, you struck my heart with your word.”
(Augustine, 400 AD) Seneca in Quaestiones Naturales used the phrase, “nec cor involutum,” which
means, “nor a twisted heart.” (OLAT) Cicero in Pro Caelio used the sentence, “nunc meum cor cumulator
ira,” which means, “my heart is piled high with wrath.” (NoDictionaries)
From Wheelock’s Medieval Songs, “reple cordis intimatorum fidelium,” means, “fill the
innermost parts of the hearts of your faithful one.” Also from Medieval Songs, the phrase, “O veni, lumen
cordium,” translates, “O come light of hearts.” (Langton 1570) Finally, in The Three Caskets, “Illa vero
tres cophinos intime respexit et ait in corde suo,…” means, “That girl considered the three caskets and
said in her heart…” (Gesta Romanorum, 1510)
Cor is the Latin word for “heart.” It has contributed many words to the English vocabulary. The
Latin word, Cor, went through French, where the word for heart, Coeur, was modified to Cour and, where
our English words, courage, encourage and discourage come from. Later, Cor found its way to English
and the most common use of the word is, “Cord.” We get the English words Accord (hearts agree),
Accordian (agreeable to hear), Discord (hearts apart), Record (to put into writing the feelings of the heart
to recall later), and Cordial (your heart is in the right place toward someone).
The word Heart can have different meanings. It is an organ in our body that pumps blood, it is a
shape or symbol, it can be a personality trait as in someone has a “cold heart,” it can be an emotion of
compassion, or it can be used to relate to someone’s inner character. It can also mean the central part of
something, for example, the core of an apple is the inner part of the apple. Someone living in the heart of
a city lives in the central part of the city. If a cabin is in the heart of a forest, it refers to the inner part of
the forest.
Ancient writers talked about the heart in different ways. Ovid talked about a wounded heart.
Galen was a physician who made observations about the movements of the organ heart. Aristotle wrote
about the heart as a source of power of the mind and thoughts.
6 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Some common Latin quotes about the heart are: Cor unum – one heart; cor aut mors – heart or
death; cor ad cor loquitur – heart speaks to heart; and cor meum tibi offero domine prompte et sincere –
My heart, I offer to you, Lord, promptly and sincerely. (Doc Share)
Cite Works
https://lms.uzh.ch OLAT - UZH
nodictionaries.com NoDictionaries
Augustine Confessions 400 AD: An Electronic Edition – James Odonnel
http://docshare04.docshare.tips/
The Gesta Romanorum IV The Story of the Three Caskets, Livius Andronicus, 1510
Veni Sancte Spiritus, Archbishop Stephen Langton, 1570
Word Study 4
Format has been changed to 1.15 spacing and the Works Cited immediately following at the end.
Word Study – Argentum
The word argentum is Latin for silver. The word was used by many ancient Latin authors. Tacitus
wrote in Germania, “Argentum et aurum propitiine an irati di negaverint dubito,” which means: silver and
gold was denied by the gods in favor or wrath, I question. (McKeown) Horace in Epistulae 1, wrote,
“vilius argentum est auro virtutibus aurum,” which translates: silver is cheaper than gold, and gold is to
virtue. (Ars Poetica) In one of his comedy plays, Asinaria, Plautus wrote, “argentum accepi dote
imperium vendidi,” I have accepted silver and sold my kingdom for her dowry.
In Wheelock’s Gesta Romanorum, it describes the wise of the world looking beautiful on the
outside but being earthly on the inside. The Latin from this section is, “Quorum eloquia spledunt sicut
argentum,” which means: whose eloquence shines as silver. In Wheelock’s The Story of the Three
Caskets, the second casket is described. “Secundus erat de argento purissimo,” which translates: the
second was of the purest silver. (The Gesta Romaorum) In Wheelock’s The Vulgate 2, argentum is used
in the following sentence: “Nec appendetur argentum in commutation eius,” which means: It will neither
be bought in place of pure gold, nor will it be weighed out in silver. (The Vulgate)
The Latin word argentum has its origin from the ancient Greek word argyro, meaning silver,
money, or silver plate. It can also mean a brilliant, light greyish-white, or “shiny” color, a silver coin or
the chemical element, argentum (Ag).
Argentum (Ag) is the only element after which a country is named. The country, Argentina, got
its name from the river, Rio de la Plata, which means River of Silver. Portuguese explorers associated the
area with silver, marking it on a map in 1554 as, “Terra Argentum,” which means Land of Silver.
One word that came from the Latin word argentum, is the word argent. It was used in Old French
blazon and passed into the English language. (TheCultureTrip) The word argent did not change in
meaning from the Latin argentum. It means silver, white, or shiny in color. It is sometimes used as a
surname for a metal worker, a person with grey hair, or to refer to someone living near a silver mine.
Towns near silver mines are called “argent towns.” One last way that argent is used today is in heraldry to
describe metal on a coat of arms.
Cite Works
Livius Andronicus, The Gesta Romanorum IV, The Story of the Three Caskets, 1510
7 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
St. Jerome, The Vulgate Iob 28:15, 382 A.D.
J.C. Mckeown, Classical Latin: An Introductory Course, Hacket Publishing, 2010
Erasmus, Desiderius, Adages IV iii to V ii 51, University of Toledo Press, 2006
Theculturetrip.com/south-america/Argentina/articles/real-story-behind-argentina-got-name
Word Study 5
Contendo: From Swiss Army Knife to Butter Knife
It is known today as nolo contendere which in law is understood to mean “no contest,” implying that
contendo at its core means “I contend.” However, in Classical Latin contendo held a wide range of
usages from “bend/stretch” to “hurry” to “assert” to “contend.”
Julius Caesar frequently uses contendo to express the idea of “contending” or waging war in a
military sense: Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis
proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum
gerunt, for this reason the Helvetii are also set apart from the other Gauls in valor, because they contend
with the Germans in almost daily battles, when they are either keeping them from their own boarders or
they themselves are waging war beyond their boundaries (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.1.4).
Caesar does not limit himself to this sole usage of contendo; even within the same book contendo is
used to express the meaning of “rush/hurry/travel.” Ipse in Italiam magnis itineribus contendit duasque
ibi legions conscribit et tres, quae circum Aquileiam hiemabant, ex hibernis educit et, qua proximum iter
in ulteriorem Galliam per Alpes erat, cum his quinque legionibus ire contendit, he himself (Titus
Labienus) hurries by a swift path into Italy and there he conscribed two legions and he led from
encampment three legions, which were bordering Aquileia, and when the path was near to the boundaries
of Gaul passing through the Alps, he set out with his five legions (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.10.3).
Above, contendo is used twice, first as “hurry,” and second as “set out.” As the second use of contendo is
representing an idea of beginning a new journey, the meaning “set out” is appropriate for this context as
oppose to “travel” or “hurry,” albeit the same sense of urgency is expressed in both usages.
Marcus Tulius Cicero, one of Caesar’s Classical contemporaries, turned to contendo to express not
physical and military ideas, but instead utilized contendo as a verb of mental action, expressing ideas of
urging, claiming, and speaking passionately. Qua re omni studio a te, mi Brute, contend ut Ciceronem
meum ne dimittas tecumque deducas, wherefore I urge you, my Brutus, in all things which you do, that
you not send away my son and take him with you (Cicero, ad Brutus 1.14.2). Here Cicero casually uses
contendo as “I urge” when he addresses his friend, Brutus, asking him to take his son with him
everywhere and to include him in everything he does. Caesar will also use contendo as “I urge”: Itaque
iter ab Helvetiis avertit ac Bibracte ire contendit, and so he urged them to turn from the Helvetii and go
to Bibracte (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.23.1). However, being that de Bello Gallico is a large martial
literary work, it is used with a sense of command and urgency.
Contendo can become either more or less intense in meaning to match the aspect of the audience for
whom the literary work is intended. Just as Caesar’s use of contendo was an intense command, Cicero
also, in an oration against Verres, imploys contendo to mean “demand/press for,” with a sense of
authority, rather than the informal “urge/ask,” as seen in his letter to his friend, Brutus, above. Belli
pericula tempora rei publicae, imperatorum penuriam commemorabit; tum deprecabitur a vobis, tum
etiam pro suo iure contendet ne patiamini talem imperatorem populo Romano Siculorum testimoniis
8 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
eripi, at this time with The Republic in danger of war, he will note the lack of able leaders; then even
though he was depreciated by you, he will even demand it as his own right so that you will not suffer such
a leader to be taken from the Roman people on account of the testimony of the Sicilians (Cicero, Verres
2.5.2).
Sometimes contendo takes on a quite different meaning from any of its recorded dictionary forms.
Se ita a patribus maioribusque suis didicisse, ut magis virtute contenderent quam dolo aut insidiis
niterentur, thus he learned from his own great ancestors, in order that they (the army) might rely on their
valor rather than toil or plots (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.13.4). Contendo, used above as “rely,” could
mean “fight” if virtute, dolo and insidiis were ablatives in an ablative of means clause, thereby changing
the translation to “…in order that the army might fight be means of their valor rather than by toil or
strategy.” However, it is also likely that contendo here means “rely,” for the context describes how he
learned from, in a sense relying on, the ways of his great ancestors.
While contendo in the Classical period had a robust store of meanings, during the early Empire its
uses would only broaden. While maintaining its original meanings of “hurry,” “fight,” “urge,” and
“demand” – quicquid putabit esse dignum memoria, / Aesopi dicet; si quid minus arriserit, / A me
contendet fictum quovis pignore, whatever they consider worthy of memory, they say is Aesop’s; if
something worse comes about they will demand that it was mine (Phaedrus, Fabulae Aesopiae 4.21.3-5) -
it gained the new meanings of “bend,” “extend,” “draw back,” and even “think/consider.” Vadit super
antiochiae tractum et usque ad cyrresticam eius regionem parte sua quae vocatur cataonia contendit, it
rises above Antiochia, the part of it which is called Cataonia extends all the way to Cyrrhestica, which is a
part of that region (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 6.7.3). Used here as “extends,” contendo takes on a meaning
that goes beyond the relationships between people, and rather describes the geographical position of the
province.
It is again seen how contendo is used in relation to inanimate aspects, as here Pliny uses contendo as
“bend” in relation to a bow: Ingentes arcus intentos defigunt humi longius; hos praecipui viribus iuvenes
continent, alii conixi pari conatu contendunt ac praetereuntibus sagittarum venabula infigunt, mox
sanguini vestigiis secuntur, they hunt them from far away using huge bows; strong, young men hold these
in place, while others equal in strength bend them, and they inflict wounds with arrows as the beasts past
by and soon tracked them by their blood (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 8.9.9).
Ovid’s Metamorphoses offers a unique meaning for contendo in the following sentence: Cornua
parva quidem, sed quae contendere possis facta manu, puraque magis perlucida gemma, his horns were
small, but you would be able to think they were made by hand, more pure than bright gems (Ovid,
Metamorphoses 2.855-856). Based on the context above it seems that the translation of “think” or
“consider,” though rare, is preferred over “match” or “assert” as the sentence lacks the sense of urgency
necessary for the latter.
During the rise of Medieval Latin the Latin language underwent a major shift from the language of
nobility to one that was also spoken by the peasants and common folk. Literature was no longer intended
to serve as an exercise for the wealthy and well educated but was rather a means of preaching Christianity
and spreading propaganda to the masses. To make these readily and easily accessible, Latin was
simplified both in grammar and its vocabulary forming the dialect known as Medieval Latin; contendo
was no exception to these changes. The originally diverse and complex word was simplified to the base
meaning of “contend,” and it ceded its former Classical meanings such as “hurry/travel,” “bend/stretch,”
“strive/seek” to words such as eo/ire, flecto/flectere, peto/petere respectively.
9 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Non contendet neque clamabit neque audiet aliquis in plateis vocem eius, He will not fight, nor will
He shout, nor will anyone hear His voice in the streets (Matthew 12.19). Earlier in this paragraph it was
said that Jesus was the chosen judge, and non contendo is used here in a list of sins which Jesus would not
commit; thus, “He will not fight” is used here as he will not cause enmity or hostility in general, in
contrast to the Classical meaning which generally expressed the idea of battle.
Responditque altera mulier non est ita sed filius tuus mortuus est meus autem vivit e contrario illa
dicebat mentiris filius quippe meus vivit et filius tuus mortuus est atque in hunc modum contendebant
coram rege, and the other woman responded that it was not so but your son is dead and mine lives but the
other was saying that on the contrary my son lives and your son is dead and in this way they were arguing
before the king (Kings 3.22). Here again contendo is used to express hostility rather than open battle.
As the Vulgate was the most prominent source for Medieval Latin literature, the two examples above
well represent contendo’s usage during that time, that being fighting and arguing with others, God and the
Word. Today contendo retains the meaning of fighting and arguing, however with respect to law, as in
nolo contendere meaning “no contest”; which is used to mean that the person pleading thus will not
contest their judgment and/or accusation.
Contendo’s meanings are as flexible as its history. During the Classical period it could be regarded
as the ‘swiss army knife’ in Classical Latin literature; and though the authors used it in circumstances
ranging from “hasten” to “fight” to “bend,” its meaning maintained the idea of striving or pursuing of
some sort; for even in instances where contendo was used for bending a bow, there is still the aspect of
striving to pull it back, to hasten, to strive to reach a place, to fight, to strive for victory. Thus, contendo
should be viewed not as many different words but with its core aspect of striving with great effort.
Word Study 6
Whales, the Monsters of the Sea
During week 3 of this course, the word “cete” was used in the story of the girl and the whale. The
word cete is declined from cetus, which means whale, porpoise, dolphin, or sea monster. Despite
requiring a dictionary definition for this word, it is present in the English language, and shares the same
meaning, which is common for most English words since they are usually derived from Latin. The first
usage of cete was in the sentence “Cum autem per mare navigarent, cete grandis ei occurrebat in mare et
navem deglutire volebat.” In English, this reads as “However when they were sailing through the sea, a
large whale came to the ship in the sea and wanted to devour it.” Although the passage is describing a
whale, the correlation with a sea monster is also fitting, as there are several stories depicting a sea monster
swallowing ships or attacking people. An example of an English word in this context is the constellation
Cetus. This constellation is often called “the whale” and is among other sea-related constellations, such as
Aquarius and Eridanus. Despite its name “the whale,” however, Cetus actually depicts a sea monster.
An example in Latin text where cetus is used to describe a sea monster is in the Iliad: “Et
circumdederunt eum Cetea de profundo eorum, & ambulaverunt in viis ejus, & agnoverunt dominum
eorum, & stetit ante illum mare gaudens” (Homer, Iliad 13.27). This sentence translates to “And around
him the Sea Monsters came from their depth, and played in his way, and acknowledged their master, and
the sea stood before him praising.” Looking further back in the passage, it is made clear that the “him”
being referred to is Poseidon, the god of the sea, so it makes even more sense that even the sea monsters
surround him and praise him.
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The Latin connotation for cete was often negative, but this association wasn’t always with sea
monsters. One text reads “Cetos: bellua marina multis formis” (Suidas, Ketos). Although this translates
to “a beast with many forms,” it is said later in the passage that the cetos is an animal and a sawfish is also
mentioned, so it’s implied that in this context, a whale is being referred to. Because of the vague usage
and the word bellua, the translation could go either way.
It is likely that cetus received its double meaning from the Greek word ketus. In Greek
mythology, Cetus was a sea monster fought by Perseus and Heracles. This is the same monster the
constellation is named after, and because the spellings for the Latin and Greek words are so similar, the
meaning probably carried over to the former language from the latter. The meaning “porpoise” also
pertains to the constellation, as the stars form a creature resembling a mix between a whale and a shark.
The face of Cetus shown in images has a dinosaur-like expression, eyes forming a scowl and teeth bared.
All of these factors in consideration, the most appropriate definition for cetus is “sea monster,” however,
to generate a realistic story, “whale” should be used instead.
Word Study 7
Word Study 1: Hunting for Thesaurus
In the English language, a thesaurus is a book that lists words in groups of synonyms and related
concepts. The current English meaning of the word “thesaurus” was established after the publication of
Peter Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852). This English word comes from the Latin
word thesaurus, which usually means “hoard,” “treasury,” “store,” or “treasure.” This Latin word is
derived from the Greek word θησαυρός, which similarly means either “storehouse” or “treasure.”
Thesaurus is a second declension masculine noun, and it was often used to refer to a treasure, a dear
friend or loved one, a vault for treasure, a chest or strongbox, or a collection. Alternative forms of this
word include thensaurus, tesaurus, and tesorus. (The latter two are Low Latin variations.)
This word has appeared multiple times in the assigned readings. For example, it appears in the
sentence Bonus homo de bono thesauro cordis sui profert bonum, et malus homo de malo profert malum:
ex abuntia enim cordis os loquitur. A good man takes a good thing from the good treasury of his heart,
and a wicked man takes a bad thing from the wicked treasury of his heart: for the mouth speaks from the
abundance of the heart (Vulgate, Luke 6.45-46). In this case, thesauro has the meaning of “treasure,” a
place where treasure is stored, instead of the treasure itself. It is interesting that, in this case, the heart
itself is the treasury from which a good or a bad thing comes. The word here is the second time in the
Gesta Romanorum: Facta nave et omnibus necessariis paratis puella intravit habens thesaurum secum in
magna copia ac milites quinque cum dominabus et ancillis. After the ship was readied and all necessary
things were prepared, the girl entered, having the treasure in great abundance and also five soldiers with
the ladies and her servants with her (Gesta Romanorum, 2.19-21). In this example, thesaurum refers to the
treasure itself, which is the king’s daughter’s dowry. In contrast to the word’s use in the Vulgate, which
refers to the place from which treasure comes, thesaurus describes a dowry. The Vulgate was completed
around 405 AD, and the Gesta Romanorum was written in the early 14th century. Therefore, it is possible
that the usage of this word changed over time from a treasury to the treasure itself.
The word thesaurus appeared in other examples of Roman literature. For example, the variation
thensaurus appears in Seneca’s De Vita Beata: Beneficium conlocetur, quem admodum thensaurus alte
obrutus, quem non eruas, nisi fuerit necesse. A favor must be arranged, a treasure which has been deeply
buried, which you should not dig out, unless it will have been necessary (De Vita Beata, 7.24). In this
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example, the variation of thesaurus is being used to describe the metaphoric treasure of a favor or
kindness. Like the word’s usage in The Story of the Three Caskets, the word is used to describe
something that should be treasured, but, unlike the other story, Seneca does not use the word to describe
material wealth. The meaning of thesaurus is more abstract in the De Vita Beata, since a favor is a service
owed to another person on the basis of duty and honor. Therefore, it follows that the usage of the word
thesaurus was not strictly confined to the description of material wealth such as gold and jewels; instead,
it was often used to describe anything that should be treasured, whether it is tangible or intangible. The
word could be used to describe anything a person values, such as a prized possession, a dear friend or
relative, character traits such as kindness, or even a quality a person in which a person takes pride, such as
beauty or intellect.
The word thesaurus has a treasury of meanings, and the modern English usage of the word
describes a treasury of synonyms and related concepts for many other words in the English language. This
amazing Latin word has many derivatives in other languages, including “thesar” (Albanian), “tresor” or
“tesaurus” (Catalan), “thesaurus” (English), “tesauro” or “tesoro” (Italian), and “thésaurus” (French). All
of these derivatives translate roughly to “treasure” or “store.” The meaning of thesaurus suits the word
itself, for it is a word that should be valued and seen for the treasure that it is.
Word Study 8
Mitto: Sending Definitions
Throughout time, various authors have used the Latin verb mitto to convey different ideas that
relate to the motion of sending something off. One time an author uses mitto is in St. Jerome’s Latin
translation of the Bible. Et abiit et adheasit uni civium regionis illius; et misit illum in villam suam ut
pasceret porcos. And he went away and he joined to one of the citizens of that region; and he sent him
into his own villa so that he may feed the pigs (Jerome, Luke 15.15). This section, translated around 380
CE, is a translation of the passage known as The Prodigal Son, a moralizing tale about forgiveness. At
this point, a boy who has run out of money is following a citizen of the region he is in and is desperately
trying to find food. Mitto in this case is referring to the idea of sending something, here a person, towards
or into another thing, here a house. There is less of the idea of forcing someone away from the subject
than there is the idea of guiding or pushing someone to something else. The use of in in particular
highlights the idea of sending one into rather than sending one away. With this in mind, the best way to
translate mitto here is to use “sent”. “Sent” here feels very purposeful and intentional. In the 13th-century
drinking song, In Taberna, however, mitto takes on a more casual and less personal tone. Ibi nullus timet
mortem, / Sed pro Baccho mittunt sortem: There none fear death, / but they cast their lot in the name of
Bacchus. (Carmina Burana 196.15-6). Even though there is still the idea of sending something using
mitto, it is much more casual, less like handing something over, and more like tossing something with less
accuracy. Thus, translating mitto as casting, or even gambling here is much more effective.
Outside of the passages selected in the Wheelock reader, the same authors use mitto in other
ways. For example, in another section of the Vulgate, St. Jerome uses mitto to mean something different
than how he used it previously. Timor non est in caritate sed perfecta caritas foras mittit timorem
quoniam timor poenam habet, fear is not in love but the perfect love casts out fear because fear has a
penalty (Jerome, 1 John 4.18). Here, mitto is better translated as cast out than sent out because it
encompasses the idea of forcing something away as opposed to sending something towards another thing.
Both the preposition foras and the fact that love is framed as the enemy of fear cement this idea. Again in
the Vulgate, St. Jerome uses mitto. Accusationem quam misistis ad nos manifeste lecta est coram me. The
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accusation which you had evidently sent to us is in the presence of me (Jerome, Ezra 4.18). Again, St.
Jerome uses mitto in a more literal sense of sending. When dealing with the literal sending of letters, it is
best to translate mitto as send.
Looking at the Latin cognates of mitto can further help understand its base meaning. Going back
to the Vulgate, there are more cognates to be found. Nolite iudicare, et non iudicabimini; nolite
condemnare, et non condemnabimini; dimitttite, et dimittetemini; date, et dabitur vobis. Do not judge, and
you will not be judged; do not condemn, and you will not be condemned; forgive and you will be
forgiven; give, and it will be given to you (Jerome, Luke 6.37-8). Here, dimitto is formed from dis + mitto.
The prefix dis implies removal making dimitto most literally translate to cast away. That being said, it is
better to translate dimitto as forgive in this context, implying that one must cast away perceived slights.
This encompasses more of the idea around mitto relating to casting off than it does sending. Caesar also
uses a cognate of mitto in his Gallic Wars, written around 40 BCE. Quare ne committeret ut is locus ubi
constitissent ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exercitus nomen caperet aut memoriam
proderet. Why let this place bring them together so that where they were standing from the damage of the
Roman people and the name of the army is seizing with destruction or producing memory (Caesar, Gallic
Wars 1.13). Here Ceasar uses cognate committo, formed from the prefix com-, implying togetherness, and
mitto. In this passage, committo is best translated as bringing together, which invokes the ideas of uniting
and gathering i.e. sending things towards each other.
Besides Latin cognates of mitto, there are also English cognates that have survived to the current
age. Words directly from mitto include mission, mess, muss, and missile, all relating to sending or, in the
case of mess and muss, casting things askew. Additionally, there are many English cognates that stem
from the Latin cognates of mitto. This includes permission (per + mitto), emission (e + mitto), submit
(sub + mitto), dismissal (di + mitto, as seen above), and promise (pro + mitto).
Overall, mitto is often best translated as “send” as seen in The Prodigal Son and Ezra 4.18 but it
can be better translated as “cast” or “cast out” in the cases of In Taberna, and John 4.18. It is also worthy
to note that the cognate dimitto fits better into the “cast” category and committo fits more neatly into the
“send” idea. Looking at all of these examples as well as the English cognates, I believe it is best to
translate mitto as “send” as in “send” to, off, or out.
It is curious to see how transitive verbs such as mitto can have both literal and more figurative
meanings. On the more literal side is the use of mitto to mean sending letters, or sending a person. On the
figurative side are translations such as casting out fear or throwing one’s lot. Learning about these
differences can help one better understand how humans use language in all eras.
Word Study 9
All the World is a Species
The Latin word species comes from the Proto-Indo-European root spec which means ‘to observe’
and its Latin cognate is specio which means ‘to look at’. So species as the noun is what is observed. In
Latin literature species was used to indicate something’s outward appearance but in several poetic ways
from the show of nature or a construction of man for great spectacle, to man’s pretext for deception or a
view of a person or thing with nothing of substance backing it up, and finally to a purely biological
classification of type or kind based on common attributes.
Lucretius, describing the season of spring, writes nam simul ac species patefactast verna diei, for
simultaneous also the aspect of a spring day having been opened (Lucretius, de Rerum Natura 1.10). His
use of species refers to the the outward attributes which one observes in nature. Or it was used to mean
simply a spectacle that is created to be visually pleasing. Cicero uses it this way when he writes, vidi
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simul cum populo Romano forum comitiumque adornatum ad speciem magnifico ornatu, I saw at the
same time with the Roman people the forum adorned with magnificent ornamentation towards a spectacle
(Cicero, in C. Verrem 2.1.58). So one uses species for the show of nature’s and one for the show of
man’s beautiful works.
On the other hand when applied to man it was often used in terms of a contrived strategy of an
appearance that was false. Livy in his history relates a story of a group of pipers invited somewhere
under false pretext in order to trick them, per speciam celebrandarum cantu epularum invitant, they
invited through a pretext of celebrating a feast with song (Livy, ab Urbe Condita 9.30.8). And Caesar
describes and justifies a strategy he used in warfare, Caesar…alarios omnes in conspectus hostium pro
castris minoribus constituit, quod minus multitudine militum legionariorum pro hostium numero valebat,
ut ad speciem alariis uteretur; Caesar… stood together all the allied troops in sight of the enemy before
the lesser camps, because he was less powerful in multitude of legions of soldiers before the number of
the enemy, in order to use his allied troops for show (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1, 51). In both cases
species is used to denote a pretext used for deception.
Other authors use species to denote shallow, unsubstantiated appearances. Vergil’s Dido,
disregarding her vow to her husband in her desire for Odysseus, Ille dies primus leti primusque malorum/
causa fuit; neque enim specie famave movetur/ nec iam furtivum Dido meditator amorem:/ coniugium
vocat; hoc praetexit nomine culpam, (it was) that first day of death and the first cause of the evils; for
neither was she moved by honor or reputation, nor did Dido now consider her love stolen: she calls it
marriage; by this name she concealed her guilt (Vergil, Aeneid 4.169-172). It denotes honor here because
not upholding it brings evil, or perhaps the appearance of honor shown to society which she now has lost
along with her reputation because of her action. And Phaedrus has his fox viewing a dramatic mask say,
‘O quanta species’, inquit, ‘cerebrum non habet!’, “Oh how great an appearance,” he said, “does not have
a brain!” (Phaedrus, Fabulae 1.7). He uses the word species to indicate an appearance used for a spectacle
only – that has no substance behind it. So both Dido’s honor and the mask’s appearance had no substance
behind them.
Authors used this word to refer to visions or dreams. Ovid writes, somnus abit: silet illa diu
reqetitque quietis/ ipsa suae speciem dubiaque ita mente profatur,/”me miseram! Tacitae quid vult sibi
noctis imago”, slumber has gone away: she is silent for a time and she herself seeks again, the vision of
her own repose and she speaks out with a doubtful mind, “Wretched me! What does this vision of the
silent night want for itself?” (Ovid, Metamorphosis 9.473). Livy writes of a group of men unbelieving
what they were hearing, mirabundi velut ad somni vanam speciem, those who were astonished just as at
the empty sight of a dream (Livy, ab Urbe Condita 33.32.7). Species used this way means the empty
appearances of dreams.
Pliny the Elder and the Younger both used the word in the generic sense of type or kind classified
by observation of natural phenomenon. Pliny the Elder, describing pomegranites, notes that, horum
quinque species: dulcia, acria, mixta, acida, vinosa, of these there are five types: sweet, sharp, mixed,
sour, wine-like (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 13.31.7-8). Pliny the Younger, describing his experience of the
Mount Vesuvius eruption writes, mater mea indicat ei apparere nubem inusitata et magnitudina et specie,
my mother points out to him that the cloud appears extraordinary both in size and in kind (Pliny,
Epistulae 6.16.4). Both use species in the modern biological use of identifying by appearance.
Finally, Jerome in the Vulgate uses species to be the appearance of God. God cannot be seen by
mortal man except as some semblance of the appearance of something glorious. He writes in Exodus, erat
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autem species Gloria Domini quasi ignis ardens super verticem nomtis in conspectus filorum Israel,
moreover the appearance of the glory of God was just as the burning of fire about the vortex of the
mountain in the sight of the children of Israel (Jerome, Editio Vulgata, Liber Exodus 24.17). His choice of
species indicates just a thin veneer of something far too overwhelming to be observed with man’s carnal
senses.
Species has come down to contemporary English used mainly the way the Plinys used it as
‘species’ for broad biological classification as type or kind. It also has evolved into other words such as
‘special’ which is from species plus alis (an earlier form of alius) so meaning other than or distinguished
from the common type, and ‘spy’ meaning to observe or someone who observes at its base. The root
meaning of species then has always been something observed, not with a deep and thorough study but a
straightforward, surface appearance. Although the Latin authors creatively applied it to many sorts of
appearances - from the show of spring to the spectacle of the forum, to the deception or emptiness of a
veneer shown to others, a mask for entertainment, or an image in a dream - at its base is a thing’s show,
its outward appearance, which is observed. And as all the world is observed, so all the world is a species.
Word Study 10
The Point Behind Poena
The word poena is a first declension feminine noun, which has the basic meanings of a punishment or
penalty, and, when used in a metaphorical sense, that of hardship or pain. The meaning of the word
should be determined by its context and the surrounding words and their forms. Poena also has an
additional meaning when used as a personification of the goddess of punishment. The final translation of
poena is an idiomatic use that retains the core meaning of penalty.
The origin of the word poena can be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European word, kʷoyneh meaning
payment, punishment, or vengeance. From kʷoyneh comes the Greek word ποινή which means blood
money, monetary fine, or penance. Poena is the Latin descendant of ποινή, which carries the meaning of
both its forebears combining the monetary fine aspect with that of punishment, while adding the
figurative meaning of suffering.
The most frequent meaning of poena is when authors use it to signify punishment. One of the first
usages of poena was by Plautus in his play Amphitryon, which was written sometime around 185 B.C..
He uses it to mean punishment, not fiscal penance. He says, deinde illi actutum sufferet suos servos
poenas Sosia. From there, his own slave Sosia will immediately bear the punishment for that (Plautus,
Amphitryon, 3.4.1002). In this usage, poena means suffering in the disciplinary sense. It is chastisement
and is not used in the metaphorical sense of pain or hardship. Sallust, who lived nearly one hundred years
after Plautus, uses it in the same sense of punishment as Plautus did. Ibi milites … docet oppidum Vagam
non amplius mille passuum abesse, decere illos reliquom laborem aequo animo pati, dum pro civibus suis
… poenas caperent. There, he taught the soldiers that the town of Vacca was not more than a thousand
miles away, that it was fitting for those men to suffer the remaining work with an even spirit, that they
then might take revenge for their own citizens (Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 68). Based on the context of
this passage, the best translation of poena is expiation. Horace uses this meaning in one of his books of
satire, which was written around 35 B.C.. Adsit regula, peccatis quae poenas inroget aequas. May a rule
attend, which may inflict fair punishments to the crimes (Horace, Satires, 1.3.17-18). Horace takes poena
meaning a penalty in relation to a crime or retribution for a misdeed, which is the most common usage.
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These three examples show poena in its most common usage, the usage that lasted unchanged for
hundreds of years.
Cicero, who lived from 106 B.C. to 43 B.C., uses poena in its personified form, referring to the
goddess of punishment in his work, Against Piso. Cicero calls out to the goddess of punishment, Poena,
and the Furies. O Poena et Furia sociorum! O Goddess of revenge and Fury of the accompanied people
(Cicero, In Pisonem, 37.91). Cicero here is using poena to mean the goddess of vengeance, not revenge
itself. This translation is based on the fact that poena is in the vocative case, and also that Poena is
parallel to Furia, meaning the Furies. Another example of Poena used in reference to the goddesses is in
Lucan’s Pharsalia, which was left unfinished by Lucan after his death in 65 A.D.. He says: Eumenides,
Stygiumque nefas, poenaeque nocentum. The Furies, infernal and sin, and the hurtful goddesses of
revenge (Lucan, Pharsalia, 6.695). This is another illustration of poena paired with the Eumenides.
Lucan, like Cicero, uses poena as the goddesses of punishment. Even though these two passages of
literature were written over one hundred years apart, the meaning of poena remained unchanged in that
time.
Poena, when used in a metaphorical sense, means hardship or pain. In one of Seneca’s epistles, written
around 65 A.D., he uses poena in this way. He states, Frugalitatem exigit philosophia, non poenam,
potest autem esse non incompta frugalitas. Philosophy demands economy, not suffering, however, it is
not possible to be frugal as well as inelegant (Seneca, Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales, 5.4). Poena here is
used in a figurative way. Seneca is not talking about punishment, but pain. It is easy to see how this
meaning came into existence. Discipline almost always causes some kind of physical suffering. This
meaning of the word follows naturally from the idea that punishment causes pain.
Poena also has the idiomatic meaning of “to pay the price” when paired with do dare. Phaedrus, who
lived from around 15 B.C. to 50 A.D., uses this meaning in his fable The Fox and the Raven. His story
states, Qui se laudari gaudet verbis subdolis, fere dat poenas. He who rejoices for himself to be praised
with deceitful words, usually pays the price (Phaedrus, Fabulae, 1.13.1-2). Despite its use in an idiom,
poena retains the meaning of penalty. Another example of this meaning is in Juvenal’s third satire.
Juvenal lived in the first and second centuries A.D. It reads, Ebrius ac petulans, qui nullum forte cecidit,
dat poenas, noctem patitur lugentis amicum Pelidae. The drunk and impudent man, who by chance killed
no one, pays the price, he suffers the night of the mourning of his friend Achilles (Juvenal, Satires, 3.278-
80). This second example shows once more how poena can be used in the idiomatic way. Idioms are often
formed from common words, and poena is no different. It was frequently used by writers of both poetry
and prose, and with do dare was a commonly used Latin idiom.
Understanding the history of the word poena gives a better appreciation and comprehension of many
modern words, of varied languages, especially legal terms or words associated with punishment. Poena
has many English derivatives, some of which are subpoena, punishment, penal, and penalty. Many of the
romance languages also have a derivative from poena, some of which include the French peine, the
Spanish pena, and the Italian pena. All these derivatives have punishment as one of their main meanings.
Throughout history the word poena has stayed true to its original meaning, but added subtle nuances. The
word originally meant punishment or, when used metaphorically, suffering, but over time it came to mean
the goddess of punishment, fiscal penalty, and pain, while still carrying its original meaning.
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Word Study 11
A Closer Look at Fructus: Fruit, Law, and Benefits
Of the many unique and interesting Latin words, fructus, a fourth declension masculine noun, it is
original to the Romans; it is not a cognate of Greek or another Indo-European language. Though it can be
used to mean fruit, in a literal sense, it is also used in a more metaphorical sense to mean a product, result,
or reward derived from something or someone.
Perhaps the most literal definition of fructus is fruit. In Natural History, a scientific work written
by Pliny, he uses the word fructus numerous times to catalog and describe fruits of the world. In one
instance when he was comparing a fruit found in Cyprus, Pliny claims, in Cypro, folium ibi latius, fructus
quam reliquis rotundior, in Cyprus, the leaf is larger, and the fruit is rounder than anywhere else (Pliny,
Natural History 13.5.31-21). Here fructus is used in the nominative because it is the subject of Pliny’s
discussion. This is an example where the author is referring to fructus as a food instead of any kind of
deeper meaning. Pliny uses this passage to express the different sizes of fruits based on geographical and
scientific data.
Fructus is also sometimes used to mean a reward or benefit. Cicero, a lawyer, statesmen, and
philosopher, was defending a Roman named Marcus Caelius when he stated, habebitis omniumque huius
nervorum ac laborum vos potissimum, iudices, fructus uberes diuturnosque capietis. You will have,
Judges, the rich and everlasting fruits of all his energies and labors (Cicero, For Marcus Caelius 80.4-
5). In this line of his speech, Cicero was trying to convince the judges to acquit Marcus Caelius so that
the judges, and probably all of Rome, would enjoy the rewards of Caelius’ work. In these lines, fructus is
in the accusative case and is being used as the direct object. Use of this declension provides further
evidence that fructus means benefit or reward because the judges are receiving the object of the verb
habebitis. Cicero, as a skilled orator, likely used fructus in his speech because the idea of being rewarded
is appealing. He hopes the thought of rewards that Marcus Caelius might provide is persuasive.
Sometimes, there is an intersection between the meaning of fructus as a literal fruit and in a
broader, metaphorical sense to mean originating from. In the Vulgate, the creation in Genesis uses the
word fructus. The serpent appears in the Garden of Eden and is questioning Eve about the forbidden
fruit. Eve explains, de fructu vero ligi quod est in medio paradisis praecepit nobis Deus ne comederemus
et ne tangeremus illud ne forte moriamur. Truly, the fruit of the tree, which is in the middle of paradise,
God has commanded us that we should not eat it, so that we may not die (Genesis 3.3). In these lines,
fructu is used in the ablative case with de. At first glance, the word fructus here is meant to literally mean
fruit; this is not the type of fruit we buy at the grocery store. The tree that is being referred to is the tree
of good and evil, and whoever eats the fruits of that tree will gain the knowledge of good and
evil. Because of this story, fructus could also mean originating from, because consuming fruits that are
produced by the tree caused Adam and Eve to fall from their state of innocence.
The New Testament contains uses of fructus also to emphasize the idea of fruit as a product or
result. In the Gospel of Luke, in the Vulgate, Jesus teaches people using the following parable: Jesus
states, Non est enim arbor bona quae facit fructus malos; neque arbor mala, faciens fructum bonum.
unaquaeque enim arbor de fructu suo cognoscitur. There is not a good tree that makes bad fruits; nor a
bad tree, making good fruits. Each tree is known by its own fruit. (Luke 6.43-45). There are three
instances of fructus in these lines, the first two are both accusative plurals, meaning they are the direct
objects of their respective clauses. The third fructus is an ablative singular with the preposition de. The
17 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
meanings of Jesus’ words also change depending on how the word fructus is translated. The most literal
interpretation of this passage is that good and bad trees literally cannot make bad or good fruit,
respectively; this explanation means that fructus is simply acting as a food. An alternative and more
likely interpretation is fructus means a product of. This would imply that the trees mentioned are also not
literal trees but are a metaphor for anything that produces something. In the second interpretation, good
sources cannot make bad products and bad sources cannot make good products. Fructus could also mean
offspring, which changes the tree metaphor into people; good people cannot make bad offspring and bad
people cannot make good offspring. Given that Jesus often taught using parables, stories used to illustrate
moral lessons, he is almost certainly speaking about fructus as the product of one’s works.
The term usus et fructus was a property law concept used in Ancient Rome. In this context,
fructus was used as a blanket term for all goods that have been naturally produced by other things, such as
milk, honey, and fruit. Usus et fructus means use and enjoyment. The idea behind this law is that a
property owner is allowed to use and enjoy those things produced by his property. For instance, if bees
build a hive in your yard, the honey they produce belongs to you. This concept is still used in modern
American law. Usufructuary rights are defined in Black Law Dictionary, 1544 (6th Edition 1990) as “A
real right of limited duration on the property of another.” This term is also used outside the legal concept.
Thomas Jefferson famously said, “The earth belongs in usufruct to the living.”
In modern language, there are many cognates of fructus, including Italian (fruti), Portuguese and
Spanish (fruta) and Romanian (flucte). English words such as fruit, fruition, fructose, and frugal are
derived from the Latin word fructus. The clothing brand, Fruit of the Loom, uses fruit to mean the
product of, in much the same way the word was used in ancient Rome.
Word Study 12
Finis: A Limited Word
Used in many forms of Latin, finis (genitive also finis) is a masculine noun meaning end, limit or
boundary. In Medieval Latin, this word is most often used to mean end or final goal, whereas in both
more ancient and more recently written Latin, finis varies much more in its meaning.
In Job on the Inaccessibility of Wisdom from the Vulgate, Job discusses some bothersome questions
including Sapientia vero ubi inventitur? Et quis est locus intellegentiae? Where is wisdom truly found?
What is the place of understanding? (Job 28.12). As he nears a conclusion to his questions, Job discusses
God’s sovereignty, saying Ipse denim fines Mundi intuetur, for even the boundaries of the world are
considered (Job 28.24). Here, fines is understood to mean boundaries or possibly territories, referring to
the farthest reaches of the world that are reached and known by God.
Finis is used similarly in Caesar’s Gallic Wars, where Caesar writes qua de causa Heluetii quoque
reliquos Gallos uirtute praecedent, quod fere quotidian proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis
finibus eos prohibit aut ipsi in forum finibus bellum gerunt; and for that reason the Heluetii fall upon the
Gauls with power, which they exert nearly all of in their daily battles with the Germans, when they either
hinder them from their own boundaries or they bring out the battle to their boundaries (Caesar, Gallic
Wars 16.24.9-12). Here finibus refers to boundaries or territories, which gives the overall effect of the
Heluetii either hiding to survive the battle another day or giving their all and dying respectfully.
Yet in the Medieval time period, the Dies Irae offers a narrower, more morbid use of the word finis.
This Day of Wrath is the judgment day foretold in the New Testament, and in this poem a person prays in
hope of escaping eternal damnation. The author writes, Oro supplex et acclinis; Cor contrite quasi cinis;
18 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
Gere curam mei finis, I pray kneeling and bent; My heart destroyed into ashes; Display the cure of my
end (Dies Irae 441-3). Here finis is translated “end” or “limit,” or even “point of death.” This shows the
anguish that this person is feeling over the possibility of endless torment after death.
Finis can be used to describe bonds within life as well as death. In Cicero’s Pro Quinctio, he admires
many of the good qualities of his role model, Hortensius, writing Certos mihi finis terminosque
constiuam, I have appointed myself certain bounds and limits (Cicero, Pro Quinctio 10.35). Here, finis
refers to the physical and mental limits Cicero is putting upon himself in order to act more like
Hortensius.
Interestingly, the word finis is sometimes written in the feminine gender. For example, Virgil writes
haec finis Priami fatorum, hic exitus illum sorte tulit Troiam incensam et prolapsa uidentem Pergama,
this is the end of Priam's fate, this is the end that bore him by chance seeing Troy burned and Pergama
fallen (Virgil, Aeneid 2.550-2). Here Virgil uses haec to agree with finis, making finis feminine. This
theme of loosely using words with different genders is very common in the writings of many Latin
authors.
A modern reader would also notice that this word concludes many books and documentations, stating
simply “the end.” This more modern understanding of finis comes from the Old French prefix finess
(derived from the Latin), meaning “to come to an end.” This word has evolved since to have several
different meanings: it can refer to the end of a life, whether of a person or community; it can refer to the
end or boundary of a certain territory; and it can even refer to the end or limit of someone’s physical or
mental capabilities.
Word Study 13
Spaces after paragraphs have been removed and the title has been aligned to Times New Roman 11 pt
font.
The Search for Sinus
In my Word Study, I find the possible meanings of the Latin word sinus, along with how the word has
evolved in today’s English language.
First, the passage below is from the Vulgate. It uses sinus as a pocket in a piece of clothing. Mensuram
bonam, confertam et coagitatam et supereffluentem, dabunt in sinum vestrum. They will give a good
measure, crammed full and shaken down and overflowing, into your pocket; (Luke 6.38). It can be
interpreted that a pocket is basically a fold in a piece of clothing used to store things.
Differing from the example above, Vergil used sinus to refer to the folds in a piece of clothing, like
when you sit down. Namque umeris de more habilem suspenderat arcum venatrix, dederatque comam
diffundere ventis, nuda genu, nodoque sinus collecta fluentis. And for the huntress had suspended the
skillful by the shoulders of the citadels from custom, and had given her hair to spread out in the winds,
knee bare, and it was gathered together with a knot of a flowing fold. (Vergil, Aeneid 1.318-320).
Considering the 300 years between the two authors, it appears that sinus has evolved from just meaning a
fold in clothing to a more specific fold in clothing, like a pocket.
In this next passage from Cicero, we see sinus used as a bay. Nam ut illi quos a poetis accepimus, qui
sinus quosdam obsedisse maritimos aut aliqua promunturia aut praerupta saxa tenuisse dicuntur, ut eos
qui essent adpulsi navigiis interficere possent, sic iste in omnia maria infestus ex omnibus Siciliae
partibus imminebat. For as we have learned those of that from the poets, who are said to have besieged
those marine people of the bay either to have held some headland or broken off rocks, so that they could
19 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
kill the ones who were driven to the ships, thus that dangerous man was threatening from all the parts of
Sicily into all the oceans. (Cicero, Against Verres 2.5.145). A bay is like a fold in the land: it curves
inward and outward close to each other. Sinus reflects this here.
Finally, in this last passage, sinus is used to describe the snake-like movements of a creature crawling
along the ground. Inde per iniectis adopertam floribus ingens serpit humum flectitque sinus mediamque
per urbem tendit ad incurvo munitos aggere portus. Thereupon the huge thing crawls across the ground
covered by casted flowers and it bends into curves and stretches through the middle of the city towards
the ports built with bent material. (Ovid, Metamorphoses 15.688-690). Simply put, sinus can just mean a
curve or bend. Ovid was born in the same year that Cicero died, so the word may have changed a bit over
time.
There are several different meanings for sinus, all of which are related. In the fourth example, we see
sinus used as a curve or bend in something, showing that the said thing is changing the direction it is
heading. In the first and second examples, sinus is, more specifically, used to indicate the folds in
clothing, such as a pocket or creases. In the third example, it is used as a curve or fold in land, creating
bays and gulfs. As my conclusion, the meaning of sinus is “A fold or curve in X, X referring to
movement, clothing, or even the land itself.”
Over the course of the Roman Empire, the overall meaning of the word had changed very little, even
with several meanings. Nowadays, the English word sinus is mainly used in medical terms, referring to
cavities in the body. Sinus no longer refers to clothing and is rarely used to refer to a bay. It seems that
most of the original meaning has been lost in the English language.
Word Study 14
On the Usage of Tinctus in Latin Writings
In the Vulgate, wisdom is declared to have no match, no equal, as it is, in vain, pitted again pure
gold, pure silver, and even the colored dyes of India: non confertur tinctis Indiae coloribus (Job 28.16).
The praise of wisdom, being the focus of the passage, is carried on for over a hundred lines, yet a
comparison to the cleanest dyes, the cleanest colors, is brought up, interestingly, only a few short lines
after its first arrival, nec tincturae mundissime componentur (Job 28.19). While the early translators of the
Bible may have used the word tinctus, Latin for dye, in the most positive of connotations, as a rich,
exquisite color available only in the furthest lands, several following famous Roman authors would wield
this expression in unrelated, and even darker aspects.
Horace, one of the prominent ancient Roman poets, wrote: nec tinctus viola pallor amantium
(Horace, Carmina 3.10.14). Literally translated as, “nor as the pale tint of violet of lovers”, tinctus offers
a significantly different translation here. Notably, the lovers are explored as frail with a hint of color, a
sharp contrast to the full and vivid colors described by Jerome in the Vulgate. This notion of tinctus
transforming away from its deep and powerful connotation towards a smaller equivalent (the English
word tint today) is exemplified in the works of another historic author, Cicero: sit enim mihi tinctus
litteris (Cicero, De Oratore 2.85). In this scenario, a particular student is described as having a bit of
knowledge (and therefore being of value to the teacher). The emphasis on using tinctus, as opposed to
parvus, minimus, or other more frequent words to explicitly convey the notion of a small quantity,
highlights its progression, over the course of three short centuries away from its lusher and more colorful
meaning.
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Language, of course, being a complex and society-dependent phenomena, does not evolve
singularly or in a clear direction. At the same time as tinctus lost its flamboyant nature in certain parts,
other individuals (and famous authors), remembering its literal meaning of dyeing, began to trace back its
true origins to the ancient Greek word tengein, meaning to soak or moisten. A few, like Lucretius, a
philosopher who attempted to explain the origins of the world in his book, On the Nature of Things, used
tinctus in its purest, most grandiose form, explaining in beauty, how a small ball was being bathed in
shining light: pilai dimidia ex parti candenti lumine tinctus (Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 5.721). A larger
majority of writers, however, adopted a much uglier usage of the word, meaning to drench instead, such
as Ovid, in his tragedy of Dido, where he writes how she began to stain (tinctus) herself with blood before
tears: qui iam pro lacrimis sanguine tinctus erit (Ovid, Epistulae Heroides 7.186). Fascinatingly, tinctus
had regained its former power, but now was not an exotic royal color to be awarded from foreign lands,
but rather the bright, dripping red pang that could only be felt, from heartbreak within.
Tinctus had adopted a wide variety of uses by this point, from the bright colors of India, to the
shining origins of the world, to the pale colors of lovers, to the horrifying pigments of loss to even the
mundane progress of a student. It had developed simultaneous definitions of a small quantity and a wet
substance, which is visible even today in our English language; just take a look at the fields of science,
medicine, and surprisingly magic (actually just alchemy), where pouring tiny traces of chemicals into
solutions has revolutionized our well-being and time spent in life. Tinctus may not quite have a
quantifiable definition with its diverse appearances throughout history, but it certainly evokes a unique
feeling of passion, riches, and promise.
Word Study 15
Lukeion 3a Word Study #1: Mare, Maris
The Latin word “mare” caught my eye because although it describes something so
essential to everyone in the world -- the sea -- its English equivalent looks nothing like the Latin
version. In fact, the word “mare” in English is usually used to describe a female horse. Sea in
French, “mer,” resembles the original Latin more closely -- so why is the English version so
different?
In one of this class’s translations, Vulgate Translation #2, it is mentioned twice in two
lines (48-49): “Omnia flumina intrant in mare, / Et mare non redundat” (All rivers run into the
sea, / And the sea does not overflow). In terms of geography, seas are usually smaller than
oceans; yet in this context, they are interchangeable. In many of these old translations, they are
used interchangeably because ancient people could not recognize the slight differences between
huge bodies of water (or rather, it did not matter that much). The word “oceanus” does exist in
Latin, although it is less widely used; “mare” seems to be the default for a large body of water.
More rarely, the word “mare” can refer to a large, dark plain -- something that could be confused
for an ocean (now the word “maria,” used to describe the dark areas on the Moon).
In the Gesta Romanorum “The Three Caskets,” lines 106-107, the ocean is mentioned as,
“Cete grandis ei occurrebat in mare et navem deglutire volebat,” (a great whale kept running into
the ship in the sea and wanted to devour the ship). The word “mare” is repeated throughout this
story -- it is the cause of the climax and build-up. The purpose of its repetition is to show the fear
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the mystery of the sea holds, what monsters it contains within. In Aeneid Book I, lines 234-239,
the sea is referred to, again, as something all powerful: “Revocato a sanguine Teucri, qui mare,
qui terras omni dicione tenerent” (having been called back from the blood of Teucri, who would
hold all the sea and earth under all control.” Being able to contain the sea symbolizes immense,
godly power. “Mare,” it seems, defines something extraordinarily powerful and unknown.
The English word “sea” comes largely from Old English translations. Still, the word
“marine” exists everywhere in our modern English vocabulary: marine biology, aquamarine,
U.S. marine, marsh, etc. And all of these words -- even the strange ones like fluviomarine or
juxtamarine -- still contain the original meaning of mare. Could “mare” be the inspiration for
names like “Mary” or “Maria”? Though English may not be quite as transparent as French, Latin
still lies beneath our language as a powerful pillar.
Word Study 16
Format has been changed to remove spaces and extraneous lines after paragraphs and to use 1.15 spacing.
Remembering Recordor
This word study is based on the latin term recordor. The word has many meanings such as to
remember, recollect, to call to mind, reminisce, etc. Though, in the modern world we have taken record
straight out of the latin term and used it for a different purpose. In this era record means to preserve a
certain moment in time by means of technology such as a camera or an iPhone. Recordor was used in
many different ways by many different authors, and the passages below will explore those different ways.
Quod epistulam meam ad Brutum poscis, non habeo eius exemplum; sed tamen salvum est et ait
Tiro te habere oportere et, ut recordor, una cum illius obiurgatoria tibi meam quoque quam ad eum
rescripseram misi. Which letter is mine to Brutus, I do not have his sample; but nevertheless while he
stays safe, it is proper that Tiro affirms you have it, where I recall, one with that reproving also in what
manner would you write back in order to let go (Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 13.6.3)
In this excerpt from Letters to Atticus we have recordor (first person singular indicative active) being
translated as “recall”. The exact context here is the author recalling or rather remembering a letter being
in someones possession. This way of translating the verb recordor is the most basic, and straightforward.
Hesternorum immemores acta pueritiae recordari? Do you think over yesterday’s negligent
coastland youth? (Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 11.2.6)
In this passage from Institutio Oratoria instead of a statement we have a question involving recordor.
Here it is translated not as “remember?” or “Do you recall”, but is asking, “Have you thought over?” or
“Have you thought about this?”. This way of translating recordari is a different perspective of the
meanings. The meaning is not just to recall, it now can ask/tell if you have thought of something or
someone before.
Recórdatus múltum et diú cogitávi argúmentaque ín pectus ínstitui multa ego, átque in meó corde
I ponder the day with the recollection of a fine and an argument I am planting the breast fine, and to go
into the heart (Plautus, Mostellaria, 1.2)
Recordatus here is not a verb, it is a noun that is derived from the verb recordor. It is translated here as a
recollection, memory, or a moment in time. Therefore why it states, “the recollection of a fine”. One can
22 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
imagine how the noun which derives from recordor might have influenced the word “recording” many
years later.
Fili, recordare quia recepisti bona in vita tua, et Lazarus similiter mala; nunc autem hic
consolatur, tu vero cruciaris. Son, because you recover to recollect good in your life, and Lazarus is
similar likewise; now however he had comforted this, is your true torture. (Luke 18.9-14)
The last excerpt of this essay translates recordor in an interesting way, here’s why. Most of the passages
found that contained the verb recorder had something to do with memory, remembering something, and a
moment in itself. Yet, in this passage it has nothing to do with that. When the passage states, “to recollect
good in you life”, it is regarding to literally re-collecting good things in the character’s life.
In its entirety, recorder might not be the most common term in the latin language, however it’s
significance towards the late english language is heavy. The term reminds me of the verb video. Video is a
verb in Latin which means to see, yet in the modern day it has evolved into a noun called video, which is
a recording (notice how the two words intertwine) of a moment through a technological device.
Regardless of connecting words, recordor has affected our language by the dozen, and I hope to have the
opportunity to do more research on the latin language again.
Word Study 17
The name in the title has been changed to Latinist to preserve anonymity.
The mystery of the variations of the Latin word thesaurus with your host Sherlock Latinist
The word thesaurus originated from the Greek word thēsauros, which the dictionary defines as,
“a treasure, treasury, storehouse, chest.” This word evolved into the latin word thesaurus, which the
dictionary defines as “treasure chamber/vault/repository, treasure, horde; collected precious objects. In
English, this word means, “a book that lists words in groups of synonyms and related concepts.” Seeing
these definitions, one wonders how the word thesaurus evolved from its similar Latin and Greek roots to
it’s distinctly different English definition. This information can be gathered from establishing a definition
based on ancient and medieval Latin authors.
We have studied parts of the vulgate in class, and I found the word thesaurus in this work. The
latin states, Bonus homo de bono thesauro cordis sui profert bonum, et malus homo de malo profert
malum: ex abundantia enim cordis os loquitur ( Jerome, Vulgate, ?). Here is my translation: A good man
brings forth the good from the good treasury of his heart, and a bad man brings forth bad from the bad:
the mouth speaks out of the abundance of the heart. In this example, the word thesaurus means a treasury
of thoughts inside a person. Actions and Verbal words leave this treasury, displaying what goes on inside
people. Good people filter out what they think of so that when what they think exits their heart as words
or actions, those are pleasing to God.
I also found the word Thesaurus in The Three Caskets. In the work, it says, Facta nave et
omnibus necessariis paratis puella intravit, habens thesaurum secum in magna copia ac milites quinque
cum dominabus et ancillis ( ?, Gesta Romanorum ?. 104-106). My translation states, “Readied for the sea
and after she was prepared with all the necessities, the girl entered, having the dowry with her in the great
supplies, and also five soldiers with ladies and maidservants.” In this context, the word thesaurum means
dowry as in the wealth a bride’s father sent with her to her husband.
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In addition to our homework sections, I found the word thesaurus in many other authors, both
ancient and medieval. In one of his various letters, Pliny the Younger writes to Catilius Severus about the
sickness of Titus Aristo. He praises Titus regarding the learning and knowledge that Titus possesses. He
writes, Nihil est quod discere velis quod ille docere non possit; mihi certe quotiens aliquid abditum
quaero, ille thesaurus est (Pliny the younger, Letters 1. 22 11-14). This passage means, There is nothing
which you wish to learn that he is not able to teach; it is certain to me as often as I ask any obscure secret,
he is a treasury. Referring to Aristo, Pliny personifies him as a treasury. Just like in the section about the
good and evil trees, the treasury is not a literal vault of riches and gold, but a treasury of the mind. Unlike
the other section, this treasury talks about knowledge and learning, as opposed to Christian Virtue.
Phaedrus, in book one poem twenty seven of his Aesop’s Fables, uses the word thesaurus quite
literally. The word is used twice in the poem, one of those uses being in the title. Canis et thesaurus et
vulturius, meaning: The dog and the riches and the vulture. The other use of thesaurus occurs when
Phaedrus writes, Humana effodiens ossa thesaurum canis Invenit, et violarat quia Manes deos, iniecta est
illi divitiarum cupiditas, Poenas ut sanctae Religion penderit (Phaedrus, Fabulae Aesopiae 1.27 3-6).
This section means, “A dog, while uncovering the bones of dead people discovered a treasure and because
he angered the gods of the underworld, He was struck with a desire for wealth, the penalty to depend on a
divine taboo religion.” In this context, one discovers that the word thesaurus is being used quite literally,
meaning exactly what the dictionary says.
In this section of medieval Latin, Verino writes, Mens ubi thesaurus tuus est iacet (Verino,
Ugolino Firenze 4.9. 1)? This section means, “Is the mind where your treasure lies?” Even though it is
much later than other sections, the word thesaurus is still used similar to how it was in ancient writings. In
these writings, thesaurus means a person’s worth in general, almost like an inner gift.
After evaluating all these sources, the word thesaurus in both medieval and ancient Latin means:
wealth/treasury/vault, or to treasury/wealth of the mind. But how did this ancient and medieval definition
transition to our English definition? The word Thesaurus first entered English in the 15th and 16th
centuries as thesaur, which meant treasure. In the 1590s, thesaurarie was listed in dictionaries and
pertained to thesaurus verborum, which means “a treasury of words”. This relation eventually led to
Roget’s title listing thesaurus in 1852 as “collection of words arranged according to sense”. From here
one can clearly see how this definition gradually evolved into the definition dictionaries typically provide
in this day and age.
Word Study 18
Cetus, a word of many forms
Cetus started out as a normal, second declension masculine word meaning whale. However, over time,
Cetus grew to have two nominative forms, cetus and cete. Cetus was more in use during the golden age
whether as cete was used during medieval Latin.It comes from the Greek word κητοσ, which denoted
some sort of sea monster. In Greek Mythology, the sea monster in the myth of Perseus was referred to by
this name. There are many cognates for cetus in languages across the world. One example of this are the
words cetacean, cetology, and cetologist. Intuitively, one would think that the group of cetaceans only
consists of whales. However, the family of cetaceans also include dolphins and porpoises, which probably
happened because they were so similar to whales. However, this is very strange because there is another
word for dolphin, dolphinus. This could be because they had already named dolphins and wanted to put it
24 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021
in a group with whales. Cetology is the study of these animals and a cetologist is one who studies these
animals. Here is the Latin to show these changes.
One example of the word cetus in writing was from golden age Latin. It read, arieti et piscibus cetus est
subiectus, a cuius crista ordinate utrisque piscibus disposita et tenuis fusio stellarum, quae graece
vocitantur αρπεδοναι. The whale is subject to the ram and the fishes, from which crest methodically and
with other fish having been laid out and with a delicate spindle of stars, which is called αρπεδοναι by the
Greeks. (Pollio, De Architectura, 9.5.14-16) Another example of this in golden age latin is, omnes beluas
marinas, ex quibus cetus est quaeque his pares sunt; item mel et caesum. all sea monsters, from which a
whale is like each that are with this; likewise honey and cheese (Celsus, De Natura 2.18.11-12).
However, another nominative form of cetus was cete. One example of this comes from the Aeneid. It
reads tum variae comitum facies, immania cete,/ et senior Glauci chorus, Inousque Palaemon,/
Tritonesque citi, Phorcique exercitus omnis;/ laeva tenent Thetis, et Melite, Panopeaque virgo,/ Nisaee,
Spioque, Thaliaque, Cymodoceque. Then you make variance of comrades, a great whale,/ and the old
chorus of Glaucus, Ino and Palaemon,/ the quick Tritons, all of the army of Phorcus; and to Malta, and to
the virgin Panopea, and Nisaee, and Spio, and Thalia, and Cymodoce. (Vergil, Aeneid 5.822-6). Many
examples of this are from Medieval Latin. One of these is puella, cum intellexit quod in ventre ceti esset,
fortiter clamabat. The girl, when she realized that she was in the stomach of the whale, clamored
strongly. Another of these is cete, cum mortem sensit, ad terram perrexit. The whale, when it sensed
death, proceeded to land. (Gesta Romanorum 111-14)
Overall, cetus is a very interesting word. It has only one meaning, whale. However, its nominative
singular form has molded over time, with its nominative singular form changing from cetus to cete. This
shows how the Latin language, and specifically this word, changed through its use. There are many more
examples of this word in use, and if I included all of them this paper, we would be here for a long time.