Language ArtsReview

Alabama High School Graduation Exam

C. Johnson

• Use commas to separate items in a series.

We ordered muffins, juice, and coffee.

• Words used in direct address are set off by commas.

Sam, where did you go?

• Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, yet when they join sentences.

We spent thirty minutes planning for the trip, and the rest of the time we argued over where to go for supper.

Punctuation: Comma Usage I

Punctuation: Comma Usage II

Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases.

Listening intently, we learned much about travel South America.

Use commas with direct quotations.

He answered, “I am looking forward to the summer vacation.”

• Use semicolons between sentences NOT joined by and, but, for, or, nor, or yet.

I was willing to compromise; he was not.

• Use semicolons between sentences joined by conjunctive adverbs, such as however, consequently, therefore, in fact, for example, etc.

We enjoyed the play; in fact, it was the best production this year.

PUNCTUATION: SEMICOLON USAGE I

PUNCTUATION: SEMICOLON USAGE II

Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items

contain commas.

He traveled to St. Paul, Minnesota; Denver, Colorado; and Dallas, Texas, during the two-week vacation.

Punctuation: Colon Usage• Use colons before a list of four or more items. DO NOT use a colon when the list follows a verb or a preposition.

Don’t miss these items that will be on sale in January: sheets, towels, bedspreads, and rugs. (Colon needed)

She needed a flashlight, pliers, a hammer, and hooks. (Colon is NOT needed after the verb)

Punctuation: Quotation Marks Usage I

Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation (a person’s exact words).

Mr. Hayes shouted, “Look out!”

Mr. Hayes said that we need to be at the school by five o’clock on Friday. (no quotation marks needed—not a direct quotation)

• Use quotation marks to enclose titles of chapters, articles, other parts of books or magazines, short poems, short stories, and songs.

“Photosynthesis” (chapter title)

“Moon Beams” (poem title)

“The Night of the Bat” (magazine article title) “The Tell-Tale Heart” (short story title)

Punctuation: Quotation Marks Usage II

“ ”

Punctuation: Underlining (Italicizing)

• Use underlining or italicizing for titles of books, magazines, newspapers, works of arts, and ships.

Moby Dick or Moby Dick (book)

Reader’s Digest or Reader’s Digest (magazine)

New York Times or New York Times (newspaper)

Mona Lisa or Mona Lisa (painting)

USS Minnow or USS Minnow (ship)

PUNCTUATION: APOSTROPHE USAGE Only words that need to show ownership or possession require

apostrophes.

To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s.Helen’s dress, a boy’s cap, my boss’s attitude, a day’s wait

To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only the apostrophe IF the noun ends with an s.

girls’ purses, marines’ uniforms, players’ attitudes, coaches’ plans

To form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end with an s, add an apostrophe and s.

men’s hats, children’s stories, geese’s feathers

Use apostrophes to show where letters have been omitted in a contraction.

I’ll, we’ve, don’t, they’re, can’t

PARAGRAPHS: LOGICAL PROGRESSION AND COMPLETENESS

Introduction, Body Sentences, and Conclusion

An introduction should capture the reader’s interest and get the paragraph moving.

The body of the paragraph should contain sentence details that support the topic or introduction sentence.

The conclusion should “round out” the treatment of the topic.

The use of transitional words and phrases should be included. Examples: furthermore, also, similarly, nevertheless, on the other hand, consequently, therefore, so, because, next, afterward, then, etc.

Nouns: Singular and Plural

• dog…dogs• horse…horses• bus…buses• fox…foxes• fly…flies• salary…salaries• toy…toys• monkey…monkeys• safe…safes• chief…chiefs• chef…chefs

• leaf…leaves• wife…wives• studio…studios• woman…women• goose…geese• sheep…sheep• trout…trout• cupful…cupfuls• editor-in-chief…editors in

chief• runner-up…runners-up

VERB FORMS

Walk, walked, walkedSail, sailed, saileddrink, drank, have drunkcatch, caught, had caughtspeak, spoke, has spokensing, sang, was sung

*Note that “drunk,” “caught,” “spoken,” and “sung” MUST be used with a helping verb.

Subject-Verb Agreement Part Io A singular subject requires a singular

verb.o A plural subject requires a plural verb.

The players run each morning.The quarterback runs in the afternoon also.Each of the linemen is expected to run extra laps.Several of the players are also running extra laps.Some of the pie was left.Some of the pies were not sliced.

Subject-Verb Agreement Part II

• Apple pie and ice cream is my favorite dessert. (Singular)• Chocolate cake and apple pie are my favorite desserts.

(Plural)• Neither the snow nor the ice keeps the postal carrier at

home. (Singular)• Neither Sam nor his brothers regret the incident. (Plural)• Here is your key. (Singular)• Here are your keys. (Plural)• Fifty dollars is a reasonable amount. (Singular)

Singular verbs require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Amanda has completed her task.The teachers left their umbrellas at home.Nobody should speak his or her mind during the

presentation.Someone forgot her purse in the ladies’ room.If Sam and Suzanne call, tell them that I am not

feeling well.Neither the doll nor the bike won its approval as a

certified safe toy.

Subjects should agree with their antecedents in both number (singular/plural) and gender(male/female)

Verb Shifts

The gate opened and the horses ran inside. Both verbs are past tense.The gate opens and the horses run inside. Both verbs are present tense.Sally opened the gift. It was a new dress. She

will wear it to the dance. The first two verbs are past tense; the last one

indicates a future action.

Pronoun CaseSally and I will lead the discussion.They trusted us to find the missing document.Who will ride with Steve and me?Who is it?To whom are you referring?Tammy and I were studying.He repaired the car himself. I was surprised by our winning the game so easily.

Active and Passive Voice

Active voice is used when the subject of the sentence is doing the action.

We gave the child many presents.Passive voice is used when the subject of the

sentence is acted upon or when the subject is the result of an action.

Many presents were given to the child.The child was given many presents.The wreck was caused by carelessness.

Placement of Modifiers

Modifiers are descriptive words or phrases. He only sliced one apple. (incorrect) He sliced only one apple. (correct) Eating my dinner quietly, the explosion made me jump. (incorrect) Eating my dinner quietly, I jumped when I

heard the explosion. (correct)

Modifiers: Adjectives/Adverbs

Adjective Form Adverb Formsoft voice song sang softlyslow driver drive slowlyquick jump jumped quicklyreal trick really trickyrapid maneuver maneuvered rapidly

Commonly Confused Words• already/all ready• brake/break• clothes/cloths• desert/dessert• principal/principle• to/too/two• their/there/they’re• its/it’s• weather/whether• who’s/whose

• quiet/quite• than/then• waist/waste• your/you’re• formally/formerly• later/latter• peace/piece• miner/minor• coarse/course• complement/compliment

Word Choice I• Avoid repetition.

The architect plans to build a gymnasium to be constructed at the high school. (to build and to be constructed mean the same)

The architect plans to build a gymnasium at the high school (more precise language)

WORD CHOICE II

Use specific and precise references.We caught a lot of fish. (vague reference)

We caught eight fish. (precise reference)

Word Choice III

• Use clear language to create an image.

The bird flew in the air. (general, vague language)

The red hawk soared through the midnight sky. (vivid imagery)

Formal and Informal Language

Formal Language

• Formal language does not include the use of slang, contractions, second-person pronouns, and/or jargon.

Alana should not prepare a meal while watching television.

Formal language is used in reports, textbooks, research papers, and course catalogs

Informal Language

• Informal language allows for the use of slang, contractions, second-person pronouns, and/or jargon.

You should not prepare the meal while watching the tube, man.

Informal language is used in conversations with friends and in friendly letters.

Sentence Structure: Fragments

A sentence fragment is part of a sentence, lacking a subject or a verb.

Flying high, the silver plane swooping toward the horizon. (no verb)

Called him a clumsy dancer. (no subject)

Sentence Structure: Run-onsWhen two sentences are not separated at all, the result is a run-on sentence.

The meeting lasted for hours nothing was accomplished. (Incorrect)

The meeting lasted for hours. Nothing was accomplished. (Correct)

The meeting lasted for hours, but nothing was accomplished. (Correct)

The meeting lasted for hours; nothing was accomplished. (Correct)

Sentence Structure: Comma Splices

When two sentences are separated by a comma, the result is a comma splice.

The meeting lasted for hours, nothing was accomplished. (Incorrect)

The meeting lasted for hours. Nothing was accomplished. (Correct)

The meeting lasted for hours, but nothing was accomplished. (Correct)

The meeting lasted for hours; nothing was accomplished. (Correct)

ParallelismWithin sentences, parallel terms, phrases, clauses, and grammatical forms of words should be used.

*I like skiing and to skate. (not parallel)I like skiing and skating. (parallel)I like to ski and to skate. (parallel)

*A President of the United States must represent not only his political party but the American people. (not parallel)A President of the United States must represent not only his political party but also the American people. (parallel)

*The housekeeper looked inside the drawers, the bookcase, and under the recliner for the missing wallet. (not parallel)The housekeeper looked inside the drawers, on top of the bookcase, and under the recliner for the missing wallet. (parallel)

*These gifted boys could name the types of trees, flowers, and some special kinds of birds in the forest. (not parallel)These gifted boys could name the types of trees, flowers, and birds in the forest. (parallel)

CAPITALIZATION I

Examples:John North Dakota the South YMCAFyffe High School Congress Jack’sDial soap Veterans’ Day World War II ChineseCherokee

the Biblethe Koran Dr. Walker Newsweek the USS Red Baron New York Times Friends Alice in Wonderland etc.

Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives

CAPITALIZATION II

Capitalize the first word in a direct quotation.

Examples:

Mrs. Smith said, “The test was fair.”

“In less than an hour,” he said, “we will leave for our trip.”