Kuliah 2 - UPJocw.upj.ac.id/files/Slide-PSI-104-Pertemuan-II.pdf · Tahap Perkembangan Psikoseksual 1. Fase oral ... Fase Anal (1.5 –3 tahun) ... berkaitan dengan perkembangan berpikir

Theories of child development

Kuliah 2


Perspektif Teori Inti Basic Belief Technique used

Psikoanalisa

Teori Psikoseksual S.F : tl dikontrol dor.tdk sadar

Observasi klinisTeori Psikososial Erikson : keprib

dip’a lingk & krisis dlm hidup



Learning

Behaviour, Teori belajar tradisional

Indv mrpk p’beri respon, lingk yg m’kontrol tl

Prosedur ilmiah dan scientific

Teori Social-Learning

Anak2 bljr mel obsv dan imitasi model



Kognitif

Tahapan kognitif Piaget

Ada 4 p’ub dlm pola pikir anak diantara masa balita-remaja

Wawancaradan observasi

Penelitianlaboratorium



Sosial-Emosional

Erikson : Psikososial

Setiap individumelewatitahap-tahapperkembangansosial-emosional


Key theorists

• Use the buttons below to navigate your way through some of the key theorists in the field of child development.

• For each theorist you are given the key words/terminology associated with their ideas.

Freud Erikson Skinner Bandura Vygotsky Piaget


Arnold Gesell - 1880-1961

Nature Nurture

Gesell Freud Erikson Skinner Bandura Vygotsky Piaget

Key words

Biological maturation; milestones; normative development; cephalo-caudal; proximo-distal; nativist (nature) language development; biological/genetic determinism.

Main points

Development genetically determined by universal “maturation patterns” which occur in a predictable sequence.

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Sigmund Freud - 1857-1959

Key words

Psychodynamic; psychosexual; libido; oral stage; anal stage; phallic stage; latency stage; genital stage; id; ego; super-ego; Electra complex; Oedipal complex; conscious; unconscious; psychoanalysis

Main points

Experiences in early childhood influence later development. Assumes sexual factors are major factors, even in early childhood.

Nature Nurture


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Erik Erikson - 1902-1994

Key words

Psychodynamic; psychosexual; psychosocial; 8 development stages; identity; crises/dilemmas

Main points

Develops beyond Freud’s ideas. More stages (8) and more influence of environmental factors.

Nature Nurture


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B.F.Skinner - 1904-1990

Key words

Operant conditioning; positive/negative reinforcement; consequence; reward; punishment; respondents; operants; social learning theory; behavioural learning theory

Main points

Reinforcement and punishment moulds behaviour. Children are conditioned by their experiences.

Nature Nurture


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Alfred Bandura - 1925-current

Key words

Imitation; copying; modelling; role models; reinforcement; social learning theory; observational theory (social cognitive theory); Bobo doll experiment.

Main points

Learning takes place by imitation. This differs from Skinner’s “conditioning” because there is more emphasis on inner motivational factors.

Nature Nurture


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Lev Vygotsky - 1896-1934

Key words

Zone of proximal development; zone of actual development; social constructivist; social constructivism; social interaction; language; internalisation; play; social context; cognition; constructivism

Main points

Development is primarily driven by language, social context and adult guidance.

Nature Nurture


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Jean Piaget - 1896-1980

Key words

Cognitive learning theory; assimilate; symbolism; accomodate; egocentric; decentre; conservatism; active learners; schemata; sensory-motor; stages; pre-operational; animism; moral realism; concrete operations; formal operations

Main points

Development takes place in distinct stages of cognitive development. Adults influence but the child is building their own thinking systems.

Nature Nurture


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More on Gesell

Gesell’s classic study involved twin girls, both given training for motor skills but one given training for longer than the other. There was no measurable difference in the age at which either child acquired the skills, suggesting that development had happened in a genetically programmed way, irrespective of the training given. A child learns to whether or not an adult teaches him/her, suggesting physical development at least is largely pre-programmed.

By studying thousands of children over many years, Gesell came up with “milestones of development” - stages by which normal children can accomplish different tasks. These are still used today.



More on Freud

Freud’s work was heavily criticised for lack of substantial evidence. He regarded basic sexual instincts as being the driving force behind virtually all behaviour. He regarded the development of personality as being the balance between the Id, the Ego and the SuperEgo. The Id strives for unrealistic gratification of basic desires, the SuperEgo strives for unrealistic moral responsibility and conscience while the Ego acts to compromise these two opposing forces.

There are many unproven aspects to Freud’s work, for example Freud theorised that characteristics like generosity or possessiveness were related to childhood factors like parental attitudes to toilet training.



More on Freud

• Freud percaya bahwa kepribadian terbentuk pada beberapa tahun pertama kehidupan seorang anak

• Titik perkembangan bertolak dari deal yg dilakukan oleh anak u/ mengatasi konflik yg tidak disadari dengan dorongan biologis dan tuntutan dari lingkungan yg ada

Perkembangan Psikoseksual

• Perkemb psikoseksual = kenyamanan/kesenangan berpindah dari satu anggota tubuh ke anggota tubuh yg lain


Tahap Perkembangan Psikoseksual

1. Fase oral (lahir – 1.5 tahun) kesenangan bayi terpusat pada mulut

2. Fase Anal (1.5 – 3 tahun) kesenangan berfokus pada anus

3. Fase Phalik (3 – 6 tahun) kesenangan berfokus pada alat kelamin

4. Fase Laten (6 tahun – pubertas) anak membendung ketertarikan seksual dan mengembangkan keterampilan sosial dan intelektual

5. Fase Genital (setelah pubertas) waktu ketika daya seksual dan kesenangan seksual muncul kembali


More on Freud

• Dari lima tahapan perkembangan, menurut Freud hanya 3 tahap pertma yg sangat crucial.

• Menurut Freud, bila anak-anak menerima terlalu sedikit atau terlalu banyak pemuasan/gratification, maka mereka beresiko mengalami fiksasi= terfokus terus

• Misal: bayi dalam tahap oral, dimana kebutuhannya tdk terpenuhi, setelah dewasa akan mengalami gigit-gigit kuku

• Kebalikannya kalo kebanyakan, jd perokok atau compulsive eater


More on Freud

• Misal lagi : anak2 toddler yg mengalami toilet-training yang keras, maka berkembang menjadi pribadi yg kaku, bersihan, sangat rapi, kaku dengan aturan dan jadual.

• Pada masa phallic = puncak perkembangan psikoseksual = ketertarikan dengan lawan jenis = biasanya OT yg berlainan jenis = Oedipus complex dan Electra complex

• Msg anak2 yg berada dlm tahap ini beranggapan kl OT yg sama jknya sebagai musuh


More on Freud

• Seiring dengan waktu, si anak akan menyelesaikan kecemasannya tsb dgn m’identifikasikan dirinya dgn OT yg sama Jknya.

• Timbul masa tenang = masa laten = middle childhood

• Memasuki masa puber dimana organ2 seksual berkembang = masa genital = kepuasan berasal dari kepuasan seksual.


More on Freud

• Perkembangan kepribadian juga dipengaruhi 3 komponen :

1. Id = desires & motives bawaan, butuh pemuasan yg immediate

2. Ego = menampilkan alasan2 masuk akan = berkaitan dengan perkembangan berpikir = mulai usia 1 tahunan

3. Superego = yg dapat diterima oleh SE = hati nurani = mulai berkembang usia 5-6 thn


More on Erikson

Erikson taught at Harvard and engaged in a variety of clinical work, widening the scope of psychoanalytic theory to take greater account of social, cultural, and other environmental factors. In his most influential work, Childhood and Society (1950), he divided the human life cycle into eight psychosocial stages of development.

Click for image



More on Erikson

• Perkembangan Ego

• Setiap tahap ini selalu ada yang namanya krisis yg harus diselesaikan untuk menuju ke perkembangan ego yang matang atau sesuai dengan usianya.

• Misal : tahap I = bila bayi menangis, tdk lgs diangkat dan frekuensinya sering atau selalu, ia anak mengembangkan mistrust, yi dunia tdk bersahabat dgn, tp kl selalu lgs diangkat, ia akan mengembangakan kepercayaan = tumbuh menjadi anak yang percaya diri.


More on Skinner

Skinner maintained that learning occurred as a result of the organism responding to, or operating on, its environment, and coined the term operant conditioning to describe this phenomenon. He did extensive research with animals, notably rats and pigeons, and invented the famous Skinner box, in which a rat learns to press a lever in order to obtain food.



More on Skinner

• Operant conditioning = individu belajar dari konsekuensi yg ia buat ketika “mengoperasikan” dunia sekitar

• Misal : bayi tidur terlentang, kmd tersenyum, tiba2 si ibu lgs mengajak main dirinya, begitu juga dengan si ayah. Jadi si bayi belajar kl ia tersenyum maka ia akan mendapatkan banyak perhatian dan kasih sayang.

• Mnrt Skinner = indiv akan cend u/ mengulang respons yg direinforcement, dan akan menurunkan respon yg dihukum


More on Skinner

• Reinforcement = penguatan = kalau ada reinforcement ini tl yg ada akan timbul terus-menerus. Contoh yang tadi : senyuman OT

• Punishment = hukuman = Konsekuensi tl yg dapat menurunkan terulangnya kembali tl tsb


More on Skinner

• Misal : berteriak ke anak ketika anaknya nakal, withdrawing positive events

• Reinforcement dan punishmen sangat efektif bila diberikan langsung ketika tl tsb itu muncul

• Kl tdk, akan punah tingkah laku tsb.


More on Bandura

Bandura’s theory known as "Social Learning Theory" has been renamed "Social Cognitive Theory" to accomodate later developments of the theory. Bandura is seen by many as a cognitive psychologist because of his focus on motivational factors and self-regulatory mechanisms that contribute to a person's behavior, rather than just environmental factors. This focus on cognition is what differentiates social cognitive theory from Skinner's purely behavioristic viewpoint.



More on Bandura

• Social learning teori menenkankan bahwa individu adalah aktif, dimana ia belajar sesuatu berdasarkan observasi dan imitasi model.

• Kenapa diberi nama sosial = krn si indv hidup dalam suatu lingkungan sosial, sehingga ia banyak belajar dari lingkungannya tsb. Eksperimen ada tapi tdk spt behaviour.

• Penekanannya pada kognitif, krn menurut Bandura respons yg diberikan indv tdk hanya krn reinforcement/punishmen, tp kognitif bjln.


More on Bandura

• Observational Learning = watching others

• Imitating models = komponen paling penting u/ anak dalam belajar

• Anak2 akan meniru tl yg ia persepsikan sangat valuable pada budayanya

• Misal : if all the teacher’s in Carlo’s school are women, he probably will not copy behavior, which he consider “unmanly”. If he meets a male teacher he likes, he may change his mind about the value of teachers as models.


More on Vygotsky

Lev Vygotski was a Russian psychologist who died prematurely. His most productive years were at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (1924–34), where he developed ideas on cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His writings emphasised the roles of historical, cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society..



More on Vygotsky

• Sociocultural Theory = perkembangan anak dipengaruhi oleh interaksi sosial yg dibuat anak dengan lingkungannya dan ordes

• Anak2 berkembang krn belajar dari lingkungan. Aktivitas2 yg dilakukannya dgn orang lain (baik ordes atau anak2) akan membantu mereka untuk menginternalisasi’k bgmn lingk sosial tsb berpikir dan b’tl yg nantinya dpt dijadian acuan p’bentukan tl mrk sendiri.


More on Vygotsky

• Misal :belajar memakai baju/kemeja sendiri. Anak2 balita membutuhkan ordes untuk terus-menerus membimbing dirinya agar dpt bisa memakai bajunya sendiri. Dalam proses bimbingan itu, si anak akan belajar bhw di kemeja itu ada kancing yg hrs dimasukan di lubang kacing, dll.

• Zone of proximal development (ZPD) = gab antara ideal dan normal


More on Vygotsky

• Contoh : si anak baru dapat memasukkan kancing dgn bantuan ordes (normal tp blm optimal) tapi bila dibimbing terus-menerus ia bisa melakukan sendiri tanpa ordes lagi (optimal).


BRONFENBRENNER

– Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory – consists of 4 environmental systems…

• microsystem: the setting in which the individual lives

• mesosystem: relations of microsystems or connections between contexts (e.g., relation of family exp to school experiences)

• exosystem: experiences in a setting where the individual does not have an active role

• macrosystem: involves the culture in which the individual lives– values, beliefs, customs…


More on Piaget

Jean Piaget is known for his research in developmental psychology. He studied under C. G. Jung and Eugen Bleuler. He was involved in the administration of intelligence tests to children and became interested in the types of mistakes children of various ages were likely to make. Piaget began to study the reasoning processes of children at various ages. Piaget theorized that cognitive development proceeds in four genetically determined stages that always follow the same sequential order.



More on Piaget

• Ia melihat bahwa perkembangan kognitif anak terjadi karena merupakan suatu usaha anak untuk dapat memahami dunia sekitarnya.

• Piaget percaya bahwa kemamp kognitif itu nature, dan berkembang dalan suatu rangkaian/tahapan yg sifatnya kualitatif.

• Pada setiap tahapan, pikiran beropersi dgn cara yang berbeda dan lebih matang.

• Peningkatan yg gradual ini melibatkan 3 prinsip yang saling berkaitan


More on Piaget

1. Prinsip Organisasi = integrasi dari pengetahuan yg ada sec terstruktur agar memberi arti. Misal : kalau mengajarkan anak balita, hrs terorganisasi, misal hijau, merah, kuning, itu adalah macam2 warna = organisasi

2. Prinsip Adaptasi = penyesuaian info yg lama dengan info yg baru didapat anak. Ada 2, yi:

a. Asimilasi = usaha u/ memasukan info baru ke dalam struktur kognitif yg ada


More on Piaget

Misal : belajar minum dgn training cup

pengetahuan menghisap ASI digunakan untuk menghisap/minum dari cup. Co/ lain : skema mobil = truk, bajaj tetap disebut mobil

b. Akomodasi = perubahan yg terjadi pada struktur kognitif u/ menghadapi info baru yang diterima. Misal : Belajar bahwa menghisap dari cup berbeda dari ASI sehingga perlu mengkoordinir gerakan bibir/lidah (skema lama) u/ bisa minum dari cup (skema baru)


More on Piaget

3. Prinsip Equilibrasi = kecenderungan untuk mencapai keseimbangan mental antara ind

dgn dunia luar. Adaptasi & akomodasi memperbolehkan anak untuk mencapai keseimbangan dan perkembangan kognitif.

Documents

Kuliah 2 - UPJocw.upj.ac.id/files/Slide-PSI-104-Pertemuan-II.pdf · Tahap Perkembangan Psikoseksual 1. Fase oral ... Fase Anal (1.5 –3 tahun) ... berkaitan dengan perkembangan berpikir