Kuwait Universityirpond.org/114/files/defbooklet.doc · Web viewLanguage Center. ELU – Education. English Language Skills. for Students Majoring in Science. Workbook. Defining

Kuwait UniversityLanguage CenterELU – Education

English Language Skills for Students Majoring in Science

Workbook

Defining

&

Describing

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Introduction

When making a hypothesis or other statement, scientists must make sure that they are understood by other researchers. Misunderstandings occur when there are different concepts of what is being discussed.

A definition answers the question, “What is it?” Sometimes a definition is necessary because a word or concept has more than one meaning. For example, whether carbon is a metal or nonmetal depends on how you define carbon. At other times, a definition is required because a term is being used in a special way. For example, physicists use the terms – work and energy in ways that are more specific than their common meanings. A definition should be complete enough to include all the items in the category yet narrow enough to eliminate items that do not belong. The Greek philosopher Plato once defined man as a two-legged creature that has no feathers. His critic Diogenes left the room and brought back a bird without feathers, declaring, “Here is Plato’s man!

The problem with Plato’s definition was that it did not distinguish a man from other two-legged creatures without feathers. Communication between researchers is dependent on precise definitions of substances, concepts, processes, and ideas.

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Short Reading

Directions: Read the following passage and find definitions for as many types of energy as you can. Also locate the nouns that the underlined pronouns refer to in each of the following paragraphs.

The Many Forms of Energy

Energy1 is the ability to do work. When a hammer strikes a nail, it exerts a force on the nail that causes it to move. The movement of the hammer has the ability to do work and therefore has a form of energy that we call kinetic energy. Kinetic energy2 is the energy of motion.

An object may have energy not only because of its motion but also because of its position or shape. For example, when a watch spring is wound, it is storing energy. When this energy is released, it will do the work of moving the hands of the watch. This form of energy is called potential energy. Potential energy3 is stored energy. Water in a dam is another example of potential energy.

There are many types of kinetic and potential energy, including chemical, thermal, mechanical, electrical, and nuclear energy. Chemical energy4 is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food, and oil. Just as the watch spring needs to be released to do the work of moving the hands, the energy stored in food molecules needs to be released by enzymes or substances in the body, and the energy stored in gasoline must be released by the spark plug to do its work of propelling the car forward. Thermal energy5 may be defined as the kinetic energy of molecules. When a substance is heated, the molecules move faster, which causes that substance to feel hot. Mechanical energy6 is energy related

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to the movement of objects. Electric energy7 is energy that is produced by electric charges. Nuclear energy8 is the energy that is stored in the nucleus of certain kinds of atoms, like uranium.Recognizing Definitions

Directions: Look at the following terms in the text you have just read and see if you can recognize the definitions of the different types of energy.Write the definitions exactly as they appear in the reading on the lines next to each term.

1. Chemical energy _________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

2. Mechanical energy _______________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

3. Energy

__________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

4. Kinetic energy ___________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

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5. Thermal energy __________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

6. Potential energy _________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Using English to DefineLet us look at the definitions that we have written once again.

1. Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food and oil.

2. Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the movement of objects.

3. Energy is the ability to do work.

4. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

5. Thermal energy may be defined as the kinetic energy of molecules.

6. Potential energy is stored energy.

Here we notice that each of the above definitions is written differently; however, each one of them has three parts. They are the Term ( T ), General Class word ( GC ) and Specific Characteristics ( SC ).

Term = Class word + Specific Characteristics

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1. Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food

and oil.

2. Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the movement

of objects.



We will have a closer look at how definitions are written later.

Aristotle suggested that a good definition should include the general classification of a term plus the specific characteristics that differentiate the term from other members of its class. For example, a definition of a giraffe should include a classification, such as, A giraffe is an animal, and specific characteristics, such as, A giraffe is a tall, African animal with a very long neck.

I. THE THREE PARTS OF A FORMAL DEFINITION

A formal definition normally has three parts:

1. the term which is being defined.

2. the class or group to which the term belongs and

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3. the characteristic which distinguishes the term from other members of the same class or group.

Look at the following example sentences:

Term Class word Specific Characteristic

A seismograph ( is an) instrument (that) amplifies and records small movements of the ground.

Gravity ( is the) force (which) attracts bodies to the center of the earth.

An astronomer ( is a ) scientist (who) studies the universe.

*Physics ( is the ) study of matter and energy.

*A volt ( is a ) unit for measuring electrical pressure.

Conduction (is a ) process ( by which) heat is transformed.

A laboratory (is a ) place (where) experiments are performed.

Exercise 1. Recognizing the Parts of a Definition

Directions: Read the following definitions and underline the term, circle the class word, and underline the characteristic in each of the following sentences.

1. Mathematics is the science of numbers.

2.* Energy is the ability to do work.

3. A habitat is the place where an animal usually lives.

4. Vapor is defined as a gas that can be liquefied by pressure.

5. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which it boils and turns into gas.

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6. A glacier is a mass of ice which moves slowly along a valley.

7.* Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the movement of objects.

8. Helium is an inert gas that is light and nonflammable.

9. A machine is a device that transforms energy from one form to another.

10. The cerebrum is the part of the brain that is the center of reasoning.

11. An insulator is a substance that does not conduct heat or electricity.

12. Fog is a cloud that forms on the ground

13. Ecology is the study of the environment.

14. A satellite is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body.

15. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture food.

A. THE TERM

The term tells us what is defined. It usually comes first in a definition.

Look at some of the sentences that we saw earlier.

1. A seismograph is an instrument that amplifies and records small movements of the ground.

2. Conduction is a process by which heat is transformed.

3. An astronomer is a scientist who studies the universe.

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4. Ecology is the study of the environment.

5. The cerebrum is the part of the brain that is the center of reasoning.

As mentioned earlier, the terms, which are underlined, usually come first in the definition. This depends on how the definition is written.

Look at the definition of seismograph, which can be written in another way.

***6. An instrument that amplifies and records small movements of the

ground is called a seismograph.

You also notice that before some terms and class words, we use articles, which are ‘a’, ‘an’, and ‘the’, but for some other terms and class words, we do not use these articles.

Let us now have a closer look at the use of articles when we form definitions.

Language Use 1: Articles

When you write a definition, you must decide whether the term and the class word need an article ( ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’ or ‘’ called – ‘no article’ or ‘zero article’).

Articles are very difficult to learn because there are many rules, many exceptions, and many special cases. It is possible, however, to learn a few basic rules that will help you to use articles when writing definitions.

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The two types of articles are 1. Indefinite (meaning ‘general’), and

2. Definite (meaning ‘specific’)

1. Indefinite articles are ‘ a ’ and ‘ an ’ and

2. the Definite article is ‘the’.

Look at the following examples.

1. A test-tube…….. ( meaning ‘any test-tube’)

2. An angle…….. (meaning ‘ any angle’)

3. The test-tube…… (meaning ‘ a specific test-tube and we know which one it is)

Whether the term (which is always a noun) requires an article (indefinite or definite) or no article () depends on how the term is used in the sentence.

Nouns in English can be either countable or uncountable. If a noun is countable, it must be either singular or plural. If a noun is uncountable, it is always used in the singular form only. However, there are exceptions to this.

1. If a noun is countable, it needs ‘a’ or ‘ an’ in the singular. The indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ mean one.

‘An’ is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. ‘A’ is used before words that begin with a consonant sound.

e.g. A test-tube is…

An angle is…

A seismograph is an instrument which…

Some words can be confusing because the spelling does not indicate the pronunciation. Look at the following examples.

A house…. (begins with a consonant sound)

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An hour … (begins with a vowel sound)

A university… (begins with a consonant sound)An umbrella… (begins with a vowel sound)

The initial sound of the word that immediately follows the indefinite article will determine whether it should be ‘a’ or ‘an’.

2. If a noun is uncountable, it has no plural form , and it has no article ()

e.g. Water is…Copper is…Information is…

3. Plural nouns NEVER take the indefinite article.

e.g. Horses are mammals which …

Amphibians are animals which…

4. Sometimes a countable noun needs the definite article ‘the’. However,

there are very few examples of terms and class words which need ‘the’.

Here we are only looking at it in terms of forming definitions.

A. ‘The’ may specify when it is obvious who or what is being referred to and there is no chance of mistaken identity.


The Sun is a luminous body which is…….. (it is clear which sun is meant)

The moon is …..

The human heart is …..

The decimal system is….

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The periodic table is…

If you can meaningfully ask yourself the question “which one is meant?”, then you should use ‘the’; otherwise do not use ‘the’.

B . ‘The’ usually specifies when the noun is followed by an ‘ of ’ phrase even if the sentence is a general statement.


The area of a circle is…

The coefficient of expansion…

The boiling point of a liquid….

The atomic number of oxygen is….

Students should keep an eye on the use of articles in the sample sentences that appear in this handout and in the textbook, English for Science.

Exercise 2 Articles

Directions: Decide whether the following terms and class words need articles. Add the appropriate articles in the space provided. If no articles are required, write ().

1. _____ triangle is _______ figure which ….

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2. _____ frogs are _______ amphibians which ….

3. _____ sulfur is _______ element which…

4. _____ acids are _______ compounds which ….

5. _____ digestion is _______ process by which …..

6. _____ barometer is _______ instrument which ….

7. _____ snake is _______ reptile which ….

8. _____ geology is _______ study of rocks and minerals.*

9. _____ energy is _______ ability to do work.*

10. _____ kinetic energy is _______ energy of motion.*

11. _____ Physics is _______ study of matter and energy.*

12.* _____ freezing point of a liquid is _______ temperature at which…*

B. CLASS WORDThe class word tells us the class or group to which the term

belongs.

In this section we are going to study which class words go with which term words.

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Some typical examples of class words are the following.

Oxygen is an element….

Evaporation is a process…

Iron is a metal….

Exercise 3: Class words

Directions: Match the terms with the correct class word. Write the letter of the correct class word in the space provided.

Term Class word

1. a circle ________ a. a liquid

2. zoology ________ b. a metal

3. water ________ c. a structure

4. glass ________ d. a process

5. silver ________ e. a gas

6. a cell ________ f. a substance

7. respiration ________ g. an animal

8. a thermometer ________ h. a shape

9. oxygen _______ i. an instrument

10. a mammal ________ j. a scienceExercise 4: Articles and Class words

Directions: Write the correct class word for each of the following terms. Add articles if necessary. If no articles are needed, write ().

1. ___________ wood is ________ _____________________.

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2. ___________ whale is _____________________________.

3. ___________ copper is ________ _____________________.

4. ___________ computer is ________ _____________________.

5. ___________ granite is ________ _____________________.

6. ___________ snakes are _____________________________.

7. __________ H2SO4 is ________ _____________________.

8. __________ mosquitoes are _____________________________.

9. __________ antibiotic is ________ _____________________.

10. ___________ mammals are ________ _____________________.

JOINING THE TERMS WITH THE CLASS WORDS.

In order to join the terms and the class words to form a sentence, we need to look at how these simple sentences, which contain the main idea of the definitions, are formed. We have already looked at the terms and the class words, whether they are countable or uncountable and whether they require articles or not.

In scientific English, the main verbs of sentences are usually in the Present Simple tense. It is not difficult to see why. Scientific textbooks contain information about the present state of scientific knowledge. As a result, you will probably use the Present Simple tense in most of your scientific writing. It is important to make sure that the correct verb ( ‘be’ , ‘have’ or ‘action verbs’) is used and that the subjects and verbs agree in your scientific writing.THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

We have seen that the most common verb in a definition is ‘be’. ‘Be’ is very important in scientific writing. It is the main verb in about half of all scientific statements. It is not possible to make a complete sentence in English without a verb. It is necessary to use the verb be, have, or

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an action verb in the simple present tense. If the correct verb and the correct form of any of these verbs are not used properly, the idea that you are trying to convey in a sentence may not be understood well by the listener or the reader.

Look at the following sentences. It is correct to say

I have a donkey. I ride on a donkey.

But none of us would say

I am a donkey.

So if you intended to say that you own a donkey, you would not use the verb be.

I. The use of verb ‘ to be ’

Verb ‘to be ’ is used to show the state of being, or condition or existence.

It has three forms in the present. They are am, are , and is.

I am We are

You are You are

He/She/It is They are

Look at the following examples that we looked at earlier.

Energy is the ability to do work.

Mathematics is the science of numbers.

Horses are mammals.

A seismograph is an instrument.II. The use of verb ‘to have ’

Verb ‘to have ’ is used to show possession. It has two forms in the present. They are have and has.

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Our solar system has nine planets.

Fluids have no shape.

Exercise 5: Verb to be and Verb to have

Directions: Use the correct form of the verb ‘ to be ’ or ‘ to have ’ to complete each of the following sentences.

1. Oxygen _________________ a gas.

2. A triangle _______________ a figure.

3. Oxygen and hydrogen _________________ gases.

4. Triangles __________________ three straight sides.

5. The pipe _____________ 3 meters long.

6. Stainless steel _______________ rust-proof.

7. Water ___________ a boiling point of 1000 C.

8. Water ________________ two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

9. Light _______________ a speed of 186,000 miles per second.

10. There ______________ several kinds of vitamins.

III. Action verbsThese verbs are used in the following situations.

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A. It is used for general statements, factual statements and observations:

e.g. Water freezes at 00 C.

Sound travels at a speed of 333 meters per second.

The alloy contains 23% copper.

The liquid in the test-tube weighs 55 grams.

A satellite orbits another celestial body.

B. It is used for regular actions and regular processes:

e.g. Ali studies physics six hours a week.

This factory employs thirty people.

The crude oil then passes down the pipeline.

Exercise 6: Verbs: Be, Have, and the Simple Present Tense

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Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in parentheses.

1. (pass) The current _________________________ along the wire.

2. (turn) Water ____________________________ into ice at 00 C.

3. (wash) Rain ________________________ salt from the soil.

4. (equal) Area ________________________length times width.

5. (show) Satellite pictures of the sea surface ______________the sea floor in detail.

6. ( be / have ) In chemistry each element _____________ its own symbol.

7. ( be / have ) Isosceles triangles _________________ two equal angles.

8. ( be / have ) Oxygen ___________________ necessary for all growth.

9. ( be / have ) Uranium and radium ____________ radio-active elements.

10. ( be / have ) The Dead Sea in Jordan __________________ a high salt content.

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Exercise 7: Forming simple sentences with terms and class words.

Directions: Combine the term and the class word in each series to form a meaningful sentence. Use appropriate articles and verbs. Begin you sentence with a capital letter and end it with a period (full stop).

1. amoeba / animal

________________________________________________________________

2. antibiotic / drug

_________________________________________________________________

3. catalyst / substance

__________________________________________________________________

4. cyclotron / apparatus

__________________________________________________________________

5. mercury / metal

__________________________________________________________________

6. triangle / figure

__________________________________________________________________

7. reptiles / animals

__________________________________________________________________

*8. boiling point of a liquid / temperature

__________________________________________________________________

9. paper / substance

__________________________________________________________________

10. fog / cloud

__________________________________________________________________

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C. THE CHARACTERISTICThe characteristic is the part of the definition which gives us detailed information about the term. This detailed information usually appears in the form of a relative clause. Therefore, a definition is really two sentences that have been combined.

We have already looked at the terms and class words and seen how they are joined to form the main idea in a definition.

In this section, we shall consider

1. the GRAMMAR needed to write the characteristic, and

2. the TYPE OF CHARACTERISTIC INFORMATION appropriate for a definition.

1. GRAMMAR

Before we look at the structure of the characteristic part of a definition, we need to look at the information that appears in this part of the definition.

The information in the characteristic part of the definition appears in another simple sentence. When the two related ideas, the idea linking the term and class word, and the idea in the characteristic part, are joined together, we get a complex sentence. This complex sentence usually has two clauses called the Main Clause (MCl), which contains the main idea linking the term with the class word, and the Subordinate Clause (SCl), which contains the idea of the characteristic part.

The Main Clause is also called Independent Clause, and the Subordinate Clause is also called Dependent Clause.


Example: 1A vertebrate is an animal.

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The animal has a backbone.When we join these two related simple sentences, we get a complex sentence, which has two clauses - the Main Clause, which has the main idea, and the Subordinate Clause, which has the subordinate idea. The characteristic part of the definition is in the subordinate clause.

When we combine the two above sentences, we get a complex sentence.

A vertebrate is an animal which has a backbone. Main Clause Subordinate Clause

Now look at another example.

Example: 2

Gold is a metal.

The metal is used to make jewelry.

Now when we combine the above two sentences, we get a complex sentence.

Gold is a metal which is used to make jewelry.

Main Clause Subordinate Clause

In both the sentences, we use the relative pronoun ‘which’ to join the two sentences. There are other relative pronouns, too. They are who, that, whom, where and when. Each relative pronoun is used according to the meaning of the combined sentence.

We will deal with the usage and rules of the relative pronouns later in this unit.

We have also noticed that the verbs in the subordinate clauses of the above sentences are formed differently.

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In example 1, the verb is in the active voice, and

in example 2, the verb is in the passive voice.

Students must exercise great caution when forming the ideas in the subordinate clause – which contains the characteristic part of the definition. The verb could be either in the active or passive voice.

We will study the usage and rules of Active and Passive Voice after dealing with Relative Clauses.

A. RELATIVE CLAUSES

We have seen that when we write a formal definition, we need to combine two or more related ideas into one sentence using relative clauses. In other words, relative clauses are used to combine two or more related pieces of information in a way to show what the relationship is between them. Usually the writer puts in the main clause the idea he considers more important and leaving the less important information for the relative clause/s.

We have seen that a definition is really two sentences that have been combined.

Look at the following sentences.

1. A thermometer is an instrument.

2. The instrument measures temperature.

When we combine these two sentences, we get a complex sentence, which has two clauses – the Main Clause, which has the main idea, and the Subordinate Clause, which has the subordinate idea. The differentiating characteristic part of the definition is in the subordinate clause.

When we combine the two above sentences, we get a complex sentence.

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A thermometer is an instrument which measures temperature.


We use this combined form, which is called a defining relative clause, because we want to avoid repeating the words ‘an instrument’. In the subordinate clause, the subject of the sentence (the instrument) is replaced by the relative pronoun ‘which’. We may also use ‘that’ instead of ‘which’.

Defining relative clauses are not only used in definitions. They are also used in any sentence in which we want to give information about a noun.

Look at the following sentence.

Pictures that showed the rings of Saturn were presented.

Subordinate Clause

Therefore these relative clauses are also called Adjective clauses.

Points to remember about Adjective Clauses:

1. Every written English sentence must have a main clause. It may have one or more relative clauses.

2. Relative clauses begin with the ‘wh -’ pronouns. The relative pronoun ‘which’ is by far the most common in scientific English. They can also begin with ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘whose’, ‘that’ or a preposition + phrase or clause.

3. Two ideas may be joined or combined ONLY if they are related.

4. Adjective clauses describe or give added information about a noun (or pronoun) in the main clause. THEY IMMEDIATELY FOLLOW THE THING THAT THEY DESCRIBE.

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Exercise 8:Directions: Combine the two sentences. Use the second

sentence as an adjective clause.

1. A magnet is a substance.

The substance attracts certain other substances.

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

2. Protons are positively charged particles.

The positively charged particles are contained in the nucleus of an atom.

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

3. Oxidation is a chemical reaction.

The chemical reaction involves the loss of one or more electrons by an atom or ion.

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________________________

4. The stratosphere is a portion of the atmosphere. It is over seven miles high.

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

5.* Marine biologists are scientists. They study animals and plants that live in the sea.

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

The sentence (5*) above actually contains three ideas that are related. When we separate the ideas in the above complex sentence, we get the following three simple sentences.

1. Marine biologists are scientists.

2. The scientists study plants and animals.

3. The plants and animals live in the sea.

Only when we combine the three ideas together, we get a meaningful definition.Therefore a formal definition might contain more than two related ideas. In such a case there will be a main clause and two subordinate clauses.

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So the combined sentence would read as:

Marine biologists are scientists who study plants and animals that live in the sea.

MCl SCl1 SCl2

When you separate the ideas and put them in simple sentences, we get the same three sentences again.

Students need to bear in mind that in a complex sentence, there must be a main clause, which contains the main idea of the sentence, and there can be one or more subordinate clauses, which contain the subordinate ideas.

THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.

The passive form of a verb is used frequently in scientific writing. This is because the emphasis in science is usually on the action, not on the person performing the action. Again, this depends on the nature of the idea you are trying to present in your writing. In this unit, we are only going to look at it from the definition point of view.

We have learnt that definitions are written in the Simple Present Tense.

Look at the following sentences which are related.

1. A vertebrate is an animal. (This sentence contains the main idea.)

2. The animal has a backbone. (This sentence contains the subordinate idea.)

We notice that in sentence 2, the verb is in the active form because the sentence talks about the subject of the sentence, ‘the animal’.

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So when we combine the above two sentences into one, it would read as

A vertebrate is an animal which has a backbone.


In this complex sentence, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the active form.

Now look at the following sentences.

1. Aluminum is a metal. (This sentence contains the main idea.)

2. It is produced from bauxite. (This sentence contains the subordinate idea.)

We notice that in sentence 2, the verb is in the passive form and this is preferred because it concentrates on how aluminum is produced rather than who produce aluminum. And we know that people produce aluminum.

So when we combine the above two sentences into one, it would read as

Aluminum is a metal which is produced from bauxite.


In this complex sentence, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the passive form.

Forming the Passives

Since we are only looking at from a definition point of view, we notice that the verbs in the above sentences are in the Simple Present Tense. We form the subordinate clause part of the sentence with the verb ‘to be’ and the past participle of the main verb.

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( The passive formations in other tenses will be dealt with in other chapters.)

proper form of verb

to be + past participle

The metal is produced from bauxite.

Exercise 9: Verb Forms - Active or Passive

Directions: Write the correct form of the verb in the blank spaces.

1. Water is a liquid which _______________________ ( consist ) of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

2. Gold is a precious metal which _____________________ ( use ) for making jewelry.

3. The color white ______________ ( reflect ) light, whereas black __________

( absorb ) light. In other words, light _______________________ ( reflect )

by white, but it _____________________ ( absorb ) by black.

4. A saline solution is one which _______________________ ( contain ) salt.

5. Hydrocarbons are compounds which _____________________ ( contain ) only hydrogen and carbon.

6. Heat is a physical property which ________________________ ( measure ) by a thermometer.

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7. A symmetrical figure is a figure which can ___________________________ ( divide ) into two equal halves.

8. A rectifier is a device which ______________________ ( allow ) an electric current to flow in only one direction.

9. Tungsten is a heavy metal which ___________________( melt ) at over 30000 C.

10. Mathematics _____________________ ( use ) for many different purposes.

Now let us look at the definitions that we have written from the reading on ‘The Many Forms of Energy’.

1. Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food and oil.

2. Mechanical energy is energy (that is) related to the movement of objects.



5. Thermal energy may be defined as the kinetic energy of molecules.

6. Potential energy is stored energy.

Here we notice that the characteristic part of each of the above definitions is written differently. Now let us look at the structure of the characteristic part in detail.

The characteristic part of the definitions has seven common forms.

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1. Relative Clause /s

Frequently, the characteristics appear as a relative clause beginning with appropriate relative pronouns, ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘who’, or ‘where’.

e.g. Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food, and oil. A vertebrate is an animal which has a backbone.

Gold is a metal that is used to make jewelry.


Note: The verbs are in the Present Simple Tense. The verbs in the subordinate clause may be active or

passive.

2. Reduced Relative Clause /sThe characteristics sometimes appear as a relative clause in which the relative pronouns ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘who’, or ‘where’ and the verb ‘to be’ have been deleted.

e.g. Mechanical energy is energy ( that is ) related to the movement of objects.

Aluminum is a metal ( which is ) produced from bauxite.

*Although this reduction is common, it is not required in English since there are many exceptions to this rule. Sometimes these reductions are possible and necessary, but in certain situations these reductions are not possible at all.

3. Infinitive Phrase

Sometimes the characteristics take the form of an infinitive phrase.

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e.g. Energy is the ability to do work.

4. Prepositional Phrase

Sometimes the characteristics take the form a prepositional phrase.

e.g. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

A vertebrate is animal with a backbone.

Ecology is the study of the environment.

5. Use of Modal of Possibility

The use of the modal of possibility ‘may’ indicates that there is more than one way to define something.

e.g. Thermal energy may be defined as the kinetic energy of molecules.

6. Term = Characteristic + Class wordSometimes the characteristic precedes the class. This form of characteristic is important when you want to add more information in a formal definition of a term.

e.g. Potential energy is stored energy.

(Potential energy is energy which is stored.)

Protozoa are one-celled organisms.

(Protozoa are organisms which are one-celled.)

Mercury is a liquid metal.

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( Mercury is a metal which is liquid.)

7.* Preposition + which + phraseIn scientific writing, we find many relative clauses with a preposition before ‘which’. The preposition is part of the sentence which contains the characteristic/s and it is followed by the term.


1. Respiration is a process.

2. Animals take in oxygen by respiration.

When we combine the two sentences, we get a complex sentence

Respiration is a process by which animals take in oxygen.


1. Conduction is a process.

2. Heat is transferred by conduction

Conduction is a process by which heat is transferred.

Now we will look in detail at some of the common forms of the characteristic part of the definitions.

1. Relative Clauses - … which ( that ) + verb phrase …

Most characteristic begin with ‘which’ + verb phrase. The subject is replaced by the relative pronoun ‘which’ or any other

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Imp

suitable relative pronoun depending on the meaning of the sentence.

We will now consider definitions that contain this type of characteristic.

Exercise - Reading ( Scanning * )

Scanning

When you need to search technical material for the answers to specific questions, you will want to locate the particular information without reading every word. This can be accomplished by scanning the passage. To scan let your eyes run rapidly down the page and look for the key or important words that you are seeking.

Directions: Read the following passage and underline all the definitions that use ‘ which ’.

Basic Earth Chemistry

As rocks are composed of minerals, so minerals are composed of elements. By definition, an element is a substance which cannot be changed by ordinary means into any other substance. The smallest piece of an element which has all the properties of that element is the atom. Although they are extremely small, the atoms of an element have a definite mass and a definite weight, two properties which distinguish a particular atom from the atoms of every other element.

Elements exist under two conditions. They may be free, or they may be united chemically in chemical compounds, that is, substances which are formed by the combination of two or more different elements in a definite weight relationship.

In earth science, some types of compound are particularly important. Oxides, acids, bases and salts are four classes of compound which are often met in the study of rocks and minerals.

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Exercise: 10 Re-writing Definitions

Directions: Write definitions of the following terms by using information from the reading passage on the previous page. Remember to use a relative clause beginning with ‘ which ’.

1 ( element ) ________________________________________________________

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2. (atom ) __________________________________________________________

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3. (definite mass and definite weight) _________________________________

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4. ( chemical compounds ) ___________________________________________

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5. ( oxides ) _________________________________________________________

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2. Characteristics - Prepositional Phrase

Sometimes the characteristics take the form a prepositional phrase.

e.g. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

A vertebrate is an animal with a backbone.

Ecology is the study of the environment.

Exercise 11: Definitions with Prepositional Phrases

Directions: Write definitions by expanding the following notes. Add appropriate articles, verbs and prepositions.

1. mathematics / science / space and number

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2. motor / machine / changing power into movement

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3. quadruped / animal / four feet

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4. thermometer / instrument / measuring temperature

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5. geology / study / earth

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3.* Preposition + which + phraseIn scientific writing, we find many relative clauses with a preposition before ‘which’. The preposition is part of the characteristic followed by the term.

In some characteristics, we need to add a preposition ( with, by, in , from, through, etc., before ‘which’. The common types of definitions which need a preposition are:

A. Characteristics which express location / direction

Look at these examples

1. A desert is a sandy area in which few plants grow.

The above sentence is a complex sentence which consists of two ideas. If we were to separate this complex sentences into two simple sentences, it would read as:

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A desert is a sandy area.

Few plants grow in a desert. it which

Here we notice that the two sentences are related and that the term is repeated after the preposition ‘in’. We can replace the term with the pronoun ‘it’ without affecting the meaning of the sentence. In order to combine the two sentences, we replace the pronoun ‘it’ with the relative pronoun ‘which’. Here we see that the preposition is part of the sentence.

Look at another example.

2. A vacuum is a space from which all matter has been removed.

Here also we notice that this is a complex sentence which has two ideas, and that it can be broken down into two simple sentences.

A vacuum is a space.

All matter has been removed from it.

B. Characteristics which describe certain nouns such as ‘process’,

‘speed’, etc.,

Look at the example.

1. Digestion is a process by which food is broken down into chemical compounds.

Here also we can break this complex sentence into two simple sentences.

Digestion is a process.

Food is broken down into chemical compounds by digestion.

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C. Characteristics which contain a verb which usually takes the same preposition, such as ‘ react with’, ‘differ from’, etc.,

Look at the example.

1. A substrate is a substance with which an enzyme reacts.

Here also we can break this complex sentence into two simple sentences.

Directions: Write down the two simple sentences on the lines below.

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Here we notice that the preposition is part of the sentence and that when this preposition is followed by the term, we replace the term with the relative pronoun ‘which’. The preposition used depends on the meaning of the sentence which contains the characteristic.Exercise 12 : Preposition + which + phrase

Directions: Expand the following notes into full definitions. All the characteristics need to begin with a preposition. Pay attention to articles.

1. diffusion / process /

substances move through tissues and cells by diffusion

Diffusion is a process by which substances move through tissues and cells .

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2. filter / device / gas or liquid is passed through a filter

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3. axis / imaginary line / a body rotates around an axis

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4. condensation / process / vapor forms into liquid in condensation

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5. lathe / machine / a substance can be cut or shaped on a lathe

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Exercise 13: Formulating Formal Definitions

Directions: Write formal definitions of the following terms by selecting the correct class words and the characteristics given. Remember to add the correct verbs and articles where necessary.

Class words:

blood vessel chemical reactiontemperatureprocess form of arithmetic process

positive electrode

1. Term: digestion

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Characteristic: food is broken down into chemical compounds in digestion

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2. Term: anode

Characteristic: an electric current enters an electrolytic cell or a vacuum tube through an anode

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3. Term: vein

Characteristic: blood is carried from the tissue to the heart by a vein

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__________________________________________________________________4. Term: algebra

Characteristic: unknown numbers are replaced by letters or symbols in algebra

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5.* Term: boiling point of a liquid

Characteristic: ( the liquid) turns into vapor at boiling point

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6. Term: combustion

Characteristic: a substance combines with oxygen in combustion, giving off heat and light

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7. Term: evaporation

Characteristic: a liquid turns into a vapor in evaporation

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__________________________________________________________________Exercise 14 : Reading Writing: Locating a Definition in a Text

Directions: Read the following passages and use the information given in each to write a definition of the underlined word. You can express the characteristics in any of the ways you have learnt.

1. A whole branch of science is devoted to the study of the cell. This branch is known as cytology.

Cytology _____________________________________________

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2. Diffusion or the act of spreading out, is a process of great importance in biology. It is the process by which substances in their molecular state move through tissues and cells.

Diffusion_____________________________________________

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3. Many organisms obtain their energy at the expense of another living organism. Such organisms are known as parasites.

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4. One branch of chemistry is bio-chemistry. In many ways, bio-chemistry is no different from any other kind of chemistry. However, bio-chemistry can be defined as the chemistry of living things.

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5. A solution is a special kind of mixture. The common solutions consist of a solid within a liquid. A saturated solution contains all the solute it is capable of holding.

A saturated solution____________________________________

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**6. A specific chemical reaction is one of the processes involved in digestion. This reaction is known as hydrolysis. Hydrolysis brings about a chemical change. It occurs when a molecule of water joins another compound.

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7. Another form of symbiotic association is known as commensalism. Commensalism is a one-sided relationship. One organism attaches itself to another organism. Although the two organisms live together, only one of them benefits from the association.

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8. Chemical weathering, sometimes called decomposition, is a more complex process than mechanical weathering. Mechanical weathering merely breaks rock material down into smaller and smaller particles, without changing the composition of the rock. Chemical weathering, however, actually transforms the original material into something different.

Chemical weathering __________________________________

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CHARACTERISTICS

The Information in Characteristics

The type of information we give in definitions depends on the term that is classified. There are five important classes of information.

1. Use or Function

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A scalpel is a sharp cutting instrument which is used by surgeons in operations.

2. Composition

Water is a liquid which consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

3. Origin


4. Physical Characteristics

A bird is a warm blooded vertebrate which has wings.

5. Properties

Aluminum is a metal which is light, weak, and non-corrosive.

Note: (4) and (5) are closely connected. Be careful not to confuse them.

Exercise 15 : Recognizing Information Types

Directions: Read the following definitions and say to which of the five classes the characteristics of each belong. First underline the characteristic part in each of the definitions.

1. A generator is a machine which produces electricity.__________________

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2. An alkali is a substance which combines with acids to form salts.

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3. Gasoline is a fuel which is obtained from petroleum.__________________

4. An orange is a citrus fruit which is round and orange in color. __________

5. Coal is a substance which consists of carbon and various carbon compounds.

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6. Sedimentary rock is a material which is formed from underwater beds of sand and mud.

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7. Mercury is a liquid metal which has a high co-efficient of expansion.

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8. A snail is a mollusk which has a spiral shell and a large foot. ____________

9. An airport is a place where aero planes arrive and depart.____________

10. Concrete is a material which contains cement, sand, small stones and water.

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Expanded (Extended) Definitions

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An expanded definition is used in scientific writing when a simple, formal definition is not sufficient.

We can often improve a formal definition by adding more than one characteristic. There are many ways to expand a definition. We can include the different types of characteristics we mentioned earlier. In addition, we may also add concrete examples and instances, description of parts of components, basic operating principles, purpose or method of use, cause and effect, location and time, and comparison and contrast.

Look at the following paragraph.

A seismograph is an instrument that amplifies and records small movements of the ground. It consists of a heavy mass suspended from an arm on thin wire. During an earthquake, the base, which is solidly attached to the earth moves as does the arm, but the mass, because of its inertia, is relatively unaffected. As the earth moves, the mass swings. Its movements are recorded on a piece of paper attached to a rotating drum. Records made in this way are called seismograms. They are used to determine the size and location of earthquakes, to hunt for oil, and to study the earth’s crust.

Directions: Answer the following questions concerning an expanded definition of the seismograph.

1. What is the formal definition of seismograph?

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2. Which type of characteristic constitutes the formal definition?

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3. Why was this characteristic chosen for the formal definition?

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4. What other characteristics are described in the expanded definition of the seismograph? Give their types.

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Now look at another sample paragraph.

An aneroid barometer is an instrument that depends on the changing volume of a container to indicate atmospheric pressure. It consists of an airtight box of thin flexible metal from which the air has been partially evacuated. One side of the evacuated box is attached to a spring. When the atmospheric pressure increases, the box tends to collapse. When atmospheric pressure decreases, the sides of the box spring outward. This slight movement is magnified by a series of levers connected to an indicator needle, which shows the atmospheric pressure.

Directions: Answer the following questions concerning an expanded definition of the aneroid barometer.

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1. What is the formal definition of aneroid barometer?

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2. Which type of characteristic constitutes the formal definition?

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3. What other characteristics are described in the expanded definition of the aneroid barometer? Give their types.

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Here we notice that all expanded definitions begin with a formal definition. But the means of expanding will, of course, depend on the subject being defined. The discussion of additional uses is a good way to end the amplified definition.

Therefore, a definition which has more than one characteristic is called an expanded or extended or amplified definition. It begins with a formal definition which states its most important characteristic. This is followed by other characteristics. It is not always necessary or even possible to include all the types of characteristic in one definition. Sometimes it is possible to combine similar or different characteristics into one sentence for the sake of making meaningful complex sentence.

In this section, we will learn how to write an expanded definition from short notes and later write expanded definition from long passages leaving out unnecessary details.

First we will look at the short notes to write an expanded definition.

Directions: Write an expanded definition of water with the information given below. Remember to begin with the formal definition and then write additional

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characteristics. Combine sentences whenever possible using relative clauses.

Term: water

Class word: liquid

Characteristics:

A. use : essential to support life, cleaning, cooking, etc.

B. composition : two atoms of hydrogen + one atom of oxygen

C. physicalcharacteristics: colorless

D. origin : occurs in the atmosphere (water vapor) and

on land (seas, rivers, lakes etc.,)

E. properties : odorlesstastelessboils at 1000 Cfreezes at 00 Cforms a solution with many substances

1. First combine the term and class word to make a simple sentence.

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2. Now choose the most important characteristic that would distinguish the term from the other members of the class and write another simple sentence.

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3. Now combine the above two simple sentences into a complex sentence using an appropriate relative pronoun. This sentence would be the formal definition.

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Directions: Now write your expanded definition of water on the lines below. Your paragraph must be neat. Remember to follow the mechanics of writing: capital letters and full stops. Your paragraph must have a title.

Begin your paragraph with a formal definition.

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Writing Expanded Definitions from a Reading Passage.

When writing expanded definitions from a passage, you must read the passage completely and then locate all the characteristics stated in the passage. It would be a good idea to highlight all the characteristics with a highlighter or underline all the characteristics that you need to write in an expanded definition. The passage might contain so many details that you do not need to include in your expanded definition.

One way to write your expanded definition is to write down all the characteristics that appear in the passage. Remember that you have to write the expanded definition in about 8 – 10 sentences, and it may not be possible to include all the characteristics in your expanded definition. When you write your sentences to combine one or more ideas, all sentences must be grammatically correct. Therefore, use the following guideline on the next page when writing an expanded definition.

Remember that it may not always be possible to include all the characteristics; however, you must choose the most important characteristics. Your paragraph must have a title and that the paragraph must begin with a formal definition.

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Term: ____________________

Class word: _____________________________

Characteristics:

1. Use / Function:

A. ______________________________________________________

B. ______________________________________________________

C. ______________________________________________________

2. Origin:

A. ______________________________________________________

A. ______________________________________________________

3. Composition:

A. ______________________________________________________

B. ______________________________________________________

4. Physical Characteristics:

A. ______________________________________________________

B. ______________________________________________________

C. ______________________________________________________

5. Properties:

A. ______________________________________________________

B. ______________________________________________________

C. ______________________________________________________Exercise 1: Writing Expanded Definition

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Directions: Read the following passage about uranium. Then write an expanded definition of uranium in 6 - 8 sentences. Remember to start with a formal definition in one sentence.

Uranium, symbol U, has existed in the earth for billions of years, but until man tried to make an atomic bomb and use atomic energy, most people did not know it existed. After the discovery of nuclear fission, uranium became a strategic metal, and its uses were at first restricted mainly to the production of nuclear weapons. It is a chemically reactive radioactive metallic element that is the main fuel used in nuclear reactors.

Uranium is a member of the actinide series in the periodic table. The atomic number of uranium is 92. Uranium was discovered in 1789 in pitchblende by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named it after the planet Uranus. It was first isolated in the metallic state in 1841. The radioactive properties of uranium were first demonstrated in 1896.

Uranium melts at about 1132° C, boils at about 3818° C, and has a relative density of 19.05 at 25° C; the atomic weight of the element is 238.029. Uranium has three crystalline forms, of which the one that forms at about 770° C is malleable and ductile. Uranium is soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids, and it is insoluble in alkalis. Uranium displaces hydrogen from mineral acids and from the salt solutions of such metals as mercury, silver, copper, tin, platinum, and gold.

Uranium never occurs naturally in the free state but is found as an oxide or complex salt in minerals such as pitchblende and carnotite. It has an average concentration in the crust of the Earth of about 2 parts per million, and, among the elements, ranks about 48th in natural abundance in crustal rocks. In the classical procedure for extracting uranium, pitchblende is broken up and mixed with sulfuric and nitric acids. Uranium ores are widely distributed throughout the world. Deposits of pitchblende, the richest uranium ore, are found chiefly in Canada, Congo (former Zaïre), and the United States. In

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1990, world production of pure uranium concentrate totaled about 29,100 tons.__________________________________________________________________

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Directions: Read the following passage about platinum. Then write an expanded definition of platinum in 6 - 8 sentences (one paragraph). Remember to start with a formal definition in one sentence.

Platinum is a metal -- but what an amazing metal it is! It is grayish white in colour, and its name comes from the Spanish plata and means "little silver".

Platinum is harder than copper and almost as pliable as gold; that is, it is both malleable and ductile. You could take a single ounce of platinum and stretch it out into a fine wire that would reach across Western Europe from Cologne in Germany to Moscow in Russia. A cube of platinum measuring 30 centimeters each would weigh more than half a ton. Platinum is almost twice as heavy as lead.

Platinum is usually found in ores often mixed with the rare metals palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium, which are called "platinum metals". Occasionally, it is found with metals such as gold, copper, silver, iron, chromium, and nickel. It is found in the form of small grains, scales, or nuggets.

Large deposits of platinum were first discovered in South America in the eighteenth century. For a great many years it was considered quite useless, and so it was cheap. Then, people began to find how useful this metal could be, and since it is quite rare, the price went up to the point where that cube of platinum mentioned above would have been worth over a million dollars. Russia, South Africa, Canada, the U.S. and Colombia are the leading producers of platinum.

What makes platinum useful is that it resists (withstands) oxidation, acids, and heat. Platinum melts at about 17720 C, boils at about 38270 C, and has a relative density of about 21.45. The atomic weight of platinum is 195.09. For most purposes, platinum is mixed (alloyed) with one of the other "platinum metals" or with silver, gold, copper, nickel, or tin.

While the chief use of platinum is for jewelry, it is also used for contact points where electrical circuits are opened or closed, in laboratory weights, in instruments for exact measurement of temperatures, and for fuses in delicate electrical instruments.

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Exercise 3: Writing Expanded Definition

Directions: Read the following passage about gold. Then write an expanded definition of gold in 6 – 8 sentences (one

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paragraph). Remember to start with a formal definition in one sentence.

Gold, symbol Au, is a soft, dense, bright yellow metallic element. It is one of the transition elements of the periodic table and its atomic number is 79. It is mainly used in making jewelry.

Pure gold is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals. It can easily be beaten or hammered into a thickness of 0.000013 cm, and 29 g could be drawn into a wire 100 km long. It is one of the softest metals, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Gold is bright yellow and has a high luster. Gold is extremely inactive. It is unaffected by air, heat, moisture, and most solvents. Gold melts at about 1064° C, boils at about 5086° C, and has a specific gravity of 19.3; its atomic weight is 196.967.

Gold is found in nature in quartz veins and secondary alluvial deposits as a free metal or in a combined state. It is widely distributed although it is rare, being 75th in order of abundance of the elements in the crust of the earth.

The metal has been known and highly valued from earliest times, not only because of its beauty and resistance to corrosion, but also because gold is easier to work than all other metals. In addition, gold was easier to obtain in pure form than the other metals. Because of its relative rarity, gold became used as currency and as a basis for international monetary transactions.

Gold is also used in the form of gold leaf in the arts of gilding and lettering. Purple of Cassius, a precipitate of finely divided gold and stannic hydroxide formed by the interaction of auric chloride and stannous chloride, is used in coloring ruby glass. Chlorauric acid is used in photography for toning silver images. Potassium gold cyanide is used in electro-gilding. Gold is also used in dentistry. Radioisotopes of gold are used in biological research and in the treatment of cancer.

Gold production dates from the Etruscan, Minoan, Assyrian, and Egyptian civilizations, when placer gold was derived from alluvial sands and gravels by simple processes of washing or panning. Gold was produced in this manner at an early period in India, central Asia, the southern Ural Mountains and in the regions bordering the eastern Mediterranean.

By the middle of the 19th century the United States produced a considerable percentage of the world gold production. South Africa is the world's leading supplier of gold, producing about 600 metric tons annually. Some 70 other countries produce gold in commercial quantities, but about 80 percent of the total worldwide production now comes from South Africa, the United States, the former Soviet republics, Australia, Canada, China, and Brazil.__________________________________________________________________

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Now let us look at the reading on pages 75 - 78 of the textbook, English for Science. Try to scan the reading passage in 3 minutes or less to write the answers to questions on page 75. Number the paragraphs before you start reading. There are seven paragraphs in this reading passage.

1. A definition of work.

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_________________________________________________________________.

2. The name of the French chemist who studied chemical changes in 1785.

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3. The meaning of the letter c in the equation E = mc2.

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Now that you have located and written down the answers to the above three questions, let us begin reading the passage carefully and critically.

As you are reading the passage, ask yourself the following reading comprehension questions.

1. What is the passage about?or

What is the main idea?

a. What examples are used to explain a new concept?

2. What are the details?

3. What can be inferred?

4. What conclusions can be drawn?

5. What can this term or word mean?

a. Does this term have a definition given in the passage?

6. What can be done to locate or guess the meaning of a new word?

7. What do the pronouns used in the passage refer to?

These are some of the things you should ask yourself as you are reading.True or False

Exercise:

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A. Based on the information in paragraphs 3 and 4, decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. Write True or False at the left of each number.

_________ 1. Energy can be created but not destroyed.

_________ 2. Matter can be converted from one form to another.

_________ 3. Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.

B. Write definitions of the following.

In order to write a good formal definition, first locate the correct class word from the passage and write a simple sentence combining the term with the class word. Then write another meaningful sentence which contains the specific characteristic about this term.

1. What is fission?

A. _______________________________________________________

B. _______________________________________________________

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_______________________________________________________Now combine the two sentences into one complex sentence.

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____________________________________________________________2. What is fusion?

A. _______________________________________________________

B. _______________________________________________________

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Now combine the two sentences into a complex sentence.

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Chapter: 6 - ExemplifyingEnglish for Science

Now let us look at the reading on pages 90 - 92 of the textbook, English for Science.

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Try to scan the reading passage in 3 minutes or less and put brackets around examples of the following terms. Write down the paragraph number on the lines below. Number the paragraphs before you start reading. There are seven paragraphs in this reading passage.

Keep in mind that examples usually come directly after definitions or general statements.

1. One example of conduction.

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2. One example of convection.

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3. One example of radiation.

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B. Write definitions of the following.

In order to write a good formal definition, first locate the correct class word from the passage and write a simple sentence combining the term with the class word. Then write another meaningful sentence which contains the specific characteristic about this term.

1. What is conduction?

A. _______________________________________________________

B. _______________________________________________________

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Now combine the two sentences into one complex sentence.

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2. What is convection?

A. _______________________________________________________

B. _______________________________________________________

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3. What is radiation?

A. _______________________________________________________

B. _______________________________________________________

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Exercise:

A. Based on the information in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. Write True or False at the left of each number. Do not write T or F or checks or crosses

________ 1. Conduction takes place only when there is a disparity in temperature between two objects.

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________ 2. Heat always flows from a cooler object to a warmer one.

________ 3. Metallic substances are poor insulators.

________ 4. Gases and liquids are bad conductors of heat.

________ 5. Fluids transfer heat by convection.

________ 6. Conducted and convected heat can pass through a vacuum.

________ 7. All objects radiate energy.

Chapter: 2 - ComparingEnglish for Science

Directions: Look at the Short Reading - The Wonder Metals - on page 20 and answer the following questions below.Number the paragraphs. There are 7

paragraphs.

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1. The pronoun “They” in line 2, in paragraph 1, refers to __________.

A. metals C. alchemistsB. the Greeks D. discoveries

2. Write and expanded definition of iron based on the information given in paragraphs 2 and 3.

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True or False:

Based on the information in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. Write True or False at the left of each number. Do not write T or F or checks or crosses

_______ 1. Iron is the most widely used metal.

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_______ 2. Iron is more resistant to corrosion than aluminium.

_______ 3. Both iron and aluminium are soft metals.

_______ 4. Iron and steel are very light in weight.

_______ 5. Aluminium is used for making airplanes, automobiles etc.

Now turn to page 27 in English for Science.

Skim the passage on pages 28 through 30 and answer the two questions on page 28. Number the passage before reading it. There are10 paragraphs.

Now read the passage again and answer the following questions:

______1. The pronouns ‘it’ in lines 2 and line 3, in paragraph 3 refer to _____________.

A. wood E. paintB. gasoline F. ironC. fire G. oxygenD. air H. water

2. What is oxidation? (Write a formal definition.)

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3. What is spontaneous combustion? (Write a formal definition.)

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4. Write an expanded definition of oxygen.

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5. What is nitrogen fixation? (Write a formal definition.)

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True or False

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Based on the information in paragraphs 8, 9 and 10, decide whether each of the

following statements is true or false. Write True or False at the left of each number. Do not write T or F or checks or crosses.

_______ 1. Oxygen is an inactive gas.

_______ 2. Nitrogen compounds are highly unstable.

_______ 3. The sun and stars are made up of hydrogen.

_______ 4. Hydrogen is highly inflammable.

_______ 5. Helium is non-flammable.

_______ 6. There is more nitrogen than oxygen in the air.

_______ 7. Water is made up of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.

_______ 8. Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are necessary for humans to survive.

Directions: Based on the reading passage, write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided at the left of each number.

______1. The passage mainly discusses ______________________.

A. the importance of the three life supporting elementsB. the properties of the most abundant element in the universeC. how nitrogen is used to make explosivesD. how oxygen combines with other elements

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_____ 2. The element responsible for corrosion is _______________.

A. nitrogen C. hydrogenB. oxygen D. helium

_____ 3. According to the passage, which of the following is responsible of maintaining normal body temperature in humans?

A. Oxygen C. HydrogenB. Nitrogen D. Helium

_____ 4. The pronoun “they” in line 7, in paragraph 8, refers to ______.

A. high temperatures C. explosivesB. nitrogen compounds D. catalysts

_____ 5. When a substance is said to be ‘nonflammable’, it __________.

A. catches fire easilyB. does not catch fire at allC. does not combine with other elementsD. has the ability to convert from one element to

another

_____ 6. According to the reading, which of the following is NOT true?

A. Hydrogen is lighter than helium.B. Oxygen is heavier than hydrogen.C. Hydrogen is more abundant than oxygen.D. Helium is heavier than oxygen.

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Documents

Kuwait Universityirpond.org/114/files/defbooklet.doc · Web viewLanguage Center. ELU – Education. English Language Skills. for Students Majoring in Science. Workbook. Defining