landscape and ecology-1

8/20/2019 landscape and ecology-1

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AR 2026 – LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGY


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UNIT I – INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction to !nd"c!#$ !rc%it$ctur$2. $coo'(. $cooic! )!!nc$*. !nd"c!#$ con"$r+!tion,. r$c!-!tion !nd !nd"c!#in o d$r$ict!nd"

6. $n+iron-$nt! i-#!ct !""$""-$nt

01


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Introduction to!nd"c!#$ !rc%it$ctur$

01


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Ecoo'Ecooic! )!!nc$

/u-!n i-#!ct on Ecoo'

01


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What is Ecology

• The study of howorganisms interactwith theirenvironment

• All organisms mustinteract with bothliving and nonliving

things that surroundthem


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Levels of Organization

• To add to our list of the levels oforganization:

• Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Organisms o!ulation Community Ecosystem "ios!here


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The environment

• #ade u! of all theliving and nonliving

things that surroundan organism$

• oc!)u!r'

• Abiotic %actors• "iotic %actors


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Environment vs &abitat

• #any s!ecies cansurvive in morethan oneenvironment$

• "ut each s!ecieshas its 'home( orhabitat$

• %ish may be able tolive in )sh tan*s+but would ratherlive in the wild


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"asic Conce!t of Ecology

• The fundamental idea behind the studyof ecology is that all organisms areinterde!endent$

• They interact with one another and the!hysical environment$


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What do organisms need tosurvive,

• "asic re-uirementsfor survival include:

• %ood

• Water• Shelter


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Com!etition

• An im!ortantas!ect of thestruggle for survival

involvescom!etition forlimited resources

• %ood

• Water

• Shelter

• Sunlight


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Limiting %actors

• Limiting factors arefactors that a.ectthe !o!ulation sizeof a s!ecies in as!eci)cenvironment$

• They can be abiotic

or biotic$


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redator / rey relationshi!

• redators are abiotic limitingfactor$

• They control!o!ulation size byfeeding on !rey$

• There is a delicatebalance that needsto be maintained$


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Carrying Ca!acity

• When all thelimiting factors areconsidered togetherwe can determinethe ma0imumnumber oforganisms that cansurvive in an area$


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&ow do we determine the CarryingCa!acity of a S!ecies,

• All limiting factorsmust be ta*en intoconsideration$

• 1t is very di2cult todetermine theactual carryingca!acity$


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The Lesson of the 3aibab 4eer

• Pur#o"$ • to gra!h data on the

3aibab deer !o!ulationof Arizona from

56789566• to analyze the methodsres!onsible for thechanges in the deer!o!ulation

• to !ro!ose amanagement !lan forthe 3aibab deer!o!ulation


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3aibab %orest: ;orth


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3ey 1dea

• All organisms havethe ability to!roduce!o!ulations ofunlimited size

• "ut theirenvironment *ee!stheir numbers inchec*$


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Categories of o!ulations

• o!ulations arelabeled by thefunction they servein the ecosystem

• roducers

• Consumers

• 4ecom!osers


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So what is a %ood Chain,

• A food chain showsa one way >ow ofenergy in anecosystem

• 1t may not be theonly way energy>ows in theecosystem


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%ood Webs

• When all of the food chains of anecosystem are considered we can drawu! a food web

• 1t shows all of the !ossible !aths thatenergy can ta*e in an ecosystem

• 1t also shows how organisms arede!endant on each other in theecosystem


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Carbon Cycle


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Water Cycle


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;itrogen Cycle


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Energy yramid


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Energy yramid

• There is more energy available at thebottom

• There are more organisms at the bottom

• There is less energy at the to!

• There are less organisms at the to!

• Energy is lost as you go u! the !yramid+

mostly as heat


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Energy yramid???

ECOSYSTEMS


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ECOSYSTEMS

What is ecology?


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gy

What is an Ecosystem,

• All of Earth@s inhabitants arewoven together into a com!le0web of relationshi!s$


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y

• The !lace where a !articular!o!ulation of a s!ecies lives is

it@s habitat$

• A habitat could be a saltwatermarsh+ an undersea reef+ or a

grassland+ desert+ forest orswam! area$ Wherever a!articular s!ecies )nds it@shome is it@s habitat$

• The many di.erent s!ecies thatlive together in a habitat arecalled a community$

• #any di.erent s!ecies may live

What is an ecosystem?


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y

• An ecosystem+ or ecologicalsystem+ consists of a

community and all the !hysicalas!ects of it@s habitat the livingand nonliving !arts such assoil+ water+ and weatherB$

Biotic and abiotic factors


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• The !hysical nonliving as!ectsof a habitat weather+ soil+ etcBare called abiotic factors$

• The living organisms that ma*e

u! the community of the habitatare called biotic factors$

• Together+ the biotic and abiotic

factors create the ecosystem$

biodiersity


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• The variety of organisms+ theirgenetic di.erences+ and the

communities and ecosystems inwhich they occur is termedbiodiversity$

• 1magine ta*ing a s-uare mile ofa local forest+ and catalogingevery ty!e of living organismfrom trees to !lants to insects toanimals$ The total collection of

all the living organisms in ahabitat is it@s biodiversity$

• The biodiversity of Australia@s=reat "arrier


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• #any ty!es of organisms inhabit anecosystem together and su!!ort each

other in a web of com!le0relationshi!s$

• Life forms+ biotic forms+ in a woodlandenvironment may include large animalssuch as deer and coyote and e0tend tosmaller animals such as s-uirrels+chi!mun*s+ birds+ sna*es and lizards$

"nteractions of Organisms and their Enironments


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• The living organisms e0tend down tothe trees+ grasses+ and ferns on theforest >oor$

• Within the forest soil insects+ worms

and even bacteria and microsco!iceu*aryotes are !art of the biotic factorsthat ma*e u! the life of the ecosystem$

• Large to microsco!ic+ all livingorganisms are included$

#ichens and fungi


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• #any *inds of fungi and lichens growon trees and roc*s within a forest$

• These fungi are im!ortant livingmembers of the forest ecosystem as

well !laying an im!ortant role inhel!ing brea* down living organismsafter the organisms die$

$biotic factors


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• 1f you were to remove all these living!arts the animals+ fungi+ insects+ birds+re!tiles+ and forest !lants thenonliving items remaining the roc*s+soil+ climate minerals+ organiccom!ounds+ rain+ sunlight+ etc+ wouldma*e u! the abiotic factors of theecosystem

Boundaries of an ecosystem


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• The !hysical boundaries of anecosystem are not always obvious+ and

they de!end on how an ecosystem isbeing studied$

• %or e0am!le+ a scientist may consider asingle rotting log on a forest >oor if heor she is studying only the fungi andinsects of the forest that live in logs$

"nteractions of Organisms and their Enironments


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• Often individual )elds+ forests+ la*es orwetlands are studied as an isolatedecosystem$

• Of course+ no location is entirely

se!arated or isolated$ Even oceanicislands get occasional migrant visitorssuch as birds blown o. course$

Succession% &rimary succession% and secondary succession


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• A regular !rocession of s!eciesre!lacement is called a succession$

• ioneer s!ecies are the )rst wave oflife in a new habitat and are called the!rimary succession$

• Succession that occurs where theirhave been areas of !revious growth+

such as abandon )elds or forestclearings+ are called secondarysuccession$

'rocess of succession


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• 1t was once thought that stages ofsuccession were !redictable and that

succession always led to the same )nalcommunity of organisms within any!articular ecosystem$

• Ecologists now realize that initialconditions and random chance !lay arole in the !rocess of succession$

• %or e0am!le+ if two s!ecies are incom!etition for food+ a sudden changein climate may favor the success ofone s!ecies over the other$ %or thisreason+ no two successions are ali*e$

'rocess of Succession


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=lacier "ay:

• A good e0am!le of a !rimarysuccession is a receding glacierbecause land is continually beinge0!osed as the face of the glaciermoves bac*$

• The glacier that com!oses much of thehead of =lacier "ay in Alas*a hasreceded some 577 *ilometers over thelast D77 years$

• The most recently e0!osed areas are!iles of roc*s and gravel that lac* anyusable nitrogen that is needed by

!lants to establish themselves$



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=lacier "ay: e0am!le of succession

• The seeds and s!ores of the )rst!ioneer s!ecies are carried in by thewind$

• These include lichens+ mosses+)reweed+ willows+ cottonwoods+ anddryas a !lant about a foot acrossB$

• At )rst+ all these !lants grow low to the

ground+ severely stunted in theirgrowth by a lac* of mineral nutrients$

• Eventually the dryas crowd out theother !lants$



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• After about 57 years+ alder seedsblown in from distant sites ta*e root$

• Alder roots have nitrogen)0ingnodules so they are able to outgrowthe dryas$

• 4ead leaves and branches from thealders gradually add more usablenitrogen to the soil$ The added nitrogenallows cottonwoods and willows toinvade and grow with increasednumbers$



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• After about 7 years+ dense thic*ets ofalder+ willow+ and cottonwood shadeand eventually *ill o. the dryas$

• The !ioneer s!ecies ma*e life !ossiblefor the later s!ecies which !ush themout once conditions e0ist to let them>ourish$



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• After F7 years after the glacier )rste0!oses the land+ Sit*a s!ruce invadesthe thic*ets$

• S!ruce use the nitrogen released bythe alders and eventually form a denseforest$



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• The s!ruce bloc*s the sunlight from thealders and eventually the alders dieo.$

• After the s!ruce becomes established+hemloc* trees began to grow$&emloc*s are very shade tolerant and

have a root system that wor*s wellwith s!ruce+ sharing the nitrogen in thesoil so both s!ecies grow well intandem$



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=lacier "ay: e0am!le of Succession

• This community of s!ruce and hemloc*!roves to be a very stable ecosystemfrom the !ers!ective of human timescales$

• This system is not !ermanent however$As the local climate changes+ the forestecosystem must change and ada!t aswell$


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HUMAN IMPACT ON ECOLOGY

LTSO


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HUMAN IMPACT ON ECOLOGY

• DIRECTLand use changes (Deforestation & Degradation)

Construction and Excavation

Agricultural Practices

Nuclear program

• INDIRECT

Oone Depletion

Acid !ain

"reen #ouse Effect

Pollution

• LAND $%E C#AN"E%


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LAND $%E C#AN"E%

Degradation can e deforestation' desertification'

soil erosion' mineral depletion' or chemical

degradation (acidification and saliniation)

• A"!C$L$!E P!ACCE%

norganic *ertiliersPesticides & insecticides

ncreased to +,- million tons annuall.

/orld #ealth Organiation estimated in 011+ that

2 million pesticide poisonings occur annuall.'causing ++3'333 deaths,

Decomposition of organic matter in the soil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation


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• ;GCLEA<


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OZONE DEPLETION

• Oone is the shield in the upper atmosphere thatprotects us from ultraviolet radiation

• Chlorofluorocarons (C*Cs) are a class of

chemicals involved in oone destruction• Depletion' harms living organisms

Exposure to $8 is lin:ed to disorders inhumans' including cataracts' s:in cancer' and

5ea:ened immune s.stems,• Effects on crops


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• C%C

Coolant in refrigerators and airconditioners

The !ro!ellant in aerosol dis!ensers

The foaming agent in the !roduction of!lastic foam cu!s and containers

ACID RAIN


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ACID RAIN

• Acid rainI is a !o!ular term referring to thede!osition of wet rain+ snow+ sleet+ fog andcloudwater+ dewB and dry acidifying !articlesand gasesB acidic com!onents$

• A more accurate term is 'acid de!osition($

• rinci!al cause of acid rain is sul!hur andnitrogen com!ounds from human sources+such as electricity generation+ factories+ andmotor vehicles

• Coal !ower !lants are one of the most!olluting

• %actories had short funnels to let out

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen


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%actories had short funnels to let outsmo*e+ but this caused many !roblemslocally


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ACID RAIN EFFECT

An extremel. destructive form of pollution'

and the environment suffers from its effects,

• *orests' trees' la:es' animals' and plants

suffer from acid rain,• he needles and leaves of the trees turnro5n and fall off,

• La:es are also damaged . acid rain,

• ;uildings' Acid rain dissolves the stone5or:and mortar of uildings

• #umans can ecome seriousl. ill' and caneven die from the effects of acid rain


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GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

• "reenhouse effect is a naturall. occurringprocess that aids in heating the Earth


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4ain sources of greenhouse gases


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a ou o g ou ga

• urning of fossil fuels and deforestation

• use of chlorofluorocarons (C*Cs)• agricultural activities' including the use offertiliers etc,

• "LO;AL /A!4N" is the increase in theaverage temperature of the Earth


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CONSE3UENCES

• Sea level rise %looding coastal areas$

•


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POLLUTION

• Pollution is the introduction of contaminants intoan environment that causes instailit.' disorder'harm or discomfort to the ecos.stem i,e, ph.sical

s.stems or living organisms,• Pollution can ta:e the form of chemical sustances

or energ.' such as noise' heat' or light,

• Pollutants' the elements of pollution' can e foreignsustances or energies' or naturall. occurringB 5hennaturall. occurring' the. are consideredcontaminants 5hen the. exceed natural levels,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem


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TYPES O4 POLLUTION

• Air !ollution

• Water !ollution• Soil contamination

•


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GOVT. ROLES ON ECO-FRIENDLY ENVIRONMENT

• =ovt$ of 1ndia is committed to ensure allecofriendly environment to all 1ndian citizen$

• =overnment and legislatures are using their

in>uence to reduce environmental andhealth hazards due to industrialization andto stimulate the develo!ment of cleantechnologies

•ado!t clean and ecofriendly technologiesand environmentalsafe dis!osal of used!roducts+ along with !reventive andmitigate a!!roaches$


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EARTH SUMMIT

• he $nited Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment ($NCED)' also :no5n as the !io%ummit' !io Conference' Earth %ummit

ssues addressed included• s.stematic scrutin. of patterns of production

particularl. the production of toxic components' such aslead in gasoline' or poisonous 5aste includingradioactive chemicals

• alternative sources of energ. to replace the use offossil fuels 5hich are lin:ed to gloal climate change

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline


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• ne5 reliance on pulic transportation s.stems inorder to reduce vehicle emissions' congestion incities and the health prolems caused .polluted air and smog

• he gro5ing scarcit. of 5ater,

MONTREAL PROTOCOL

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transportation


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MONTREAL PROTOCOL

• Montrel Proto!ol on Su"#tn!e# T$tDe%lete t$e O&one L'er

• An international treat. designed to protect

the oone la.er . phasing out theproduction of a numer of sustances,

• ;elieved to e responsile foroone depletion, he treat. 5as opened for

signature on %eptemer 0' 01>@' andentered into force on Fanuar. 0' 01>1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty


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• Terms and !ur!oses of this treaty

C%oro5uoroc!r)on" C4C"7 P%!"$8out!n!$-$nt P!n

/'droc%oro5uoroc!r)on" /C4C"7P%!"$8out !n!$-$nt P!n /PP7


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ENERGY AUDIT• An $n$r' !udit is an ins!ection+ survey and analysisof energy >ows for energy conservation in a building+!rocess or system to reduce the amount of energyin!ut into the system without negatively a.ecting theout!utsB$

Preli(inr' u)it• The !reliminary audit alternatively called a sim!leaudit+ screening audit or wal*through auditB is thesim!lest and -uic*est ty!e of audit$

• A brief review of facility utility bills and other

o!erating data• A wal*through of the facility to become familiar withthe building o!eration and to identify any glaringareas of energy waste or ine2ciency

• Level of detail+ while not su2cient for reaching a )nal

decision on im!lementing a !ro!osed measures$

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy


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DETAIL ENERGY AUDIT

• Collecting more detailed information aoutfacilit. operation and . performing a moredetailed evaluation of energ. conservationmeasures

• ;etter understanding of ma9or energ.consuming s.stems and to gain insight intoshort and longer term energ. consumptionpatterns,

• Detailed implementation cost estimates' site=specific operating cost savings' and thecustomer


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• 1t includes

• Su2cient detail is !rovided to Hustify!roHect im!lementation$

• Study of E-ui!ment

• Study of rocess

• 4ata collection+ data analysis+ inter )rm

com!arison+ standard setting• 1dentify of !otential area$

INDUSTRIAL POLICY


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INDUSTRIAL POLICYRESOLUTION

• The 1ndustrial olicy Statement of 5665stated that 'the =overnment will continue to!ursue a sound !olicy framewor*encom!assing encouragement of

entre!reneurshi!($• 4evelo!ment of indigenous technology

through investment in research anddevelo!ment$

• 4ismantling of the regulatory system+develo!ment of the ca!ital mar*ets andincreased com!etitiveness for the bene)t ofcommon manI$


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O9ective of the ndustrial Polic. %tatement G0110

• sustained gro5th in productivit.' enhancegainful emplo.ment and achieve

• optimal utiliation of human resources' to attaininternational competitiveness'

• and to transform ndia into a ma9or partner andpla.er in the gloal arena,

VARIOUS ACTS


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VARIOUS ACTS

• A! P!E8ENON AND CON!OL O*POLL$ON) AC' 01>0

• /AE! (P!E8ENON AND CON!OL O*POLL$ON) AC' 01@

• CON%E!8AON O* *O!E% #E NDAN/LDL*E (P!OECON) AC' 01@+

• %OL AND "!O$ND/AE! POLL$ON!E4EDAON AC


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• %tatutor. organisation' 5as constituted in %eptemer'01@ under the /ater (Prevention and Control ofPollution) Act' 01@,

• CPC; 5as entrusted 5ith the po5ers and functionsunder the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act' 01>0

• P!NCPAL FUNCTIONS O* #E CPC;

• to promote cleanliness of streams and 5ells indifferent areas of the %tates . prevention

• control and aatement of 5ater pollution

• to improve the Hualit. of air and to prevent' control

or aate air pollution in the countr.,

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT

http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Functions.phphttp://www.cpcb.nic.in/Functions.php


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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT* FORESTS +MOEF,

• he planning' promotion' co=ordination andoverseeing the implementation of ndia


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• Prevention and control of pollution

• Afforestation and regeneration of degradedareas

• Protection of the environment and• Ensuring the 5elfare of animals

Soil n) Groun)2ter PollutionR )i ti A t


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Re(e)ition A!t

This Act is formulated to !revent andremediate soil and groundwater !ollution+ensure the sustainable use

• of soil and groundwater+ enhance theliving environment+ and advance !ublichealth$

• The regulations of other laws shall a!!ly

to those matters not regulated by thisAct$


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• Earth #our started in +33@ in %.dne.' Australia5hen +,+ million homes and usinesses turnedtheir lights off for one hour to ma:e their standagainst climate change,

• Onl. a .ear later and Earth #our had ecome agloal sustainailit. movement

• Environment Action Programs have eenprepared,

• IONE PLAN ONE L*EJ as a5areness creation

Documents

landscape and ecology-1