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L A N G UAG E O F I N S T RU C T I O N C O U N T RY P RO F I L E
Democratic Republic of the Congo
PREPARED FOR
Bureau for Africa
Office of Sustainable Development, Education and Youth Division
United States Agency for International Development
1300 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20523
PREPARED BY
Dexis Consulting Group
1412 Eye Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
MAY 2021
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 2
ABBREVIATIONS
ACCELERE! Accès, Lecture, Retention et Redevabilité
DFID U.K. Department for International Development
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
EESSE Emergency Equity and System Strengthening in Education
EGIDS Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale
EGR Early Grade Reading
EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment
EQUIP Education Quality Improvement Project
GPE Global Partnership for Education
IFM Teacher Training Institute (Institute de Formation de Maître)
IYDA Integrated Youth Development Activity
L1 First Language
L2 Second (or additional) Language
LOI Language of Instruction
MEPSP Ministère de l’Enseignement Primaire, Secondaire et Professionnel (Ministry of Primary, Secondary, and Vocational Education)
REEP – A Research for Effective Education Programming – Africa
TENAFEP Test National de Fin d’Etudes Primaires
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Linguistic Context 4
Official Language of Instruction Policy 7
Class Time 7
Pre-Service Teacher Training Curriculum for Literacy 8
Teacher Language Proficiency/Language Specific Training 9
Teacher In-Service 9
USAID Reading Program Approach and Ongoing Programs 10
Community Engagement within USAID Projects 10
Other Donor Funded Reading Programs 11
References 12
Funding was provided by the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) from the American people under Contract No. AID-OAA-I-15-00019, Task
Order No. AID-OAA-TO-16-00024. The contents are the responsibility of the USAID
Research for Effective Education Programming (REEP-Africa) Project and do not
necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. USAID will not
be held responsible for any or the whole of the contents of this publication.
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 3
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
DJIBOUTI
ETHIOPIA GHANA
KENYA
LIBERIA
MALAWI
MALI
MOZAMBIQUE
NIGER
NIGERIA
RWANDA
SENEGAL
SOMALIA
SOUTH AFRICA
SOUTH SUDAN
TANZANIA
UGANDA
ZAMBIA
INTRODUCTION
Enhancing reading skills in the early grades is a key education priority for the U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID). Despite some improvements in
access and learning in sub-Saharan Africa, literacy levels in the early grades remain
low, and progress has been slow. Efforts to improve the quality of teaching and
learning in the early grades have led to an increased focus on the role of the
language of instruction (LOI). Recent research has demonstrated that mismatches
between the LOI and the language that students and teachers speak and
understand best, can hamper effective teaching and learning (University Research
Co., 2019). Thus, it is critical to understand the LOI policy and linguistic context of a
country when trying to design programs to improve literacy and learning outcomes.
Currently, USAID supports Early Grade Reading (EGR) initiatives in 19 countries
across sub-Saharan Africa. Many policies in these countries have recently shifted
toward adopting the mother tongue as the language for initial literacy acquisition,
and then transitioning to a second or additional language, such as a regional,
national, or international language, as the subsequent LOI.
Government policies and strategies related to teachers and LOI reflect country priorities, approaches,
and objectives for early grade literacy. During the design-phase of donor-funded reading programs,
decisions are made regarding the manner and extent to which national policies are incorporated
into project design, and when alternative approaches or additional elements need to be considered.
However, government policies on LOI, and other information relevant for informing design, are often
difficult to find and are not easily accessible.
The LOI country profiles aim to address this need. The profiles will allow the USAID Africa Bureau,
USAID Missions, and partner organizations to quickly understand the country’s linguistic and policy
context in order to design an approach that most effectively helps improve EGR outcomes. These
profiles, designed for 18 of the countries with current or upcoming USAID EGR initiatives, aim
to clearly and succinctly describe and illustrate the country’s linguistic landscape and official LOI
policy. This country profile in particular provides information on language policy and practice in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 4
Source: Eberhard et al., 2020
Most widely-spoken languages in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
French 31.9 million speakers
Congolese Swahili 11.1 million speakers
Luba-Kasai 7 million speakers
Kituba 5 million speakers
Lingala 2.04 million speakers.
LINGUISTIC CONTEXT
According to SIL International’s Ethnologue: Languages of the World, there are 212 living languages in the
DRC. Of these, 207 are indigenous languages and five are non-indigenous. Further, nine are institutional
languages, 30 are developing, and 135 are vigorous, while 31 are in trouble and seven are dying (Eberhard,
Simons & Fennig, 2020). For more information on how languages are categorized on the Expanded Graded
Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS), please see Table 1.
The official language of the DRC is French, with 31.9 million speakers of a total population of 84 million
(Eberhard et al., 2020). French is a second language (L2) for all speakers in the DRC. The Constitution also
names four national languages: Lingala, Kiswahili (Congolese Swahili), Chiluba (Luba-Kasai), and Kikongo
(Kituba).1 Lingala is the statutory provincial language in the northwestern regions and the first language (L1)
of most Kinshasa residents, the capital city, with 2.04 million speakers. Luba-Kasai is the statutory provincial
language in the Kasai region, with 7 million speakers, and Congolese Swahili is the statutory provincial
language in the eastern regions, with 11.1 million speakers. Kituba is the statutory provincial language in the
Bas-Congo and Bandundu regions, with 5 million speakers (Eberhard et al., 2020). For more information on
the geographic dispersion of indigenous languages, please see Figure 2a and 2b.
1 Language names differ slightly between SIL International and the official government names. The names in parentheses are those used by SIL International, and will be used throughout this section since the data being referenced was collected by SIL International.
Figure 1. Map of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
00 KM
100 KM
COUNTRY
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Kinshasa
Lubumbashi
Kisangani
Mbuji-Mayi
City
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
NEIGHBOR TANZANIA
SOUTH SUDAN
UGANDA
ZAMBIA
ANGOLA
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
GABON
ANGOLA
CAMEROON
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Body of Water
Atlantic Ocean
DISPUTED AREA
Kananga
RWANDA
BURUNDI
Institutional The language is used by institutions beyond the home and community
Developing The language is in vigorous use and with literature in a standardized form
Vigorous The language is not standardized but it is used among all generations
In Trouble Intergenerational transmission is breaking down
Dying Only fluent users, if any, are middle-aged or older
Extinct The language is not used
Source: SIL International, n.d. For more information, please see: www.ethnologue.com/about/language-info
Table 1. Assessing Language Vitality: EGIDS Scale
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 5
Figure 2a. Mapping of Indigenous Languages in the Northern Democratic Republic of the Congo
Source: Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). (2020). Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-third edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com.
3/11/2020 Country Map of Northern Democratic Republic of Congo | Ethnologue
https://www.ethnologue.com/map/BICDRW_n 1/2
Ethnologue by SIL International Find Ethnologue on:
Northern Democratic Republic of Congo See language listings for Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda
Terms of Use
Default License
This map may be used in reports, presentations, displays, and other uses as long as it is done in accordance with the terms of use specified on the Map Licenses page, namely, that (1) the copyright statement and "watermark" are not removed, (2) the graphic is not modified, and (3) no more than three of these graphics are used in any one publication or internet site. Any other use requires prior written permission from SIL International. The map bears a watermark to remind users that it is not for distribution to others, either in print or as a computer file, except as noted above.
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D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 6
3/11/2020 Country Map of Southern Democratic Republic of Congo | Ethnologue
https://www.ethnologue.com/map/BICDRW_s 1/2
Ethnologue by SIL International Find Ethnologue on:
Southern Democratic Republic of Congo See language listings for Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda
Terms of Use
Default License
This map may be used in reports, presentations, displays, and other uses as long as it is done in accordance with the terms of use specified on the Map Licenses page, namely, that (1) the copyright statement and "watermark" are not removed, (2) the graphic is not modified, and (3) no more than three of these graphics are used in any one publication or internet site. Any other use requires prior written permission from SIL International. The map bears a watermark to remind users that it is not for distribution to others, either in print or as a computer file, except as noted above.
Other Licensing
Licensing on any other terms, including preparation of maps in different formats or sizes or resolutions, is treated as a special order. Please contact us for a quote.
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Figure 2b. Mapping of Indigenous Languages in the Southern Democratic Republic of the Congo
Source: Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). (2020). Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-third edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com.
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 7
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION POLICY
In 2009, the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo issued a policy for the use of
national languages (Stratégie nationale d’utilisation des langues nationales), which indicated that one of
the four national languages (Lingala, Kiswahili, Chiluba, and Kikongo) should be used as the LOI in Grades
1 through 4. The initial LOI used in schools should be the national language that is most predominant
in the surrounding geographic area. The policy also stated that, during Grades 1 to 4, the LOI should
be taught as a subject as well as French (Global Partnership for Education [GPE] Secretariat, 2020). In
Grades 3 and 4, French will gradually be introduced as the LOI, with French becoming the primary LOI
in Grade 5, while the national language continues to be taught as a subject (GPE Secretariat, 2020). All
teaching beyond Grade 5 utilizes French as the medium of instruction.
The national languages policy is currently being piloted across the country, and has not yet reached full
implementation (GPE Secretariat, 2020). Some teachers have reported issues with implementing the
policy due to a lack of teaching and learning materials in the national languages. In those cases, teachers
often revert to teaching in French (Chemonics International, Inc., 2020). Similarly, a language mapping
exercise conducted in 2018 found some mismatches between the national language used as the LOI,
and children’s mother tongue (Chemonics International, Inc. & SIL LEAD, Inc., 2018). The study, covering
five provinces across the DRC, noted that children in urban areas were almost universally competent
in the national language used as the LOI. However, children in rural areas were often less familiar with
the national language. This was particularly true in the Sud Ubangi province, where Lingala is the national
language. In this case, 53% of Grade 1 students were unable to speak in Lingala, and 25% of Grade 1
students were able to partially speak in Lingala (Chemonics International, Inc. & SIL LEAD, Inc., 2018).
Such mismatches between the LOI and languages that students are familiar with may also present
challenges for the implementation of the national languages policy.
CLASS TIME
In the DRC, education begins with two years of pre-primary and six years of primary education
(Grades 1 to 6), followed by two years of junior secondary education (Grades 7 and 8) and four years
of senior secondary education (Grades 9 to 12). Only six years of primary schooling is compulsory in
the DRC (Meysonnat & Torrano, 2020).
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 8
The Ministry of Primary, Secondary, and Vocational Education (Ministère de l’Enseignement Primaire,
Secondaire et Professionnel, or MEPSP) is responsible for overseeing primary education, including
setting the national primary curriculum. As of 2011, the national primary school curriculum covered five
domains: languages; mathematics, science, and technology; social and environment studies; art; and personal
development (MEPSP, 2011). Within these domains, the curriculum covers 11 separate subjects. The
complete list of subjects from the 2011 curriculum is displayed in Table 2.
As of the 2015-2016 school year, reading instruction took place each school day for 45 minutes in Grades
1 through 4 (USAID & DFID, 2015). Despite these efforts, recent data has shown that literacy levels in
primary schools are low. Preliminary results from an Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) conducted
by the World Bank in 2020 revealed that 64% of Grade 4 students were unable to read a single word of
a grade-appropriate text in French (World Bank, 2020).
Upon completion of primary school, students take an examination called the test national de fin d’études
primaires (TENAFEP) covering three subjects – mathematics, French, and general culture. If the student
passes the TENAFEP and their school grades are determined to be satisfactory, they are awarded a
primary school leaving certificate (Certificat d’Études Primaires) and may advance to junior secondary
school (World Bank Group, 2015).
PRE-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING CURRICULUM FOR LITERACY
The DRC does not have a formal policy around pre-service teacher training (Meysonnat & Torrano,
2020). Instead, pre-service teacher training is a stream that students can pursue during senior secondary
education. The curriculum for the first two years of secondary school (junior secondary, Grades 7-8)
are common across all three streams (general education, pedagogical, and technical). Upon completion
of junior secondary, students then opt-in to the pedagogical stream, which lasts for four years (senior
secondary, Grades 9-12) (World Bank Group, 2015). Upon completion of senior secondary, trainees in
the pedagogical stream earn a primary school teacher certificate, called the Brevet D’Instituteur.
Primary school teachers are not required to complete any formal training beyond the pre-service stream
during secondary schooling. Thus, the country has an extremely high rate of qualified teachers. As of
2012, almost 94% of primary teachers in the DRC held the required diploma to teach at the primary
Table 2. National Curriculum for Primary School
Domain Subject
Languages Congolese Languages
French
Mathematics, Science, and Technology
Mathematics
Introduction to Science
Technology
Social and Environment Studies
Civil and Moral Education
Health and Environment Education
Art Art
Personal Development Physical Education
Manual Work
Religion
Source: Adapted from MEPSP, 2011
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 9
level (Meysonnat & Torrano, 2020). Despite the majority of primary teachers being
trained, there are concerns around the degree to which training at the secondary
level prepares teachers to teach effectively. For instance, an EGRA conducted in 2012
revealed that only 50% of primary teachers assessed, received a passing score on the
reading comprehension portion of the test, and only 36% received a passing score on
the written component (Meysonnat & Torrano, 2020).
To address teachers’ additional training needs, the DRC is currently working with the
Global Partnership for Education (GPE) to establish teacher training institutes (Institute
de Formation de Maître, or IFM in French) where teachers who have completed
senior secondary can enroll in further pre-service teacher training, as well as in-service
professional development workshops (Meysonnat & Torrano, 2020).
TEACHER LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY/LANGUAGE SPECIFIC TRAINING
A language mapping exercise of five provinces in the DRC found that 99% of the 500
teachers interviewed were competent in the national language used as the initial LOI in
that province (Chemonics International & SIL LEAD, 2018). The high rate of proficiency
in the initial LOI was attributed to the fact that most teachers were working in the
province in which they were raised. Thus, they were likely to have previous exposure to
the national language used in that province and have learned it in school themselves. This
may be a result of teachers being selected directly by schools themselves and then hired
by the MEPSP, as it is unlikely that schools would recruit teachers who did not speak the
LOI (Meysonnat & Torrano, 2020). Though not generalizable to the rest of the country,
there did not appear to be mismatches between teachers’ language proficiencies and
the national language which students spoke (Chemonics International & SIL LEAD,
2018).
The language mapping study also aimed to gauge teachers’ attitudes toward using the
national languages as the initial LOI, as opposed to French. It found that teachers had
overwhelmingly positive reactions toward using the national languages to speak with
enumerators as well as using the national languages to teach in the classroom. As such,
teacher attitudes did not seem to be an impediment toward the implementation of
mother tongue reading instruction (Chemonics International & SIL LEAD, 2018).
An initiative of GPE called the Education Quality Improvement Project (EQUIP) is
supporting the implementation of the national languages policy by delivering language-
specific teacher training. EQUIP has updated and validated training modules on
reading and writing in the four national languages, and delivered training to 28 national
teacher trainers, 508 provincial trainers, and 12,230 teachers on this topic as of 2020
(Meysonnat & Torrano, 2020).
TEACHER IN-SERVICE
In-service teacher training opportunities in the DRC are limited, and there is no
standard path for career advancement for teachers (School-to-School International,
2019). USAID’s Accès, Lecture, Retention et Redevabilité, or access, reading, retention
and accountability, (ACCELERE!) project is working to address the lack of in-service
training opportunities in the DRC and to orient teachers to the project’s EGR approach.
As such, ACCELERE! has developed teacher training materials, including video modules,
in the national languages and French to support literacy acquisition in both languages
(USAID & DFID, 2015). Teachers will also receive coaching support to implement the
reading program pioneered by ACCELERE! through a multi-tiered model that includes
training and support at the classroom, school, and cluster levels (School-to-School
International, 2019). In support of this training model, the project trains master trainers,
coaches, and literacy monitors who all support teachers to implement the ACCELERE!
reading program (USAID & DFID, 2015).
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 10
USAID READING PROGRAM APPROACH AND ONGOING PROGRAMS
In alignment with the U.S. Government Strategy on International Basic Education,
USAID’s programming in the DRC aims to support the needs and priorities of the
partner country to ensure that gains from the programming are sustained.
As such, USAID established a joint primary education initiative with the U.K.
Department of International Development (DFID) called ACCELERE!. ACCELERE!
aims to improve equitable access to education across eight provinces in the DRC,
including Haut-Katanga, Lualaba, Kasaï Central, Kasaï Oriental, Equateur, Sud-Ubangi,
Nord-Kivu, and Sud-Kivu. ACCELERE! includes four separate components. The first
component targets equitable access and learning through a six-year (2015-2021), $134
million initiative implemented by Chemonics International. ACCELERE!1 aims to improve
EGR outcomes by developing and distributing teaching and learning materials in the
national languages and French, and implementing in-service professional development
that builds teachers’ capacity to deliver effective EGR instruction and facilitate the
transition to French instruction by the end of Grade 4. In response to COVID-19,
the project has also pivoted to distance learning, and is developing radio lessons in
the national languages to ensure that students still have access to quality educational
opportunities (Chemonics International, Inc., n.d.).
The second component of ACCELERE! aims to improve governance and
accountability in the education sector through a six-year (2015-2021), $24 million
initiative implemented by Cambridge Education. This includes improving government
transparency by strengthening budgeting, planning, and payroll systems and increasing
school accountability by supporting parental and community involvement in creating
school budgets and improvement plans. The third component targets monitoring
and evaluation, with a six-year (2015-2021), $25 million initiative implemented by
International Business & Technical Consultants, Inc. to design and implement both
performance and impact evaluations of the project. Last, component four focuses on
reducing the number of out-of-school children through a three-year (2018-2021), $50
million initiative implemented by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (USAID,
2020).
USAID also launched the Integrated Youth Development Activity (IYDA),
a three-year (2018-2021), $22 million initiative to provide vulnerable youth with
inclusive educational and economic opportunities across the DRC. Implemented by the
Education Development Center, IYDA implements interventions such as professional
development and life skills trainings, youth-led income generation programs, and literacy
outreach to encourage learning outside of formal school environments. IYDA currently
works in North and South Kivu and aims to improve access to basic education for
12,000 children and youth and provide entrepreneurship and professional development
training for 8,000 youth (Education Development Center, n.d.).
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT WITHIN USAID PROJECTS
Community support for improved EGR instruction is a critical component of
ACCELERE!, as the project firmly believes that sustainable education reform occurs
from the bottom-up (USAID & DFID, 2015). As such, ACCELERE! works to increase
community participation in school-based and extracurricular reading activities. In
particular, ACCELERE! supports communities in accessing information about their
schools, such as school development plans and financial information, so that community
members can become informed advocates for quality education and EGR instruction
(USAID & DFID, 2015). ACCELERE! distributes this information by encouraging
community participation in school conferences and meetings, and also posting updates
and financial statements on community notice boards.
D E M O C R A T I C R E P U B L I C O F T H E C O N G O | L A N G U A G E O F I N S T R U C T I O N C O U N T R Y P R O F I L E 11
OTHER DONOR FUNDED READING PROGRAMS
Alongside USAID, several other organizations are involved in implementing projects to
address literacy and language issues across the DRC, which are described below.
GPE’s COVID-19 Response
In 2020, GPE and UNICEF funded a $15 million education sector response to the
COVID-19 pandemic in the DRC. The grant supports the production of learning
materials, capacity building for distance learning and contingency planning, as well as
efforts to provide learning continuity during school closures and disruptions (GPE, n.d.).
Activities to promote learning continuity center around the production of learning
materials for different media types, including radio, television, and digital platforms.
Printed materials are also being developed to ensure learners without access to such
platforms have learning opportunities during the pandemic (GPE, n.d.).
Education Cannot Wait’s Education in Emergency Response2
In 2020, Education Cannot Wait announced a $22.2 million, three-year (2020-2023)
resilience initiative to accelerate the education in emergencies response in the DRC.
The initiative also hopes to leverage an additional $45.3 million in co-financing from
other partner organizations to target 200,000 internally displaced, returnee, deported,
and host community children and youth in the provinces of Tanganyika, Ituri, and Kasai
Central. In particular, the initiative aims to improve access to safe and equitable learning
opportunities by constructing and rehabilitating schools, addressing underlying issues
around school dropout such as food security and nutrition, and delivering a package
of educational content that targets learners’ academic, physical, and social-emotional
development (Education Cannot Wait, n.d.).
2 For more information, see: https://www.educationcannotwait.org/myrp-drc/
GPE’s Education Quality Improvement Project (EQUIP)
EQUIP is a five-year (2017-2021) initiative of GPE to improve the quality of primary
education and enhance governance of the education system in the DRC. To improve
education quality, the project focuses on teacher training and the provision of learning
materials in the four national languages for Grades 1 to 4. In particular, EQUIP is working
to construct four teacher training institutions to create more training opportunities
and enhance teacher effectiveness. The project has also developed training modules
for in-service teachers around reading and writing in the national languages. As of July
2019, 13,230 teachers and principals had received these trainings (Meysonnat & Torrano,
2020).
The World Bank’s Emergency Equity and System Strengthening in
Education Project (EESSE)3
The EESSE project is a four-year (2020-2024), $800 million initiative of the World Bank
to support the provision of free primary schooling across the DRC. With a focus on ten
provinces, EESSE will work to reduce household spending on education and improve
enrollment and retention in primary school. Further, the project will work to strengthen
government systems that support the provision of free primary schooling, including
teacher payment systems and education management systems (World Bank, 2020).
Initial estimates from the World Bank reveal that the project will support as many as
1.28 million low-income children of primary school age to enter the education system
(World Bank, 2020).
3 For more information, see: https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P172341
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REFERENCES
Chemonics International, Inc. (n.d.). Accelerating Access and Learning in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Retrieved on April 6, 2021 from https://www.chemonics.com/
projects/accelerating-access-learning-democratic-republic-congo/
Chemonics International, Inc. (2020). Low-Cost Private Schools in the DRC. Needs,
Challenges, and Recommendation to Improve Access and quality for All. Washington,
DC: USAID. https://www.chemonics.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Low-Cost_
Private_Schools_in_the_DRC_ACCELERE.pdf
Chemonics International, Inc. & SIL LEAD, Inc. (2018). Report on Operations Research for
ACCELERE! 1: Sociolinguistic Mapping and Teacher Language Ability. Washington, DC:
USAID. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00TRB3.pdf
Eberhard, D. M., Simons, G.F. & Fennig, C.D. (eds.). (2020). Ethnologue: Languages of the
World. Twenty-third edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://
www.ethnologue.com .
Education Cannot Wait. (n.d.). Education Cannot Wait Approves US$22.2 Million for Multi-
Year Resilience Programme in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. https://www.
educationcannotwait.org/myrp-drc/
Education Development Center. (n.d.). USAID/DRC Integrated Youth Development Activity
(IYDA). Retrieved on April 6, 2021 from https://www.edc.org/USAID-DRC-IYDA
GPE. (n.d.). Where We Work: Democratic Republic of Congo. https://www.globalpartnership.
org/where-we-work/democratic-republic-of-congo
GPE Secretariat. (2020). DR Congo: GPE supports teaching in national languages in the
early grades. Retrieved on March 23, 2021 from https://www.globalpartnership.
org/blog/dr-congo-gpe-supports-teaching-national-languages-early-
grades#:~:text=The%20policy%20states%20that%20no,an%20emphasis%20on%20
early%20grades .
MEPSP. (2011). Programme National de L’enseignement Primaire. Kinshasa: MEPSP. https://
www.eduquepsp.education/sgc/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Programme_national_
primaire_v_2011.pdf
Meysonnat, A. & Torrano, I. (2020). Prospective evaluation of GPE’s country-level support to
education. Washington, DC: GPE. https://www.globalpartnership.org/sites/default/
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