Land, Race, and Power

“Expansionism partially succeeded [during era of the Mexican War] because for a relatively few years expansionists managed to forge a sectional alliance that convinced Americans that expansion could solve problems that, if untreated, would destroy the republic. The irony would be that expansionism itself would very nearly destroy the republic.”

Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West (1991)

I. Why War?II. Borderlands contextIII. Settlement and Revolution in TexasIV. Annexation Crisis V. WarVI. Outcomes

• War “One of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation.”

U. S.Economic expansion“Manifest Destiny”

Belief that “the Anglo-Saxon peoples of America had the right and indeed the duty to spread the blessings of freedom and civilization to those who dwelled in darkness.” (Henderson, Glorious Defeat, 31)

But note latent contradictions—sectional division, racial antagonism

Imperial competition with BritishOregon dispute unresolved, rumors that

Mexico would cede California to bondholders to repay heavy debts

MexicoBadly divided by race, class, region, and

ideology (liberal vs. conservative, federalist vs. centralist)— “groping toward nationhood” (Henderson, Glorious Defeat)

Many leaders suspected Mexico would lose, but resented U. S. and wanted to regain honor lost in Texas Revolution

• Native nations, particularly in New Mexico and Texas, extremely powerfulSettled local groups—Pueblos in NMIndios Barbaros—Comanches, Apaches, etc.—

“war of a thousand deserts” places most of region under effective native control

Eastern Indians beyond US protection—Cherokees, Alabamas, Kickapoos, Delawares, etc.

• California, Texas extremely small colonies at time of Mexican independence

• No latitudinal connections—north-south links poor, so communities isolated from Mexico

• New Mexico larger, more important• Separatist sentiments widespread– Poor central government– Independent or protectorate status had more

to offer– Centrifugal tendencies of American commercial

expansion and settlement

Mestizaje widespreadIdentities extremely fluid—can’t read border

backwards in time: Lorenzo de Zavala (1788-1836), born Spanish subject, becomes Mexican patriot, then Texas empresario and VP of Lone Star Republic

• US population growth: – 1800: 5 million 1850: 23 million

• Farming frontiers– Particularly attractive during depressions– Ongoing importance of Jeffersonian myth

• Dreams of Pacific commerce– Colonial-era forays into Pacific– Whaling, hide-and-tallow, etc.

A. Jackson invaded poorly defended Spanish East Florida in 1818

1819 treaty signed in consequence Florida to U.S.Spain to drop claims to Pacific NWU. S. renounced claim to TX under Louisiana

Purchase, forgave $5 million in unpaid claims by U. S. citizens

Only 2,000 Mexicans in Texas at independence; 40,000+ Indians

Spain wanted settlers in TX to act as bulwark against U. S.Moses Austin solicited permission to start Anglo-American

colonyContract provisions w/ Mexico secured by Stephen F.

AustinNon-Catholics had to convertSettlers exempt from taxes for 6 yearsChildren of slaves imported to TX to be free at 14, slave

trade prohibitedHead of family—4,438 acres for farming, add’l 177 acres

if herdingEmpresarios awarded 66,774 acres for every 200

immigrants brought inSettlement banned w/in 52 miles of US border

Empresario commission with Austin provided 80 acres per slave

1825 census: 443 slaves out of total population of 1,800

Both Mexican and Coahuilan constitutions banned slavery

1836 population: 5,000 slaves among total non-Indian population of 38,470

Cotton production on slave plantationsSome cotton went to Mexico; rest to New Orleans

on U. S. vesselsTraded there for American wheat, as well as cloth

and other goods manufactured in BritainTexans then traded British and American goods to

Mexico, in exchange for silver

“The North Americans have conquered whatever territory adjoins them. In less than half a century, they have become masters of extensive colonies that formerly belonged to Spain and France, and of even more spacious territories from which have disappeared the former owners, the Indian tribes. … The territory against which their machinations are directed, and which has usually remained unsettled, begins to be visited by adventurers and empresarios; some of these take up their residence in the country . . . [and] develop an interest which complicates the political administration of the coveted territory.”

Fredonian Revolt, 1826-27—Haden Edwards and bi-racial force launch rebellion, announce plans to form the Republic of the Red and White People

Efforts to counterbalance Anglo-Americans—Mexicanizing Cherokees, encouraging Mexicans to colonize, etc.—all failed

Centralist government of Santa Anna sought to check separatist tendencies of TX—in 1830, ended tariff protection, forbade American settlement, etc.

TX population increasingly divided between old-guard moderates led by Austin, and so-called “war party”—newcomers who found best opportunities gone, and hence had more to gain

By fall, 1835, imprisonment, events in Mexico led Austin into war party: “I am tired of this government . . . They are always in revolution and I believe they always will be.”

Increased raiding against northern Mexico by Apaches, Comanches, and others, 1830s-onward Weaker defenses, new

outlets for contraband (including removed eastern Indians)

Devastated regionReduced Mexican ability

to resist U. S. invasionContrast with American

success of Indian removal shaped U. S. views of Mexico as a second-rate power

Main issues—central authority vs. local autonomy, including taxes, slavery, land, machinery of government

October, 1835—begins with small skirmish between villagers of Gonzales and San Antonio garrison

Santa Anna marches on TX, concentrates 2,500 troops at San Antonio, defended by 150 at Alamo

March, 1836—TX formally declares independence; Alamo taken by Santa Anna at cost of 600 Mexican soldiers—all defenders (189 to 257) killed; Goliad, other main Texan fort, surrenders—Santa Anna breaks terms and kills all 342

April, 1836—overconfident Santa Anna routed at San Jacinto—1,300 Mexicans killed, Santa Anna captured

May, 1836--Santa Anna signed two treaties—one public, one secret—guaranteeing TX independence, setting Rio Grande, not Nueces, as border

New government impoverished, wracked by internal conflict

US reluctant to annex—sectional poisonTX remained bellicose—David G. Burnet, “Texas

proper is bounded by the Rio Grande. Texas as defined by the sword, may comprehend the Sierra Madre. Let the sword do its proper work.”

Mexican-Cherokee conspiracy discovered, brutally suppressed in 1839

Pres. John Tyler: unelected, expelled from own partyHoped to ride Texas issue to popularityProposes treaty of annexation, but Senate rejects in June,

1844Whigs running Henry Clay, anti-annexationist; pro-

annexation forces maneuver at Dem. convention to nominate Polk over Van Buren

Dem. platform— “reannexation of Texas”Polk wins slim victory, declares this a “mandate”Tyler pushes Congress to pass joint annexation resolution

—issue of slavery supposed to be renegotiated, but Tyler offers annexation on last day and scotches debate

J. Q. Adams: “the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country”

As US extends annexation offer, Mexico finally offers to recognize Texas Republic

Texans considered both possibilities simultaneously--July, 1845 convention picks annexation to US by 51 to 1

Feb, 1846—Texas President Anson Jones: “the final act in this great drama is now performed; the Republic of Texas is no more.”

Boundary dispute becomes pretext for war

“The cup of forbearance had been exhausted even before the recent information from the frontier of the Del Norte. But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war.”

• Polk idolized Jackson• Sought to annex Texas and purchase California• Mexican troops, angered by arrogant proposal

made by diplomat Slidell, fire on Zachary Taylor’s forces in disputed territory

• Polk, invoking need to protect national honor, pushes war declaration through Congress

• Greeted w/ enthusiasm—Boston Times : U. S. victory "must necessarily be a great blessing," would bring "peace into a land where the sword has always been the sole arbiter between factions,” introducing “the reign of law where license has existed for a generation."

• Anti-war movement developed• Garrison’s Liberator: "Every lover of Freedom

and humanity throughout the world must wish them the most triumphant success."

• Closely linked to slavery• Led by Whigs• Whig generals Taylor and Scott became

heroes, but Polk lambasted

http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb2r29n8hv/FID4

Santa Fe, 1848

Z. Taylor: "It is our wish to see you liberated from despots, … to drive back the savage Cumanches, to prevent the renewal of their assaults, and to compel them to restore to you from captivity your long lost wives and children."

Kearny: "From the Mexican government you have never received protection. . . . The Apaches and the Navajoes come down from the mountains and carry off your sheep, and even your women, whenever they please. My government will correct all this."

A daguerreotype showing Major Lucien B. Webster's battery in the mountains north of Buena Vista, Mexico, following an important American victory in the Mexican War. Pbs.org

Nebel, Battle of Contreras

• Not ready for war—fewer than 5,500 soldiers in uniform, so Polk called up 50,000 volunteers

• In all, 26,922 regulars and 73,260 volunteers served

• Privates overwhelmingly foreign-born; San Patricio desertion

• Tight clique of academy graduates offered excellent leadership

• Great leaders of Civil War learned trade while serving under Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott

Larger at eve of war than U.S. forcesMostly draftees, resulting in much insubordination and

foot-draggingOne moderate Mexican politician: “Strictly speaking, the

army does not exist. What today bears that name is only a mass of men without training and without weapons.”

Poorly suppliedSanta Anna’s march from San Luis Potosi to Buena Vista—

5,000 of 20,000 perish from hunger, thirst, exhaustion, and exposure

Supported by soldaderas, women who accompanied campaigns, foraging, nursing, and otherwise helping army

US takes Mexico CityRebellion erupts throughout Mexico—Caste

War of Yucatan, peasant revolts in Sierra Gorda states, Veracruz, and Tamualipas

Jan., 1848—treaty negotiations begin

21 months long13,000 American dead (only 1,700 in battle)$100 million spentGrowing Latin American fears of “colossus of

the North” But gained:

1.2 million acres of land, 1/3 of present territory

Proving ground for generation of generals

Spanish/Mexican policy emphasized accommodation and integration

Now subject to rapid white settlement, imposition of U. S. control over Indian affairs and strict racial divides

Genocide of California Gold Rush most extreme example

New York Globe: “There is a spirit abroad which will not long be stayed—a spirit of progress, which will compel us, for the good of both nations and the world at large, TO DESTROY THE NATIONALITY of that besotted people. It would almost seem that they, like the Israelites of old, had brought upon themselves the vengeance of the Almighty and we ourselves had been raised up to overthrow AND UTTERLY DESTROY THEM as a separate and distinct nation.”

Southern slave-holders—not a field for expanding institution

Racists: Calhoun: “Ours is a government of the white man.” Equality would be a “fatal error.”

Diplomat Nicholas Trist negotiated treaty with Santa AnnaTrist had been recalled by Polk but continued negotiationsPolk accepted treaty nonetheless

500,000+ square miles to USRio Grande to be southern border of TexasAlta California to include port of San Diego

Guaranteed property rights of Mexican citizens in cession area

75,000 Mexicans within cession could decide to become US citizens or not

US responsible for Indian incursions originating on US side of border

$15 million payment to MexicoWar still resented by many in MexicoContingency: Gold discovered by James Marshall in

California nine days before Mexico signed treaty; Polk’s announcement of discovery, December, 1848—California would “add more to the strength and wealth of the nation” than all previous acquisitions

“We have not come to terms with what it meant to be a conquering nation.” Antonia Castaneda

“One wonders a bit if the victory in a war that was, after all, a war of aggression to seize territory was not conveniently forgotten by Americans, because it's not one of the more honorable moments in American history.” David Weber