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CONTENT AND QUIZ TEAM, ENERGY BOOTCAMP
INDIAN YOUTH NUCLEAR SOCIETY
KNOWLEDGE BOOKLET ENERGY BOOTCAMP 2020
1 ©Indian Youth Nuclear Society (IYNS)
www.iyns.in
KNOWLEDGE BOOKLET
FOR
ENERGY BOOTCAMP 2020
Indian Youth Nuclear Society (IYNS)
www.iyns.in
2 ©Indian Youth Nuclear Society (IYNS)
www.iyns.in
Contents
Chapter 1 ...................................................................................................... 5
STORY OF HOW NUCLEAR SCIENCE REVEALED THE SECRETS OF NATURE ............ 5
1.1 What is the scientific Method? ................................................................. 6
1.2 What is scientific temper and why is it a Fundamental Duty? ....................... 7
1.2.1 From falsehood to truth (असतो मा सद्गमय) .............................................. 7
1.2.2. From darkness to light (तमसो मा ज्योततर्गमय) ........................................... 8
1.2.3 From Death to Immortality (मृत्योमाग अमृतं र्मय)........................................ 8
1.3 Fundamental Physical Dimensions ............................................................ 9
1.3.1 Welcome to the Space-Time ............................................................ 10
1.3.2 Mass, Temperature and ATOM DANCE! ............................................. 12
1.3.3 A map of Multidimensions to explore and understand nature ............... 14
1.4 The pre-atomic era of classical science ................................................... 16
1.4.1 Gravity, Potential & Kinetic Energy, and Rocket Science ...................... 16
1.4.2 Conservation of energy and momentum ............................................ 17
1.4.3 What's inside the atom? The puzzle that troubled everyone! ................ 18
1.4.4 The pieces of puzzles solved by the chemists ..................................... 21
1.5 Breaking the unbreakable atom, beginning of modern science ................... 26
1.5.1 Discovery of electrons: Atom is broken! ............................................ 26
1.5.2 More ways to knock off electrons: X – Rays! ...................................... 27
1.5.3 Discovery of Radioactivity: Mystery of matter solved! ......................... 28
1.5.4 It’s almost empty inside too! Rutherford’s experiment ........................ 29
1.5.5 The age of Nuclear Science and Radioactivity ..................................... 30
1.5.6 The atomic spectra: Unique signature of every atom! ......................... 32
1.5.7 Final piece of puzzle: Neutrons (Isotopes and Radioisotopes) ............... 32
1.6 Harnessing the Nuclear Energy: Fission and Fusion .................................. 34
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................... 38
NUCLEAR ENERGY ........................................................................................ 38
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 38
2.2 Is Nuclear Energy Renewable? ............................................................... 42
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2.3 Nuclear Power Plant- Descriptions of Process ........................................... 43
2.4 Pro and Cons of Nuclear Energy ............................................................. 46
2.5 Nuclear Energy Overview Around the World ............................................ 48
2.6 India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme ....................................... 49
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................... 54
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS .......................................................... 54
3.1 Medical Applications ............................................................................. 57
3.1.1 Diagnostics .................................................................................... 57
3.1.2 Diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals ...................................................... 59
3.1.3 Nuclear medicine therapy ................................................................ 61
3.1.4 Sterilisation ................................................................................... 63
3.2 Archaeological Applications ................................................................... 64
3.3 Applications in Consumer Products ......................................................... 65
3.4 Food Irradiation ................................................................................... 67
3.5 Sterile Insect Technique ....................................................................... 70
3.6 Plant mutation breeding ....................................................................... 72
3.7 Radiotracing Applications: ..................................................................... 73
3.7.1 Fertilisers ...................................................................................... 74
3.7.2 Industrial Tracers ........................................................................... 74
3.7.3 Environmental tracers ..................................................................... 75
3.7.4 Water resources ............................................................................. 75
3.7.5 Inspection and instrumentation ........................................................ 75
3.8 Desalination: ....................................................................................... 76
3.9 Transport ............................................................................................ 76
3.9.1 Nuclear-powered ships .................................................................... 76
3.9.2 Nuclear applications for space exploration ......................................... 77
3.9.3 Hydrogen, electricity and transportation ............................................ 79
Chapter-4 ................................................................................................... 81
NUCLEAR4CLIMATE AND FUTURE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY .................................... 81
4. Introduction ..................................................................................... 81
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4.1. Greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases .......................................... 82
4.1.1. How it occurs .............................................................................. 83
4.1.2. Why the name Greenhouse gases .................................................. 84
4.1.3. More about greenhouse gases ....................................................... 85
4.2. Global Warming and climate change ................................................. 88
4.2.1. After Effects................................................................................ 89
4.3. Nuclear energy is the part of the solution .......................................... 91
4.3.1. Challenges for nuclear industry expansion ...................................... 94
4.3.1.1. Public acceptance ..................................................................... 95
4.3.1.2. Initial capital investment ........................................................... 95
4.3.1.3. Waste management .................................................................. 95
4.3.1.4. Proliferation concerns ................................................................ 96
4.3.1.5. Sabotages and nuclear security .................................................. 96
4.3.1.6. Knowledge economy ................................................................. 96
4.3.2. Possible solutions ........................................................................ 96
4.3.2.1. Public acceptance ..................................................................... 97
4.3.2.2. Initial capital investment ......................................................... 100
4.3.2.3. Waste management ................................................................ 101
4.3.2.4. Proliferation concerns .............................................................. 102
4.3.2.5. Sabotages and nuclear security ................................................ 102
4.3.2.6. Knowledge economy ............................................................... 103
4.4. Closure ....................................................................................... 103
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Chapter 1
STORY OF HOW NUCLEAR SCIENCE REVEALED THE SECRETS OF NATURE
A narration by:
Nikhilesh Iyer, Scientific Officer – E
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai
(Founder: www.asanvigyan.in )
For any doubts in this chapter, please mail to [email protected]
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1.1 What is the scientific Method?
Every baby knows scientific method! Method of science can be summarized as
rational and empirical inquiry where actual observations are made and ideas
are tested until proven to be true and then tested again to see if it they are
true or not. What does that mean?
Figure 1.1: Scientific method as demonstrated by a baby
It means we do experiments, observe and understand nature and then build
theories and concepts to explain what is going on. No theory or concept is
beyond questioning! The proof of a theory must be given by those who
propose the theory.
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If new evidence proves that a theory is wrong, then the theory must change
or become more refined. You cannot hold on to a theory simply because your
ancestors believed in it. There are no holy books in science and none of the
question is a blasphemy. The experiments and theories of how the world is,
how we know and can live a better life is shared among all the population,
who are encouraged to question and challenge the theory.
So, if someone challenges your theory, be happy! You are getting recognized!
That is how science progresses! Fueled with curiosity, empowered by
fearlessly questioning, and disciplined by scientific method, we keep moving
on towards deeper truth.
In science it often happens that scientists say, "You know that's a really good
argument; my position is mistaken."- Carl Sagan
1.2 What is scientific temper and why is it a Fundamental Duty?
The Indian Constitution considers Article 51 a(h) Promotion of Scientific
Temper, Humanism, Spirit of Inquiry and Reform as one of the Fundamental
Duties. Why is Scientific Temper so important that it is considered a
fundamental duty? Scientific temper is simply the application of scientific
method in all aspects of life, be it natural, social and moral. By applying
scientific method, we have progressed...
1.2.1 From falsehood to truth (अअअअ अअ अअअअअअ)
When Galileo saw the moon and Saturn using the telescope and saw how they
are just pieces of rocks; it simply shattered the concepts of heaven above the
sky. Progress in astronomy and our understanding of that stars are huge
nuclear fusion reactors, dispelled the myths of astrology that their positions
will affect our life and marriage! When theory of evolution, natural selection,
genetics and our common ancestry of all living forms was discovered, it shook
the foundations of many socially unjust practices like slavery, racism, caste
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system, gender discrimination and religious or ideological fundamentalism, in
which some humans were believed to be way far more superior than the other.
Scientific temper emboldens people to fight for social justice and invokes
humanism. If it does not make you question, its’ not scientific temper! Science
without scientific temper is like a lion performing in circus; powerful, but still
a puppet to the whims of his master.
1.2.2. From darkness to light (अअअअ अअ अअअअअअअअअअअ)
Early humans used to think that those who behaved abnormally were
possessed by spirits of the dead. They were isolated or badly mistreated for
no fault of theirs. When psychology and neuroscience came in, we now treat
them humanely and the taboo surrounding mental health and psychiatry is
being erased. Many diseases were assumed to be caused by evil action and
hence to please the higher powers, one had to make human or animal
sacrifice. "Miracle healers" used to fool people into telling that they have a
cure. Today, thanks to science we know that many diseases are caused by
micro-organisms which were simply invisible to us before the invention of
microscope. Even in the current COVID pandemic, it is science which is saving
us. In short, we can say today, "May Science Bless You!"
1.2.3 From Death to Immortality (अअअअअअअअअअ अअअअअ गमय)
Just 150 years ago, the average life span on the earth was not more than 40
years. A pandemic like COVID would come and wipe out half the world
population. Infant mortality was about 50 %, one in two babies died at birth
itself. Germ theory of Louis Pasteur and scientific revolution due to
radioactivity changed all that and now average life span is more than 60 years!
Nuclear medicines now can even cancer cells in a targeted way! Don't be
surprised if the future generation finds way to live beyond 100 years to go for
long space voyage or colonize Moon and Mars! Earlier humans believed in a
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separate soul that resides in body which either goes through cycles of
death/rebirth, that goes to heaven or hell! Chemical evolution shows that life
is a bio-chemical process. Neuroscience shows how consciousness emerges
inside the brain itself. We are all complex carbon-based bio-chemical life-
forms, really lucky to have this one and only wonderful human life so we must
respect and value it!
Figure 1.2 UN Population division data on average life of humans over the last
century, the role of germ theory and radioactivity
With this brief background, let us dive into what we have learnt so far in
science. We will then see how nuclear science and technology played the
pivotal role in scientific progress of humanity.
1.3 Fundamental Physical Dimensions
Lets’ start our journey from the very basics of science, measurement of
natural physical quantities and then go ahead to the main story.
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1.3.1 Welcome to the Space-Time
Imagine you are in space, empty and dark; in that can you make the smallest
mark? Right! Its’ a dot! Dot stands for 0 dimension, like pointing a location in
a map. Number of dots can be counted as dimensionless numbers.
But if add the dots like beads of pearls in a straight long thread, then dot, dot,
dots form a line! Line which is 1 dimensional measure of length (L) in space.
Length is used to measure distance between two points.
Imagine your school's assembly, where line by line, all students stand, and
they cover a huge area of land! You will cover an entire area which is in 2-
Dimensions of length (L x L = L2). Imagine how a 1-D string of thread can be
sewn to make a 2-D piece of cloth.
Now if we stack up one piece of 2-D cloth over the other and keep doing so,
we can fill up the room and cover the entire volume! Volume measures 3-D
space occupied, and has physical dimension of L x L x L = L3.
For more on this visit here.
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Figure 1.3 Zero, one, two and three dimensions of space
Ok, now we have the empty 3-D space. Is there any other dimension which
we cannot measure using spatial dimensions? Suppose we all meet at a
location, what else one needs to mention apart from location? Yes, we need
to also mention the Time! It is considered as a separate dimension (T).
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Together we call it Space-Time! We all exist in Space-Time. Can you tell what
are the standard units (SI Units) to measure length (L) and time (T)?
1.3.2 Mass, Temperature and ATOM DANCE!
So, in how many ways can we fill up this empty space-time? Whatever that
we can touch, and feel are made of up something. It has one more physical
dimension to it apart from occupying space-time, and that is known as MASS.
It feels heavy! Anything that occupies space and has mass is hence
known as Matter. Matter exists in millions of different forms that there is an
entire field of material science that deals with it. By defining Mass as a
measure of matter, we have only opened a pandora's box! What is matter
made up of? The atomic theory of matter which states that all matter is made
up of smaller units of matter, called the atoms, has been evolving for more
than 2000 years in Greece (Democritus) and India (Charvaka and Kanad)!
Richard Feynman, a Nobel prize winning scientist once claimed that: “If, in
some cataclysm (Disaster), all of scientific knowledge were to be
destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations
of creatures, what statement would contain the most information in
the fewest words? I believe it is the atomic hypothesis (or the atomic
fact, or whatever you wish to call it) that all things are made of
atoms—little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but
repelling upon being squeezed into one another. In that one sentence,
you will see, there is an enormous amount of information about the
world, if just a little imagination and thinking are applied.”
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It will not take long to notice that matter surrounding us are in different states,
that is solids, liquids, and gases; and this can be explained by the atomic
theory!
We can also see that the properties of matter can be changed by changing
certain other physical dimension called Temperature. Atoms in real world are
always in motion; it can move, vibrate, or rotate. All that movement of the
molecule can be related to the term temperature, which can tell how much
“thermal energy” is there in the atoms. Let us take an example and learn what
is going on by doing ATOM DANCE! Imagine temperature to be like a drum
beat and all the dancers to be atoms. When the drumbeats are slow, atoms
are together holding each other just one arm apart, like soldiers doing a
march, the state of matter is then solid. If we increase the beats, then dancers
have enough "Thermal Energy" to break away from rigid formation and dance
freely as if in a wedding or disco floor! You can also imagine how crowds of
people "flow" in and out of busy metro station. This is similar to how atoms
are in liquid state. Now if we increase the beats further, then all bonds break
loose and the dancers have so much energy that they fly around and occupy
the entire available space, bumping into each other occasionally. This is similar
to how atoms behave in the gaseous state. Try this Atom Dance out with your
classmates! For more about atom dance click here.
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Figure 1.4 How atoms dance from solid, liquid to gas with increase in temperature
So far, we have just introduced the physical dimensions Mass (M), Length (L)
and Time (T), and just touched upon Temperature. Now let us see how many
different dimensions we can measure using just mass, length and time which
gives us more insight into the nature of reality.
1.3.3 A map of Multidimensions to explore and understand nature
With Mass, Length and Time as fundamental units (MLT), we can get many
"Derived Units". We have already derived 2 more units, Area and Volume using
just Length. Similarly, there are more such units which can help us measure
different aspects of our world in a more meaningful way. Follow the map in
Figure 1.5 to derive the multiple dimensions using just M, L and T. For more
on the map of multidimensions, click here.
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Figure 1.5 Map of Multidimensions to understand the natural world
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Carefully see how each and every derived unit in boxes are connected with
fundamental units (M L T). Nonetheless, each one of them reveal an aspect of
the world in their own unique way! Try to find out the SI standard units of all
of them. Our primary focus will be on three very important dimensions in the
map, FORCE, ENERGY and POWER!
1.4 The pre-atomic era of classical science
In this part we will see what all discoveries were made before we could get a
glimpse into the world inside atoms. Understand that these discoveries too
played a big role in shaping the civilization and preparing the ground for the
modern science.
1.4.1 Gravity, Potential & Kinetic Energy, and Rocket Science
Why apple falls down? Why moon revolves around the earth and earth around
the sun? Definitive answers for these questions were given by Isaac Newton
in 1650s, who came up with the law of gravitation. Any massive object attracts
other massive object due to gravitational force as per the equation given
below.
Figure 1.6 Newton’s law of Gravitation equation
Newton also came up with the laws of motion to explain how earth accelerates
objects towards it and the value of acceleration (g) is 9.8 m/s2. So, the net
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gravitational force on an object of mass 'm' is equal to 'mass' x 'acceleration'
(F = mg). Work is simply force multiplied by distance (s) moved in the
direction of force (W = Fs). Now if we must lift this from the ground, we need
do some "Work" on it. But for doing that work, we need "Energy". While lifting
an object up to height (h) we are transferring energy into that body; "Potential
Energy" (PE = m g h). Work and energy have same unit, Joules, named after
James Prescott Joule. Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object
due to its position or configuration. An example of potential energy due to
configuration is a compressed spring. Now what happens when the object
lifted at height 'h' is made to fall? The earth pulls it down, so as it falls height
decreases but at the same time its velocity increases. A form of energy is
defined which an object has due to its velocity and that is known as "Kinetic
Energy". (KE = 0.5 mv2).
1.4.2 Conservation of energy and momentum
Scientists then understood the relationship between different forms of energy
and formulated the law of conservation of energy which says that energy
can change from one form to another, but the total energy remains the same!
Hydroelectric plant converts kinetic energy of water falling from height held in
a dam, into electrical energy. For a rocket to escape earth, it must overcome
the gravitational potential energy by gaining kinetic energy during launch, and
it needs to attain "escape velocity". That is rocket science!
Another important law was conservation of momentum as a vector quantity
that has both magnitude and direction. If you have a ball of mass 'm' and you
want it to slow it by colliding it with another stationary ball, what should be
the mass of the other ball so that our first ball stops or slows down? From
conservation of momentum one can derive that between balss with identical
mass there is maximum transfer of momentum, and so the 1st ball will stop
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immediately. This law is also applied to “moderate” the speed of neutrons,
that is to slow down neutrons using water having hydrogen atoms, which are
identical to neutrons, in a nuclear reactor! More on that you will learn in
upcoming modules. After being launched, satellites need some form of energy
to travel deep into space and to keep running the electronic circuits of the
instruments. Did you know that NASA's Voyager – 2, the spacecraft that is
now at the edge of our solar system is powered by a Radioactive Isotope of
Plutonium-238? Look up in the web to know what is RTG and why we need
nuclear technology for space!
1.4.3 What's inside the atom? The puzzle that troubled everyone!
It was soon obvious for scientists that simply seeing matter as collection of
atoms is not going to solve all the problems and leaves a lot unexplained.
Gravity explains the motion of planets and stars, or raindrops falling from the
sky but how can we explain lighting and thunder?
Light and sound: Although lighting travels faster than thunder, sound was
easier to explain as vibrations of atoms travelling through matter. So sound
energy is a form of propagating mechanical or pressure wave.
Light was again seen as a separate wave phenomenon similar to sound and
assumed that there should be a medium for it too to propagate.
Beyond what is visible, Infra-red rays were discovered when invisible portion
near the spectrum caused increase in temperature! Ultra-Violet rays were
discovered in sunlight that caused darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more
quickly than violet light itself!
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Figure 1.7 Sound and light as waves
Charge, electricity, and magnetism (Electromagnetism): Physicists
found that many phenomena depended on another fundamental property
called charge! They labelled it positive (+) and negative (-). Unlike mass which
can only attract, like charges repelled each other and unlike charges attracted
each other. A new derived unit, Voltage was defined which causes electric
current to flow and hence is another source of electrical potential energy, just
as height difference that makes water fall down is a source of gravitational
potential energy. Magnets too were explained as having north and south pole,
where like poles repelled and unlike poles attracted. When a current carrying
wire was seen to deflect the needle of a compass as demonstrated by Oersted,
electricity and magnetism got married forever and this force was named
electromagnetism!
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Figure 1.8 The behavior of charges and how moving charges cause magnetic field
Micheal Faraday, who began his journey from a poor family with no formal
education, to work as lab assistant, later became the first scientist to
demonstrate conversion of electrical energy to kinetic energy! We can’t
imagine a world today without motors and generators! He also demonstrated
that light is also a form of electromagnetic radiation. James Maxwell explained
the experiments of Faraday by formulating the laws of electromagnetism. So,
all you needed to generate electricity now was to rotate a turbine shaft which
is attached to a copper winding inside a magnetic field. Shaft can be rotated
by kinetic energy of flowing water, hot steam or wind! The source of heat to
generate steam today can be via nuclear energy but during that time highly
polluting coal and other fossil fuels were the only option available! In 1840s,
the possibility to generate a voltage using light (Photovoltaic Effect) was also
discovered, that lead to the current state solar panels!
Figure 1.9 Micheal Faraday; motor schematic and light as electromagnetic wave
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All this explained about what happens, but not fully about what exactly is an
atom made up of and why all of these things happened in the first place! Now
let’s see what the chemists were up to.
1.4.4 The pieces of puzzles solved by the chemists
For a very long time in history chemists were not able to figure out exactly
what is matter made up of. Matter divided into metals, non-metals and semi-
metals based on their physical, chemical and electrical properties. Once
atomic theory got established and people could isolate material containing
only one kind of atoms, Matter was then better classified as elements and
compounds. Elements have same kind of atoms, whereas compounds have a
combination of different atoms in a specific proportion, as proposed by John
Dalton. They defined a new unit, Mol to relate mass of substances in grams to
atomic mass and hence we able to count atoms without seeing them! Just like
1 dozen is 12, 1 mol is 602200000000000000000000 (6.022 x 1023)
number of entities, be it atoms, or molecules, also known as the Avagadro's
number. Most substances in nature are mixtures, with elements and
compounds mixed up either uniformly (homogenous) or non-uniformly
(heterogenous). Chemists became experts at separating them by applying
thermal energy or by doing specific chemical reactions. For substances that
could be dissolved in water, they divided them as acids, bases or neutral salts
based on their chemical properties, color change and sometimes even taste!
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Figure 1.10 Atoms, elements and compounds; acid, bases and neutral salt
Heat and Ideal Gas Law: The role of heat in causing physical changes like
making water boil or chemical changes like cooking of food got attention from
physicists and chemists alike. The whole field of thermodynamics
(temperature and movement) and energetics developed as a result which is
the backbone of all energy theories even today! The history of
thermodynamics as a scientific discipline began with Otto von Guericke who,
in 1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated
the power of vacuum using Magdeburg hemispheres, which even 16 horses
could not separate the hemispheres due to atmospheric pressure! Guericke
was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held
supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Science thus progresses only when
authorities are challenged, else we will be stuck in their level of understanding.
Shortly after Guericke, the Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had
learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English
scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke
noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time,
Boyle's Law was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are
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inversely proportional. This later lead to the development of "Ideal Gas Law"
which relates pressure (P), temperature (T), volume(V) and number of gas
molecules(n) together. (P V= nRT; R was Boltzmann's constant). Better
conversion of heat energy to mechanical energy was done in a steam engine
by James Watt.
We can understand the working of a pressure cooker using ideal gas law. In a
pressure cooker, the volume and number of molecules are constant. We give
it heat then temperature will increase. Atoms inside the cooker will gain kinetic
energy and start bumping into the walls of the container to increase the
pressure. So as long as the pressure is not released, the temperature will be
high. But even today it is still a very common practice to let 3 whistles go off
to cook rice or dal. But all the whistles are just waste of pressure, temperature
and heat energy! So ideal cooking method based on ideal gas law is Zero
Whistle cooking method, as given here.
Figure 1.11 Learn the Zero-Whistle method of pressure cooking to save energy
Chemical Thermodynamics: These developments soon moved into the field
of chemistry as well to understand how much heat released in chemical
reactions (exothermic reactions release heat) and why some reactions absorb
heat from the surrounding (endo-thermic). Then different substances were
classified according to their heat capacity as will, that is how much heat energy
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it needs to increase the temperature of that substance by 1 degree, this
opened up the branch of calorimetry. Now can you see what are calories that
is mentioned in every food? It is the amount of heat that will be generated
when the food is digested completely.
Figure 1.12 Exothermic, endothermic reactions and a calorimeter
In 1865, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, in his Mechanical Theory of
Heat, suggested that thermodynamics could be applied to the chemical
reactions too. Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most
famous one being the paper On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.
In these papers, Gibbs showed how the first two laws of thermodynamics could
be measured graphically and mathematically to determine both the
thermodynamic equilibrium of chemical reactions as well as their tendencies
to occur or proceed. Now concepts like entropy which is related to the degree
of randomness in the system and free energy which clearly showed whether
a chemical reaction will go forward or backward.
So Chemical Potential Energy was also now understood, that when there is a
net negative free energy change, the reaction is spontaneous, similar to how
water will naturally fall from a height. The extension of the same concepts in
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flow of current in aqueous solutions led to the field of electrochemistry and
definition of electrochemical series and later invention of batteries.
Concept of Valency: As more and more elements and metals were extracted
to pure form by applying these principles, they were named and classified
based on their atomic mass and chemical behavior, how many bonds they
make to combine. This “combining power” was afterwards called
quantivalence or valency. In 1857, August Kekule proposed fixed valences for
many elements, such as 4 for carbon, and used them to propose structural
formulas for many organic molecules, which are still accepted today! The
classification made by Mendeleev could explain what happens chemically but
not why. They very well knew that oxygen makes 2 bonds, carbon makes 4,
nitrogen makes 3 and sodium and chlorine make 1, but exactly why? No one
had clear answer.
Figure 1.13 Mendeleev and his periodic table of elements
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1.5 Breaking the unbreakable atom, beginning of modern science
So far whatever we learnt was all before the time when the inner structure of
atoms was known. All the theories were based on prediction of experimental
observations and not direct observation. Fasten your seatbelts as now the
journey is going to speed up as the atom gets opened up and you will see how
radioactivity and nuclear technology played the prime role in it!
1.5.1 Discovery of electrons: Atom is broken!
One of the biggest breakthroughs of science was the discovery of electrons by
J J Thomson. He created an empty vacuum chamber by pumping out the gas
and sealed the glass tube. Then a very high voltage is applied between them
that led to the release of rays of particles that deflected towards the positive
side of the plate, and hence named as cathode rays. In 1897, Thomson
showed that cathode rays were composed of previously unknown negatively
charged particles (now called electrons), which he calculated must have
bodies much smaller than atoms and a large charge-to-mass ratio. This
prompted Thomson to propose Plum Pudding Model of atom in which negative
charged particles named electrons were assumed to be embedded onto the
positively charged atom.
Figure 1.14 J J Thomson and the plum pudding model of atom
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Remember the old bulky TVs and monitors? They used to work on the same
principle as cathode ray tubes (CRTs).
Figure 1.15 Cathode ray tube and its application in earlier television and monitors
In a CRT, a potential difference between anode and cathode is used to knock
electrons off. But are there more ways to do it?
1.5.2 More ways to knock off electrons: X – Rays!
One another super interesting thing seen by German scientist Roentgen in the
cathode ray tube during that time was emission of an unknown
electromagnetic radiation (X-Ray), which were invisible but extremely high
energy that it could penetrate thin covers and react with the photographic
films to bring a chemical color change! Wilhem Röntgen discovered the
medical use when he took a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate
formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first
photograph of a human body part using X-rays. Sensationalist reactions to the
new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to paranormal
theories, such as telepathy, which were later realized to be nonsensical. It is
very common for crooks nowadays to use new pseudo-scientific terms like
"Quantum Consciousness" to make you believe in their unfounded theories
and claims to miracles. Like a cool-headed scientist, simply sit back and ask
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for proof! UV and X-Rays were also used to knock electrons off metals and
classify them based on their ease to remove them by Einstein who termed it
as photo-electric effect. It later led to the understanding of the particle nature
of light and the term "photon" whose energy was quantized and related to its
frequency by Planck’s constant (E = h. Now X-Ray Diffraction is used to
understand even crystal structure of materials and even the structure of DNA
and biomolecules!
Figure 1.16 Roentgen, his wife’s hand with wedding ring (first X-Ray image)
1.5.3 Discovery of Radioactivity: Mystery of matter solved!
In 1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered something even stranger
than X-Rays while working with phosphorescent "glow in the dark" materials.
He assumed that if they were energized by X-Rays, then the rays emitted from
these materials could penetrate the black paper and blacken the photographic
film. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various
compounds on it. All results were negative until he used uranium salts. The
uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being
wrapped in black paper, even without hitting them with X-Rays! It became
clear from these experiments that there was a form of invisible radiation that
could pass through paper and was causing the plate to react as if exposed to
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light. At first, it seemed as though the new radiation was similar to the then
recently discovered X-rays, but they were significantly more complicated. It
was also observed that unlike the electrons, these rays deflected in the
opposite direction in an electric field towards negative plate so they had a
positive charge and they were very massive also compared to electron, in fact
their mass was equal to helium atom. They were named as alpha-rays.
1.5.4 It’s almost empty inside too! Rutherford’s experiment
Rutherford was the first to use it to see if the atomic model can be better
understood by it. One of the most famous experiments that completely
changed the understanding of the world we live in was carried out by Geiger
and Marsden, Rutherford's students. They made the new found positively
charged rays pass through an ultra-thin gold foil to see how they behave. And
the results were nothing more than a complete shock!
Figure 1.18 Penetration of -radiation into gold foil and resulting atomic model
- Most of the alpha rays could simply penetrate the very thin gold foil without
any deflection, as if the foil did not even exist!
- Some of them got deflected in small angle, indicating that there is some
positive charge in the gold foil which is repelling the positive alpha rays.
- Very few of them, got reflected straight back! As if a ball hit a mirror!
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But taking all the three observations together, the only conclusion was that
atoms are not as per what his teacher and senior scientist J J Thomson
proposed! Only way to explain it was to consider a model where there is very
concentrated positive charge in the center and rest of the atom is mostly
empty with electrons surrounding the central positive charge, the protons!
Number of electrons should be equal to number of protons in the center to
maintain electrical neutrality.
The size of the central positive charge compared to size of the whole atom
where the electrons are spread out is similar in comparison to size of a cricket
ball and the entire cricket stadium, with outer electrons running in the
audience gallery! For more than 3000 years, solid matter and atoms were
considered to be dense with solid! One penetration of alpha-rays changed all
that and we realize that even we are also mostly empty space!
1.5.5 The age of Nuclear Science and Radioactivity
Discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel in uranium, this new phenomenon was
later observed by Marie and Pierre Curie in thorium and in the new elements'
polonium and radium. They coined the term as radioactivity. In 1899,
Rutherford separated radioactive emissions into two types: alpha and beta
(now beta minus), based on penetration of objects and ability to cause
ionization. Today these theories are applied in radiation shielding and making
nuclear technology super-safe. These nuclear radiations, along with UV and
X-Rays can knock electrons off (ionizing) an atom. On the other hand, radio-
wave and mobile signals are non-ionizing and hence harmless!
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Figure 1.19 Radiation shielding and the pioneers Curie Couples
Alpha rays could be stopped by thin sheets of paper, whereas beta rays could
penetrate several millimeters of aluminium. In 1900, Paul Villard identified a
still more penetrating type of radiation which required lead shielding, which
Rutherford identified as a fundamentally new type in 1903 and termed gamma
rays. Alpha, beta, and gamma are the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.
In 1900, Becquerel measured the mass-to-charge ratio (m/e) for beta
particles and found that m/e for a beta particle is the same as that of electron,
and therefore suggested that the beta particle is in fact an electron. A
systematic search for the total radioactivity in uranium ores also guided Pierre
and Marie Curie to isolate two new elements: polonium and radium. Except
for the radioactivity of radium, the chemical similarity of radium to barium
made these two elements difficult to distinguish. Marie and Pierre Curie's study
of radioactivity is an important factor in science and medicine. Their
exploration of radium was the first peaceful use of nuclear energy and the
start of modern nuclear medicine. Nuclear medicine now is a very huge field
where radioactive elements are used to detect many diseases and treat
cancer. These radiations in many fields like agriculture, carbon-dating,
biochemistry, astronomy, medical sterilization and many more. Learn about
them in the upcoming modules in detail!
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1.5.6 The atomic spectra: Unique signature of every atom!
Rutherford's atomic model however could not explain certain phenomena that
is why every element has its own characteristic spectrum.
Neil's Bohr proposed that light of certain energy related to its frequency (color)
is emitted when electrons jump down from higher energy orbit to lower energy
orbit and the same gets absorbed when it is made to jump up! Later quantum
theory came in and showed how we can better understand it using the concept
of electron clouds instead of fixed orbits. Studying the spectrum of sun and
stars we discovered that they are mainly composed of Hydrogen and Helium!
Figure 1.20 Neils Bohr, energy levels of electrons and atomic signature
1.5.7 Final piece of puzzle: Neutrons (Isotopes and Radioisotopes)
Although Bohr's model of atom could explain the spectra and chemical
behavior, it could not explain why some of atoms having same chemical
properties did not have equal mass! Also, it could not explain why mass of
alpha particle is 4 units, but its’ charge is 2 units! Even the older puzzle of
why Cobalt having lower atomic number (27) has higher atomic mass than
Nickel (28). James Chadwick, a student of Rutherford came in and gave the
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final piece of the puzzle, again by using radio-active experiments and
shattered his teacher’s model!
A schematic diagram of the experiment used to discover the neutron in 1932
shows a polonium source of alpha particles, which was used to irradiate
beryllium, which created an uncharged radiation. When this radiation struck
paraffin wax, protons were ejected. Since the radiation was uncharged but
had the mass like proton, it was named as neutron.
Figure 1.21 Chadwick, discovery of neutrons and explanation of isotopes
Discovery of neutron solved all the earlier anomalies and explained the
difference between atomic mass (sum of protons and neutrons in nucleus) and
atomic number (only sum of protons in nucleus). Elements with same atomic
number but different atomic mass due to different number of neutrons are
called as isotopes. Among these some nuclear configurations were unstable
and emitted radiations to transform into another element, they were called
radioisotopes. Modern periodic table, that summarizes all that can be thus
considered as the greatest puzzle solved by humankind!
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Figure 1.22 Modern periodic table of elements with atomic number and mass
1.6 Harnessing the Nuclear Energy: Fission and Fusion
Discovery of neutron gave a tool that humankind could never imagine. Using
it we can penetrate the structure of materials and observe matter like never
before, as they are not repelled by the charged particles! Not only that, we
could even split the heavy atoms into two and release enormous amount of
energy in this process! This is known as nuclear fission.
Breaking the big ones; Nuclear fission: Nuclear fission of the heavy
elements was discovered in 1938 by German Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann,
later explained theoretically in 1939 by Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto
Robert Frisch. Frisch named the process as it seemed analogical to biological
fission of living cells. For heavy nuclides, it is an exothermic reaction which
can release enormous amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation
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and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where fission
takes place). The 3 neutrons emitted from the fission can again be used to
create another fission, in a way creating a chain reaction! It is all about
controlling the number and speed of neutrons, control the rate of reaction,
take away the heat generated by coolant water, create steam, and thus
generate electricity. Although fission was first used for destructive purpose in
2nd world war, today about 440 nuclear fission reactors in the world generate
both electricity and important medical radioisotopes. India has more than 22
operating nuclear reactors and 7 more are in construction. Nuclear powered
submarines are gaining popularity as it does not need repeated refueling like
diesel powered submarine. It can go to deeper parts of the ocean; its
acceleration being extremely high! There are research reactors as well which
are used for basic research, material testing and isotope generation.
Bringing together the little ones; Nuclear fusion: Apart from breaking of
heavier unstable atoms like Uranium and Plutonium, another form of nuclear
energy which is much more energy rich is nuclear fusion, where light atoms
like Hydrogen and Helium combine to give heavier atoms. Nuclear fusion is
the process that is happening inside the stars and the same gave rise to all
the other elements like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon etc, yes even the ones in
your body originated from the stars! A fusion reactor on earth (ITER) is under
construction.
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Figure 1.22 Schematic of nuclear fission and fusion; release of nuclear energy
The nuclear reactions are so different from chemical reactions (which is re-
allocation of electrons between atoms) that there were two new fundamental
forces defined, namely the strong force and the weak force which governs
the stability of the nucleus. Even more fundamental particles like quarks were
discovered later, and the whole branch of sub-atomic physics is dedicated to
it.
In chemical reactions mass and energy are conserved separately. But in
nuclear reaction loss is mass itself is converted to energy, hence it is known
as mass-energy equivalence. The energy released in nuclear fission and fusion
is calculated by Einstein's famous E= mc2 (where m is the total mass lost in
the process, c is the speed of light which is about 300000000 m/s). The energy
for one such nuclear reaction is million times more than chemical reaction and
it also does not generate carbon dioxide. At the same time unlike solar and
wind which is dependent on the local climate or day/night to generate
electricity, nuclear power is very stable and controllable form of energy
generation.
Although nuclear technology, just like the internet or even steel, was first used
for warfare, nowadays due to international collaboration between nuclear
scientists, they are all in it together for science and preventing climate change.
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So, this was just a brief story of how nuclear technology shaped modern
science, check out the upcoming modules to know about this super-cool
technology!
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Chapter 2
NUCLEAR ENERGY
2.1 Introduction
In simple words, nuclear energy is the energy in nucleus or core of atom as
shown in figure 1. It is obtained due to the mass deficit/difference created
when a nucleus undergoes a nuclear reaction viz. fission and fusion
Figure 2.1: Atom
Now the question arises; how we can extract nuclear energy. Nuclear energy
can be released by two atomic reaction which are as follows
a. Nuclear fission
b. Nuclear fusion
a. Nuclear Fission
When large atom splits into smaller atom then this process is called nuclear
fission. The fission process is shown in figure 2.2
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Figure 2.2: Nuclear fission
Fission can occur spontaneously; it may also be induced by the capture of a
neutron or gamma. For example, an excited state of uranium (created by
neutron capture) can split into smaller "daughter" nuclei. A chain reaction
refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission produce an additional
fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons,
and the process repeats. The nuclear fission chain reaction is shown in figure
2.3
Figure 2.3: Chain reaction
The process may be controlled (nuclear reactor) or uncontrolled (nuclear
weapons). Nuclear reactors are designed so that the release of energy is slow
and can be used for practical generation of energy. In an atomic bomb, the
chain reaction is explosively rapid.
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Nuclear energy could be destructive like atom bomb and constructive like
nuclear power plant depends how we use this energy as shown in figure 2.4.
Nuclear bomb explosion Nuclear Power plant-electricity
Figure 2.4: Nuclear fission application
b. Nuclear fusion:
When two atoms combine together to form a larger atom then this process is
called nuclear fusion. The fusion process is shown in figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Nuclear fusion
Fusion of low atomic number nuclei can release a considerable amount of
energy. Fusion occurs in sun where four hydrogen nuclei combine in a
multistep process to form a helium nucleus. The energy required for fusion to
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occur is massive and occurs only under extreme conditions like high
temperature, such as are found in the cores of stars and nuclear particle
accelerators. Fusion requires extreme conditions hence producing this nuclear
reaction on earth is very difficult. Fusion requires a temperature of at
least 100 million degrees Celsius
In the view of this, ITER is developing first fusion device which will produce
net energy through fusion. This fusion device is called as Tokamak. The cross-
sectional view of this tokamak as shown in figure 3. The tokamak is an
experimental machine designed to harness the energy of fusion. Inside a
tokamak, the energy produced through the fusion of atoms is absorbed as
heat in the walls of the vessel. Just like a conventional power plant, a fusion
power plant will use this heat to produce steam and then electricity by way of
turbines and generators. ITER's First Plasma is scheduled for December 2025.
That will be the first time the machine is powered on, and the first act of ITER's
multi-decade operational program.
Figure 2.6: ITER Tokamak
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2.2 Is Nuclear Energy Renewable?
Nuclear energy is sustainable not renewable. Sustainable implies the ability to
provide energy for indefinitely long time periods. Though nuclear power may
not be infinite (fixed life time cycle) but it consumes very less fuel as compared
to supply.
There is one major issue with the renewability of nuclear energy: uranium is
categorized under fossil resources and thus not as renewable as e.g. wind or
solar energy. But the possibilities of this uranium are being researched.
Similarly, to oil retrieval, uranium is available in different grades of
accessibility; e.g. deep in the earth or deep in the sea. The research also
focuses on the possibility of recycling uranium or increasing productivity.
When this research develops, the longevity of uranium is increasing towards
the renewable energy category. Another issue with nuclear energy is the by-
product of nuclear waste; radio-active materials that remain pollutants for a
very long time. Renewability can only be improved when this waste is
addressed, but scientists are working on this problem! As mentioned before,
the fusion process produces less to almost no radioactive by-product
compared to fission counterpart.
The answer to the question “Is nuclear energy renewable energy?” is
dependent on the developments in research in this field. Nuclear energy is at
least close to carbon neutral, has a high productivity, and in the future these
advantages can be enhanced with less to no waste and less dependency on a
finite resource. The current process is not that renewable and thus
investments in the fusion process development can provide a great step for
sustainable energy production.
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2.3 Nuclear Power Plant- Descriptions of Process
The job of reactor whether it is fusion or fission is to convert nuclear energy
into thermal energy which is then converted into electrical energy. Nuclear
reaction generates heat. This heat converts water into steam and lastly this
steam runs the turbine which produce electricity. The process of conversion
from nuclear to electrical is shown in figure 2.7.
Nuclear fission reactor Nuclear fusion reactor
Figure 2.7: Nuclear power plant
Fission Reactors use uranium for nuclear fuel. The uranium is processed into
small ceramic pellets and stacked together into sealed metal tubes called fuel
rods. Typically, more than 200 of these rods are bundled together to form a
fuel assembly. A reactor core is typically made up of a couple hundred
assemblies, depending on power level.
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Figure 2.8: Nuclear reactor assembly
Inside the reactor vessel, the fuel rods are immersed in water which acts as
both a coolant and moderator. The moderator helps slow down the neutrons
produced by fission to sustain the chain reaction. This slowing or moderation
of the neutrons allows them to be more easily absorbed by fissile nuclei,
creating more fission events. Control rods can then be inserted into the reactor
core to reduce the reaction rate or withdrawn to increase it. Basically, control
rods are used to control the chain reaction. The condition where the neutron
chain reaction is self-sustaining and the neutron population is neither
increasing nor decreasing is referred to as the critical condition and can be
expressed by the simple equation keff =1. If the neutron production is greater
than the absorption and leakage, the reactor is called supercritical (keff >1).
If, on the other hand, the neutron production is less than the absorption and
leakage, the reactor is called subcritical (keff <1). By controlling the portion
of the control rod that interacts with the fission reaction, the multiplication
factor can be finely tuned to maintain reactor criticality. In addition, control
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rods can be used to intentionally make rapid changes to the reactor state (i.e.
turning the reactor on and off), especially as an emergency shut off feature
by fully inserting the rods
At last, heat created by fission turns the water into steam, which spins a
turbine to produce carbon-free electricity. That’s why nuclear energy called as
a clean energy
Based on cycle we can define reactor in two type
1. BWR (Boiling Water Reactor)
2. PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor)
The main difference between a BWR and PWR is that in a BWR, the reactor
core heats water, which turns to steam and then drives a steam turbine. In a
PWR, the reactor core heats water, which does not boil. This hot water then
exchanges heat with a lower pressure water system, which turns to steam and
drives the turbine.
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Figure 2.9: Schematic of BWR & PWR
2.4 Pro and Cons of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is a popular way of generating electricity around the world.
Nuclear power plants do not pollute the air or emit greenhouse gases. They
can be built in rural or urban areas, and do not destroy the environment
around them.
Nuclear power plant has highest capacitive factor as shown in figure. The
capacity factor is the average power generated, divided by the rated peak
power. Let’s take a five-megawatt wind turbine. If it produces power at an
average of two megawatts, then its capacity factor is 40% (2÷5 = 0.40, i.e.
40%). To calculate the average power generated, just divide the total
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electricity generated, by the number of hours. The capacity factor comparison
is shown in figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Comparison of various sources of energy according capacity
factor
However, nuclear energy is not very easy to harvest. Nuclear power plants
are very complicated to build and run. Many communities do not have the
scientists and engineers to develop a safe and reliable nuclear energy
program.
Nuclear energy also produces radioactive material. Radioactive waste can be
extremely toxic, causing burns and increasing the risk for cancers, blood
diseases, and bone decay among people who are exposed to it.
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2.5 Nuclear Energy Overview Around the World
The first nuclear reactor for commercial use was built in 1954 and now more
than 450 nuclear power plant are operating all over the world. According to
IAEA, 10.4 % of total electricity production was using nuclear. India’s
electricity production of energy by nuclear is 40.7 TW-h. The ranking of India
as compared to other nations in the world is shown in figure 2.11.
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Figure 2.11: World nuclear electricity production in 2019
2.6 India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme
India’s three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Dr. Homi J.
Bhabha in the 1950s to secure the country’s long-term energy independence,
through the use of uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands
of coastal regions of South India.
India has been pursuing the following 3-stage Nuclear Power Programme:
Stage 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
The first stage comprises setting up of Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors
(PHWRs) and associated fuel cycle facilities.
PHWRs use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator and coolant
The first stage is already in commercial domain.
The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL), a public sector
undertaking of DAE, is responsible for the design, construction and operation
of nuclear power reactors
Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)
The second stage envisages setting up of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) backed
by reprocessing plants and plutonium-based fuel fabrication plants.
A breeder reactor is one that breeds more material for a nuclear fission
reaction than it consumes.
Plutonium is produced by irradiation of uranium-238
The prototype FBR is fuelled by a blend of plutonium and uranium oxide, called
MOX fuel.
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The Fast Breeder Programme is in the technology demonstration stage.
A new public sector undertaking Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam (BHAVINI)
of DAE is implementing this project which is expected to add 500 MWe to the
Southern grid by the year 2017
The tariff of electricity produced from PFBR is comparable with that of other
conventional electricity generating technologies like coal based thermal power
stations in the region.
Stage 3: Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
The third stage is based on the thorium-uranium-233 cycle.
Uranium-233 is obtained by irradiation of thorium
India has one of the largest reserves of thorium
The ongoing development of 300 MWe Advanced Heavy Water Reactor
(AHWR) at BARC aims at developing expertise for thorium utilization and
demonstrating advanced safety concepts.
Thorium-based systems can be set up on commercial scale only after a large
capacity based on fast breeder reactors, is built up.
Objective of 3 Stage program:
The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of
India to be utilized in meeting the country’s energy requirements.
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Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as it has only around 1–2% of the
global uranium reserves, but one of the largest shares of global thorium
reserves.
However, at present thorium is not economically viable because global
uranium prices are much lower.
The Indo-US Nuclear Deal and the NSG waiver, which ended more than three
decades of international isolation of the Indian civil nuclear programme, have
created many hitherto unexplored alternatives for the success of the three-
stage nuclear power programme.
Thorium itself is not a fissile material, and thus cannot undergo fission to
produce energy.
Instead, it must be transmuted to uranium-233 in a reactor fuelled by other
fissile materials [plutonium-239 or uranium-235].
The first two stages, natural uranium-fuelled heavy water reactors and
plutonium-fuelled fast breeder reactors, are intended to generate sufficient
fissile material from India’s limited uranium resources, so that all its vast
thorium reserves can be fully utilized in the third stage of thermal breeder
reactors.
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Figure 2.12: India’s three-stage nuclear power programme
Nuclear fuel cycle
An important and inevitable by-product of nuclear energy production is the
spent nuclear fuel that needs to be managed and handled in a safe,
responsible and effective way.
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Figure 2.13: Nuclear fuel cycle
Spent fuel is highly radioactive and requires shielding and cooling. It contains
fission products, but at the same time, it also contains uranium and plutonium
that can be reused as fuel in reactors. The spent fuel can thus be seen as a
resource. Uranium and plutonium can be separated from the waste in a
reprocessing plant and reused, while the remaining high level waste will need
to be disposed of. Recycling in this way is referred to as the closed fuel cycle.
Alternatively, the spent fuel in its entirety may be regarded as radioactive
waste that will be disposed of. This cycle is referred as the open fuel cycle.
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Chapter 3
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
Picture sourced from foronuclear.org
Please contact Ganesh at
[email protected] for any queries in this chapter
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The advent of technology, be it fire, wheel or steam power, has always
introduced a step change in the quality of life of people. Nuclear technology is
no different. The demand for energy increases with the world’s booming
population and expanding economy. Nuclear energy is one of the solutions to
meet this ever-increasing demand of energy and generates electricity in an
environmentally responsible manner. While nuclear power directly touches our
lives by providing us electricity to make our daily lives more efficient and
comfortable, nuclear technology impacts our lives indirectly in many ways. We
will explore and learn these amazing ways in detail here. Fasten your belts
and be ready to be amazed!
As we have already seen in the first module, Isotopes are variants of a given
element that have nuclei with the same number of protons, but different
numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are referred to as 'stable' as they are
unchanging over time. Others are 'unstable' or radioactive since their nuclei
change over time through the loss of alpha and beta particles. The attributes
of naturally decaying atoms, known as ‘radioisotopes’, give such atoms
several applications across many aspects of modern-day life.
Radioisotopes are mainly produced in research reactors. Research reactors
generally operate under high neutron flux. Depending on what radioisotope
we need, materials are specially introduced in the nuclear reactor. On
interaction with the radiation field of the reactor, these materials introduced
get converted into radioisotopes. The figure shown below show the primary
ways by which radioactive isotopes get converted; mainly alpha, beta and
gamma decay. We will see in this chapter how to use this property of
radioisotopes to our advantage.
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Figure 3.1 shows the ways in which radioactive decay occurs. The alpha and
beta particles are emitted with certain energy. This energy value is very
important to customise the applications in which these radionuclides can be
used.
Radioisotopes also decay by emitting positrons as shown in Figure 3.2. This
positron then collides with an electron to release photons. These photons are
then used for applications in our day to day life, as we will see in this chapter.
Figure 3.1: Types of radioactive decay
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.
Figure 3.2: Positron emission from a radioisotope
3.1 Medical Applications
There are numerous applications of nuclear energy and radio-isotopes
generated as a result in the nuclear reactor in the medical field, ranging from
diagnostics, to disease treatment and sanitization. The radio-isotopes are
produced from mainly from research reactors and some are generated in
power reactors.
3.1.1 Diagnostics
Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide information about the functioning
of a person's specific organs to make a quick diagnosis of the patient's illness.
The thyroid, bones, heart, liver, and many other organs can be easily imaged.
In case of nuclear diagnostics, the radiation source is situated within the body,
whereas, in case of conventional diagnostics like X-rays, the source is outside
the body. This results in a distinctive advantage of nuclear imaging over X-
ray techniques is that both bone and soft tissue can be imaged very
successfully.
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Radioisotopes are an essential part of diagnostic procedures. In combination
with imaging devices which register the gamma rays emitted from within, they
can study the dynamic processes taking place in various parts of the body.
Radioisotopes for use in diagnosis uses a radioactive dose introduced inside
the patient and the activity in the organ is then studied either as a 2-D picture
or, using tomography, as a 3-D picture. Diagnostic techniques in nuclear
medicine use radioactive tracers which emit gamma rays from within the body.
These tracers are generally short-lived isotopes linked to chemical compounds
which permit specific physiological processes to be scrutinised. They can be
given by injection, inhalation, or orally.
Techniques used:
Single photon emission computerised tomography (SPECT)
Positron emission tomography (PET), a more precise and sophisticated
technique. Used for detecting most of the cancers. Used also in cardiac
and brain imaging.
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Figure 3.3: Positron emission tomography
New procedures combine PET with computed X-ray tomography (CT) scans
to give much better diagnosis than with a traditional gamma camera alone.
3.1.2 Diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals
Our body, biologically, requires various elements and molecules in order to
function properly. These chemicals are then transported to the organs via the
circulatory system. The overall health of the body is dependent on functioning
of these organs appropriately. The organ does not differentiate between the
isotopes of the same element, since the isotopes exhibit same chemical
properties but different physical properties. Using this amazing property, we
can use radioactive elements to track the movement of nutrients, elements in
our body.
The chemicals absorbed by different organs are as follows:
Thyroid: Iodine
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Brain: Glucose
Bone: Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium
For example, if we have to test whether the thyroid is healthy, all we have to
is introduce a little iodine-123 which is an isotope of more prevalent and non-
radioactive I-127. We can see in Figure 3.4 the thyroid gland highlighted.
Figure 3.4: Thyroid highlighted by use of Iodine-123
A radioactive isotope once introduced in the body, follows the normal
biological processes and excreted via sweat, urine, excreta or exhalation.
Diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals can be used to examine blood flow to the
brain, functioning of the liver, lungs, heart, or kidneys, to assess bone growth,
and to confirm other diagnostic procedures. Another important use is to
predict the effects of surgery and assess changes since treatment.
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A radioisotope used for diagnosis must emit gamma rays of sufficient energy
to escape from the body and it must have a half-life short enough for it to
decay away soon after imaging is completed.
The radioisotope most widely used in medicine is Tc-99, employed in some
80% of all nuclear medicine procedures. It is an isotope of the artificially-
produced element technetium and it has almost ideal characteristics for a
nuclear medicine scan, such as with SPECT.
These are:
It has a half-life of six hours which is long enough to examine metabolic
processes yet short enough to minimize the radiation dose to the
patient.
It decays by an 'isomeric' process, which involves the emitting of
gamma rays and low energy electrons. Since there is no high-energy
beta emission the radiation dose to the patient is low.
The low-energy gamma rays it emits easily escape the human body
and are accurately detected by a gamma camera.
The chemistry of technetium is so versatile it can form tracers by being
incorporated into a range of biologically-active substances that ensure
it concentrates in the tissue or organ of interest.
3.1.3 Nuclear medicine therapy
Cancerous growths are sensitive to damage by radiation. For this reason,
some cancerous growths can be controlled or eliminated by irradiating the
area containing the growth.
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External irradiation therapy can be carried out using a gamma beam from a
radioactive cobalt-60 source. An external radiation procedure is known as
gamma knife radiosurgery, and involves focusing gamma radiation from
multiple sources of Co-60 on a precise area of the brain with a cancerous
tumour. A complicated brain surgery is possible without invasion and damage
to extensive parts of brain tissue.
Internal radionuclide therapy is administered by planting a small radiation
source, usually a gamma or beta emitter, which will be preferentially
assimilated in the target area. For example, Iodine-131 is commonly used to
treat thyroid cancer. It is also used to treat non-malignant thyroid disorders.
Iridium-192 implants are used especially in the head and breast. Iodine-125
or palladium-103 are used in brachytherapy for early stage prostate cancer.
Many procedures use radio nuclides to relieve pain. For instance, strontium-
89 and samarium-153 are used for the relief of cancer-induced bone pain.
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Figure 3.5: Gamma knife surgery technique
Radionuclide therapy has progressively become more successful in treating
persistent disease and doing so with low toxic side-effects. With any
therapeutic procedure the aim is to confine the radiation to well-defined target
volumes of the patient.
3.1.4 Sterilisation
Many medical products today are sterilised by gamma rays from a Co-60
source, a technique which generally is much cheaper and more effective than
steam heat sterilisation. The disposable syringe is an example of a product
sterilised by gamma rays. Because it is a 'cold' process radiation can be used
to sterilise a range of heat-sensitive items such as powders, ointments, and
solutions, as well as biological preparations such as bone, nerve, and skin to
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be used in tissue grafts. Large-scale irradiation facilities for gamma
sterilisation are installed in many countries. Smaller gamma irradiators, often
utilising Cs-137, having a longer half-life, are used for treating blood for
transfusions and for other medical applications.
Figure 3.6: Use of nuclear radiation for sterilization of materials
Sterilisation by radiation has several benefits. It is safer and cheaper because
it can be done after the item is packaged. The sterile shelf-life of the item is
then practically indefinite provided the seal is not broken. Apart from syringes,
medical products sterilised by radiation include cotton wool, burn dressings,
surgical gloves, heart valves, bandages, plastic, and rubber sheets and
surgical instruments.
3.2 Archaeological Applications
Archaeological findings can be dated by measuring their natural radioactivity
using a technique called carbon dating, which is based on measuring the
radiation release profile of the materials. This is a useful tool in geological,
anthropological and archaeological research.
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Figure 3.7: Application of Carbon dating to find out the age of ancient
fossils
3.3 Applications in Consumer Products
The function of many common consumer products is dependent on the use of
small amounts of radioactive material. Smoke detectors, watches & clocks,
and non-stick materials, among others, all utilise the natural properties of
radioisotopes in their design.
One of the most common uses of radioisotopes today is in household smoke
detectors. These contain a small amount of americium-241 which is a decay
product of plutonium-241 originating in nuclear reactors. The Am-241 emits
alpha particles which ionise the air and allow a current between two
electrodes. If smoke enters the detector it absorbs the alpha particles and
interrupts the current, setting off the alarm.
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They are also used in self powered signs which do the part of safety related
signs which can work without use of external power.
A B
Figure 3.8: Smoke detector functioning, A: Without smoke in
between and B) With smoke in between
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Figure 3.9: Self powered sign
3.4 Food Irradiation
Some 25-30% of food harvested is lost as a result of spoilage before it can be
consumed. This problem is particularly prevalent in hot, humid countries such
as India. Food irradiation can be used to solve this problem.
Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstuffs to gamma rays to kill
bacteria that can cause food-borne disease, and to increase shelf-life. It has
the same benefits as when food is heated, refrigerated, frozen, or treated with
chemicals, but does not change the temperature or leave residues. More than
60 countries worldwide have introduced regulations allowing the use of
irradiation for food products including spices, grains, fruit, vegetables, and
meat. It can replace potentially harmful chemical fumigants that are used to
eliminate insects from dried fruit and grain, legumes, and spices.
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Figure 3.10: Food irradiation applications
Figure 3.11: Fruit shelf life increase by subjecting it to Gamma rays
In addition to inhibiting spoilage, irradiation can delay ripening of fruits and
vegetables to give them greater shelf-life. Its ability to control pests and
reduce required quarantine periods has been the principal factor behind many
countries adopting food irradiation practices.
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Figure 3.12: BARC irradiation facility at Lasalgaon
As well as reducing spoilage after harvesting, increased use of food irradiation
is driven by concerns about food-borne diseases as well as growing
international trade in foodstuffs which must meet stringent standards of
quality. On their trips into space, astronauts eat foods preserved by
irradiation.
Most of the food irradiation is carried out via gamma irradiation source. India's
first electron accelerator — Agricultural Radiation Processing Facility (ARPF)
— for irradiation of medical equipment, fruits, vegetables, flowers and other
perishable items was set up at Devi Ahilyabai Holkar fruit and vegetable
market by principal scientific advisor to India, Dr R Chidambaram at Indore.
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3.5 Sterile Insect Technique
Figure 3.13: Sterile insect technique to control insect population
Estimates of crop losses to insects vary, but are usually significant. Despite
widespread use of insecticides, losses are likely to be of the order of 10%
globally and often notably higher in developing countries. One approach to
reducing insect depredation in agriculture is to use genetically-modified crops,
so that much less insecticide is needed. Another approach is to disable the
insects.
Increased awareness of the adverse effects of significant pesticide use on
public health and the environment has led to efforts to control insects and
pests via alternative methods. Radiation is used to control insect populations
via the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). This involves rearing large populations
of insects that are sterilised through irradiation (gamma or X-rays), and
introducing them into natural populations. The sterile insects remain sexually
competitive, but cannot produce offspring. The SIT technique is
environmentally-friendly, and has proved an effective means of pest
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management even where mass application of pesticides had failed. The IPPC
recognizes the benefits of SIT, and categorizes the insects as beneficial
organisms. SIT is distinct from classical biological control (e.g. augmentation),
offering a series of desirable differences:
Introduced insects are not self-replicating, and so cannot become
established in the natural environment.
SIT impacts only the targeted pest’s reproductive cycle, and so is
species-specific.
SIT does not involve the introduction of non-native species to an
ecosystem.
Since its introduction, SIT has successfully controlled the populations of a
number of high profile insects, including: mosquitoes, moths, screwworm,
tsetse fly, and various fruit flies. Three UN organizations – IAEA, FAO, WHO –
along with the governments concerned, are promoting new SIT programs in
many countries.
Did you know?
With the support of the IAEA, Ethiopia has established the largest tsetse fly
mass rearing facility in the world.
The most recent high-profile application of SIT has been in the fight against
the deadly Zika virus in Brazil and the broader Latin America and Caribbean
region.
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3.6 Plant mutation breeding
Plant mutation breeding is the process of exposing the seeds or cuttings of a
given plant to radiation, such as gamma rays, to cause mutations. The
irradiated material is then cultivated to generate a plantlet, which is selected
and multiplied if it shows desired traits. A process of marker-assisted selection
(or molecular-marker assisted breeding) is used to identify desirable traits
more quickly based on genes. The use of radiation essentially enhances the
natural process of spontaneous genetic mutation, significantly shortening the
time it takes.
Ionising radiation to induce mutations in plant breeding has been used for
several decades, and some 3200 new crop varieties have been developed in
this way. Gamma or neutron irradiation is often used in conjunction with other
techniques to produce new genetic lines of root and tuber crops, cereals, and
oil seed crops. New kinds of sorghum, garlic, wheat, bananas, beans, and
peppers have been developed that are more resistant to pests and more
adaptable to harsh climatic conditions. Countries that have used plant
mutation breeding have frequently realized great socio-economic benefits.
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Figure 3.14: Groundnut varieties developed at BARC by plant mutation
breeding
3.7 Radiotracing Applications:
Did you know?
The first practical application of a radioisotope was made by a Hungarian man named George
de Hevesy in 1911. At the time de Hevesy was a young student working in Manchester,
studying naturally radioactive materials. Not having much money he lived in modest
accommodation and ate his meals with his landlady. He began to suspect that some of the
meals that appeared regularly might be made from leftovers from the preceding days or even
weeks, but he could never be sure. To try and confirm his suspicions de Hevesy put a small
amount of radioactive material into the remains of a meal. Several days later, when the same
dish was served again, he used a simple radiation detection instrument – a gold leaf
electroscope – to check if the food was radioactive. It was, and de Hevesy's suspicions were
confirmed.
History has forgotten the landlady, but George de Hevesy went on to win the Nobel prize in
1943 and the Atoms for Peace award in 1959. His was the first use of radioactive tracers –
now routine in environmental science.
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3.7.1 Fertilisers
Fertilisers are expensive and if not properly used can cause water pollution.
Efficient use of fertilisers is therefore of concern to both developing and
developed countries. It is important that as much of the fertiliser as possible
finds its way into plants and that a minimum is lost to the environment.
Fertilisers 'labelled' with a particular isotope, such as nitrogen-15 or
phosphorus-32, provide a means of finding out how much is taken up by the
plant and how much is lost, allowing better management of fertiliser
application. Using N-15 also enables assessment of how much nitrogen is fixed
from the air by soil and by root bacteria in legumes.
3.7.2 Industrial Tracers
Radioisotopes are used by manufacturers as tracers to monitor fluid flow and
filtration, detect leaks, and gauge engine wear and corrosion of process
equipment. Small concentrations of short-lived isotopes can be detected whilst
no residues remain in the environment. By adding small amounts of
radioactive substances to materials used in various processes it is possible to
study the mixing and flow rates of a wide range of materials, including liquids,
powders and gases, and to locate leaks.
Figure 3.15: Radioactive tracer application
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3.7.3 Environmental tracers
Radioisotopes play an important role in detecting and analysing pollutants.
Nuclear techniques have been applied to a range of pollution problems
including smog formation, sulphur dioxide contamination of the atmosphere,
sewage dispersal from ocean outfalls, and oil spills.
3.7.4 Water resources
Adequate potable water is essential for life. Yet in many parts of the world
fresh water has always been scarce and in others it is becoming so.
Isotope hydrology techniques enable accurate tracing and measurement of
the extent of underground water resources. Such techniques provide
important analytical tools in the management and conservation of existing
supplies of water and in the identification of new sources. They provide
answers to questions about origin, age, and distribution of groundwater, as
well as the interconnections between ground and surface water, and aquifer
recharge systems. The results permit planning and sustainable management
of these water resources. For surface waters they can give information about
leakages through dams and irrigation channels, the dynamics of lakes and
reservoirs, flow rates, river discharges, and sedimentation rates.
3.7.5 Inspection and instrumentation
Radioactive materials are used to inspect metal parts and the integrity of
welds across a range of industries. For example, new oil and gas pipeline
systems are checked by placing the radioactive source inside the pipe and the
film outside the welds.
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Gauges containing radioactive (usually gamma) sources are in wide use in all
industries where levels of gases, liquids, and solids must be checked. They
measure the amount of radiation from a source which has been absorbed in
materials. These gauges are most useful where heat, pressure, or corrosive
substances, such as molten glass or molten metal, make it impossible or
difficult to use direct contact gauges.
The ability to use radioisotopes to accurately measure thickness is widely
utilised in the production of sheet materials, including metal, textiles, paper,
plastics, and others. Density gauges are used where automatic control of a
liquid, powder, or solid is important, for example in detergent manufacture.
3.8 Desalination:
It is estimated that one-fifth of the world's population does not have access
to safe drinking water, and that this proportion will increase due to population
growth relative to water resources. The worst-affected areas are the arid and
semiarid regions of Asia and North Africa. A UNESCO report in 2002 said that
the freshwater shortfall worldwide was then running at some 230 billion m3/yr
and would rise to 2000 billion m3/yr by 2025. Wars over access to water, not
simply energy and mineral resources, are conceivable.
3.9 Transport
3.9.1 Nuclear-powered ships
Nuclear power is particularly suitable for vessels which need to be at sea for
long periods without refuelling, or for powerful submarine propulsion. The
majority of the approximately 140 ships powered by small nuclear reactors
are submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers.
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Figure 3.16: Schematic of a nuclear powered vessel
3.9.2 Nuclear applications for space exploration
Generally, satellites used in earth-based orbits use solar panels for power
production. The power generated by the solar panels depend on the solar
irradiation impinging on the panels. However, with increasing distance from
the sun, the solar irradiation impinging on the panels reduce exponentially. To
mitigate this problem, RTGs are used.
Radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) are used in space missions. The heat
generated by the decay of a radioactive source, often plutionium-238, is used
to generate electricity. The Voyager space probes, the Cassini mission to
Saturn, the Galileo mission to Jupiter, and the New Horizons mission to Pluto
are all powered by RTGs. The Spirit and Opportunity Mars rovers have used a
mix of solar panels for electricity and RTGs for heat. The latest Mars rover,
Curiosity, is much bigger and uses RTGs for heat and electricity as solar panels
would not be able to supply enough electricity.
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Figure 3.17: RTGs being installed in Cassini probe
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) are lightweight, compact
spacecraft power systems that are extraordinarily reliable.
RTGs provide electrical power using heat from the natural radioactive decay
of plutonium-238, in the form of plutonium dioxide. The large difference in
temperature between this hot fuel and the cold environment of space is
applied across special solid-state metallic junctions called thermocouples,
which generates an electrical current using no moving parts.
Electrical power for Cassini's science instruments and onboard systems was
generated by three RTGs, known as General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS)
RTGs.
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The spacecraft also carried 82 strategically placed radioisotope heater units
(RHUs), which provided focused warmth in the form of one watt of thermal
power each using a pencil eraser-sized pellet of plutonium dioxide. The
Huygens probe used 35 similar RHUs to keep it warm on its descent to the
frigid surface of the frigid Titan.
3.9.3 Hydrogen, electricity and transportation
In the future, electricity or heat from nuclear power plants could be used to
make hydrogen. Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to power cars, or can be
burned to provide heat in place of gas without producing emissions that would
cause climate change.
Hydrogen has the inherent advantage of being very energy dense. Hence, one
tank full of hydrogen will give much longer range than other fuels or power
source.
Figure 3.18: Schematic of a hydrogen powered car
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References:
The source from which figures have been retrieved is mentioned as a hyperlink
in the figure description.
The content is mainly sourced from worldnuclear.org, iaea.org, nasa.gov, and
barc.gov.in
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Chapter-4
NUCLEAR4CLIMATE AND FUTURE OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
4. Introduction
Growth of the future depends on the roots of the past.
Let’s dig it out how our past actually influence our future in terms of nuclear
energy and climate change. You can say what a ridiculous man writing
about the past which is of no importance now, well may be not!!
The answers to the puzzled image arising currently in your mind is here in
the definition of “Climate” and “Weather”.
Weather
The state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time as regards
heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.
Climate
The weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long
period.
Figure 4-1: Atmospheric carbon dioxide level measurements (Credit: Vostok ice core data/J.R. Petit et al.; NOAA Mauna Loa CO2 record)
AUTHORED BY DR. ARVIND KUMAR
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As one can see here in the Figure 4-1 that the cumulative effect of our
activities since our inception has significantly affected the environment and
the climate of the entire planet. But, why we did so?
SUSTAINABILITY!!
Human race has evolved pertaining to sustainable development. There are
several stakeholders of that like, basic needs, better living conditions,
better lives, and so on. However, “Sustainability” in terms of Energy and
Environment are two major concerns for the modern human race the entire
world is facing today.
Energy is something we need for our survival and development. Since the
beginning of civilization humans have learnt different and several ways to
harness energy from various sources. In our so-called modern society,
which is also considered the most developed one, the major source of
energy is from fossil fuels. This led to emission of greenhouse gases at an
alarming rate. Results, you know!!
4.1. Greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases
Earth’s atmosphere gets heated during the day by sun radiation. The
earth’s atmosphere gets cool down at night, radiated heat from the
earth reflected back into the earth atmosphere. Through this process,
greenhouse gases present in the earth atmosphere absorb this radiated
heat making earth’s surface warmer. This process makes the earth
atmosphere conducive to living beings. Nevertheless, owing to
increased amount of such gases, the average temperature of earth’s
atmosphere is raising and reported that average temperature of earth
increased from 1.1 to 1.5o F (References:
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming/page2.php).
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The Earth is surrounded by a thin layer of different gases which make
the earth’s atmosphere and generally known as greenhouse gases. The
main greenhouse gases are:
Water vapor (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Ozone (O3)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Fluorinated gases
4.1.1. How it occurs
Solar radiation, spectrum is depicted in Figure 4.1.1-1, hit the
earth atmosphere, around 30% of incident radiation is reflects
back into the space, while the remaining 70% is transmitted
through greenhouse gases. Mostly it is absorbed by the earth
atmosphere, lands, ocean, buildings, etc. Like the sun light warms
us, this absorption process warms our planet as well. A heated
object also emits radiation which depends on its temperature. For
example, if you heat an object or a pot of water you can
experience the radiant heat energy that heated object gives off
without touching it. In fact, this radiant is sort of invisible light
known as infrared radiation, which is also an
electromagnetic radiation like sunlight with wavelength higher
than visible light. Even human body also gives of infrared
radiation. Just like sun light warms our body/skin, it warms
earth’s surface, ocean, air, lands, etc., and they start radiating
thermal or infrared radiation. This infrared radiation travels
toward atmosphere of earth. The greenhouse can easily absorb
the terrestrial radiation (infrared radiation). When they do so, they
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behave as tiny heaters and re-radiate the heat energy in all
directions. Consequently, part of the re-radiation travels back to
earth surface. The entire process is shown in Figure 4.1.1-2.
Figure 4.1.1-1: Solar Spectrum
Figure 4.1.1-2: Greenhouse effect
4.1.2. Why the name Greenhouse gases
As we know that a greenhouse is made of transparent walls such
as glass to allow the sun radiation for warming the plants as well
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Solar spectrumS
ola
r R
ad
iati
on
Wavelength (nm)
Earth
Greenhouse gases
Transparent to
short wavelenth
Solar radiation
70%
3 0%
Infrared Radiation
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as air inside it (Figure 4.1.2-1). This is used to grow the plants.
These gases (CH4, CO2, CFC, H2O, etc.) play the similar role as
transparent material or glass panels does in a greenhouse.
Therefore, they are named as greenhouse gases.
Figure 4.1.2-1: An example of Greenhouse
(Sources of image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse)
Hence, greenhouse gases are gases present in Earth’s atmosphere
which allow the most of the solar radiation to pass through the
atmosphere, however they avoid the infrared radiation or heat
emitted from the Earth’s surface caused by the sunlight.
4.1.3. More about greenhouse gases
Water vapor (H2O): It is the gaseous phase of water like steam
above the boiling water and evaporation of water from river or
lake, sublimation of ice. Water vapors are transparent, but when
they condense, visible clouds are forms (Figure 4.1.3-1). These
water vapors avoid the escaping of heat energy therefore it gets
warm further which enhance the evaporation rate further.
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Figure 4.1.3-1: Cloud: Invisible water vapors
Carbon dioxide (CO2): This is made of carbon and oxygen. The
main source of this gas is burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas,
and oil) and solid waste, trees and other organic/biological
materials. Burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the
air to make CO2 (https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/) (Figure
4.1.3-2). The main contribution comes from the human activities.
Figure 4.1.3-2: Greenhouse gases (Chemical structures)
(Sources of image: https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/)
Methane (CH4): It is a colorless and fragrance-free. It is
extremely flammable and can be produced naturally as well as
O
H H
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synthetically. This is made of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms
(Figure-4). On burning with the presence of oxygen, it makes CO2
and H2O vapor
(https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a288
58699/what-is-methane/). This gas may be emitted from during
many processes such as production of natural gas/oil,
decomposition of organic or biological materials, various
agricultural practices.
Ozone (O3): It comprises of three oxygen molecule that are
linked together. It is distinctive properties and in principle it is a
greenhouse gas. However, ozone may be useful or dangerous
depending and serves two different proposes that depends where
it is found in the earth's atmosphere. In upper atmosphere (the
stratosphere) it forms a protective ozone layer that blocks the UV
radiation. UV radiation are very harmful to living things (can
induce the DNA damaging) and exposure of it can produce the
adverse effect on humans as well animals. On the other hand, in
the down atmosphere, it acts as greenhouse gases and creates
problems. In this atmosphere, it is dangerous to human health
and other living beings. The more details about can be found
from:
https://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/Ozone
https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=84&t=11
Nitrous Gas (N2O): It is odorless and non-flammable. It is strong
greenhouse gas and main culprit that damage the protective
ozone layer. There are many sources of nitrous oxides including
natural and human made such as like industries activities,
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agriculture activities, vehicles emission, power plants and
fertilizer. More details can be found from the following links:
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-
gases#nitrous-oxide
Fluorinated gases: In contrast to other greenhouse gases, these
gases do not have any natural source, produced only by synthetic
or mad made activities. These gases also contribute damaging
the ozone layer.
Examples: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),
and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-
gases#nitrous-oxide
4.2. Global Warming and climate change
Gradual increase in the temperature mainly due to the greenhouse
effect caused owing to increase in the level of greenhouse gases. This
effect has been noticed over the past ten decades. CO2 is one of
important greenhouse gases that derive global warming or climate
change. The global warming is attributed to the long-term trend in
increasing the average global temperatures, while climate change
reflects the wider picture. Limiting the average global surface
temperature increase of 2°C (3.6°F) over the pre-industrial average
has, since the 1990s, been commonly regarded as an adequate means
of avoiding dangerous climate change, in science and policy making.
For examples increasing level of carbon not only raise the earth’s
temperature but also changes pattern of rain and snow, growing the
risk of strong storms and droughts.
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(https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/difference-between-
global-warming-and-climate-change).
Figure 4.2-1: Climate change and global warming
(Source of image: https://holisticfish.weebly.com/blog/its-all-in-the-name-
the-difference-between-global-warming-and-climate-change)
Figure 4.2-2: Think about it!
(Source of image: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-
difference-between-global-warming-and-climate-change)
4.2.1. After Effects
The potential future effects of global climate change include more
frequent wildfires, longer periods of drought in some regions and
Source: https://holisticfish.weebly.com/blog/its-all-in-the-name-the-difference-between-global-warming-and-climate-change
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an increase in the number, duration and intensity of tropical
storms. Need not to mention that such incidents are quite evident
in 2020 in Australia, USA, India and other parts of the world.
Figure 4.2.1-1: Examples of natural calamities
THINK!
If such a scenario continues, we may end up in a situation
mentioned below (Figure 4.2.1-3).
Figure 4.2.1-2: Not enough greenhouse effect
The planet Mars has a very thin atmosphere, nearly all carbon
dioxide. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, and with little
to no methane or water vapor to reinforce the weak greenhouse
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effect, Mars has a largely frozen surface that shows no evidence
of life.
Figure 4.2.1-3: Too much greenhouse effect
The atmosphere of Venus, like Mars, is nearly all carbon dioxide.
But Venus has about 300 times as much carbon dioxide in its
atmosphere as Earth and Mars do, producing a runaway
greenhouse effect and a surface temperature hot enough to melt
lead.
4.3. Nuclear energy is the part of the solution
Environment is something because of which our existence is. We cannot
just keep dumping our carbon footprints without any accountability and
responsibilities for the coming generations. It is a question of
sustainable life on the Earth.
In the country like India, we need to have a sustainable source of
energy to have a sustainable development. In present scenario, the
major contribution towards our electricity demand is fulfilled by fossil
fuels. This is also the baseload power supply (24/7 electricity supply)
for our country. This, in turn, severely effects the environment and
contributes heavily to carbon footprints. One might say that renewable
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energy sources like solar, wind, etc could be the answer. However, they
are intermittent source of power supply. One can say hydroelectric is
24/7 supply source, why not hydro? The problem arises due to energy
density, that is, how much fuel we need to invest to harness certain
amount of energy.
Now, the big question is to choose between Sustainable
Development and Environmental safety?!
What do you think? What do you want?!!
My answer is “BOTH”
How?
The renewable energy mix is the best solution to address the issue. One
could achieve the perfect energy mix by replacing the existing fossil
powered baseload supply with nuclear power and have other
renewables to supplement the demand. Nuclear energy is the 24/7,
high density, low carbon emission energy source. Also, nuclear energy
has its own added benefits that along with electricity production, it
contributes to the field of medical science, agriculture, industrial
applications, desalination of sea water and much more.
So, to create the most affordable energy security environment in our
country considering the demand for our development, cost
effectiveness and environmental impact, a balanced and optimized
energy mix of all the above mentioned renewable sources is the best
answer.
As mentioned, the biggest contribution of greenhouse gases during
electricity production is from baseload power sources using fossil fuels.
Nuclear is the answer to this replacement in terms of energy density
and low carbon source.
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To reduce the contribution of carbon generation from vehicles, trains,
etc. we are switching to electric vehicles. So the baseload demand will
increase. If we could timely replace the fossil baseload supply with
nuclear energy, then, it’ll significantly reduce the carbon footprints.
Along with this, nuclear energy has spin-off benefits of sea water
desalination, medical, agricultural, industrial applications. For example,
if we could have a setup of using the desalinated water for irrigation
purposes for our farmer, you know what will be the result of our farming
oriented economy.
So, all in all, nuclear is definitely a part of the solution in the fight
against climate change.
We are calling attention to the following:
The world must use all low-carbon energy sources, including
nuclear energy, if it is to limit climate change while meeting
development goals. The global challenge is immense: by 2050,
according to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change), 80% of global electricity will need to be produced
with low-carbon technology (compared with 30% today) in
order to contain climate change. At the same time, global
demand for electricity should double to meet the basic needs
of humanity in terms of population growth and development
goals. Also, low carbon electricity is expected to play a major
role in decarbonizing other sectors
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Figure 4.3-1: It is must!
This challenge requires the use of all low-carbon technologies:
renewables, nuclear and CCS (fossil fuels with CO2 capture
and sequestration) and underscores the need for large-scale
low- or no-carbon electric generation options.
The world needs to take urgent steps towards reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. Nuclear energy is a proven low-
carbon option, available today. A significant part of the CO2
released remains in the atmosphere for a long time and
accumulates. To slowdown the increase in concentration, we
need to start reducing CO2 emissions now. Energy transitions
take decades to implement. To contain climate change we
need to leverage the full breadth of low-carbon options
available today while continuing to develop advanced
technologies that can be implemented by 2050. Nuclear
energy is one of the few energy solutions that has already
proven to be effective and can be implemented immediately
on a large scale.
4.3.1. Challenges for nuclear industry expansion
As we now have understood that nuclear energy is the answer to
the most of our problems and to have sustainable future, despite
this it is still a concern to increase the nuclear energy market
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share in electricity production. It has also been observed even in
developed nations.
Why this is so?
4.3.1.1. Public acceptance
In many democratic countries, including India, the
acceptance of nuclear technologies is limited. There are
several reasons behind it like the lack of awareness, green
parties do not have adequate knowledge about nuclear
energy and they oppose it, fear of radiations and nuclear
related accidents, lack of governmental accountability in
some cases, nuclear safety concerns, etc.
4.3.1.2. Initial capital investment
This is one of the key aspect due to which many
governments are not able to commit to this long term
technology. Presently, the initial capital investment or the
cost of construction of a nuclear power plant is quite high.
This is due to the enhanced safety in design implementation
of nuclear plants.
4.3.1.3. Waste management
The nuclear waste or I would say the amount of nuclear
waste has become a phobia in people’s mind due to
misinformed and different management strategies. Usually,
it is considered that nuclear power plants generates
mountains of highly radioactive nuclear waste, which will be
dangerous for our environment. This may not be correct.
This depends on the policy of a nation and its definition of
waste. The amount could be mountainous if “recycling” or
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“reprocessing” (in terms of nuclear waste) is not been
considered by any country. Most of the time such
information do not reach to the public, which in turn reduces
the public acceptance.
4.3.1.4. Proliferation concerns
This is one of the major concern of global leaders. The
possibility of deviation from the peaceful use of nuclear
technology to military program could lead to unstable
political crisis in that region. Due to this many interested
nations are still not able to think about nuclear energy.
4.3.1.5. Sabotages and nuclear security
One of the biggest political challenges in front of world
politics. Increased terror activities across the globe has
raised the concerns about utilizing the nuclear energy due
to possible sabotage of nuclear material and misuse.
4.3.1.6. Knowledge economy
Nuclear is a multidisciplinary area with an amalgamation of
people from basic sciences, different engineering &
technology streams, environmentalists, and of course the
policy makers. To have a world class competency of this kind
is a challenge for many nations.
4.3.2. Possible solutions
Every problem, issue, concern, challenge, etc. born with its own
solution. We just have to dig it out. Similarly, nuclear industry is
already addressing the above mentioned concerns to increasing
its stake so as to replace fossil fueled power generating sources
across the globe. There are several governmental and non-
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governmental organization worldwide working hand in hand to
tackle this situation.
4.3.2.1. Public acceptance
After the recent nuclear accident in Fukushima, Japan there
was a significant decline in public acceptance of nuclear
energy in general. This was mainly due to their concern of,
how safe nuclear reactors are? To address these concerns,
the generation-IV reactors and Small Modular Reactors
(SMRs) have come up. They are inherently safe because of
multiple passive safety systems to be used during operation
and accidental conditions. Passive systems are those which
are based on natural phenomena and can function without
operators’ intervention, like natural circulation on fluid in a
closed pipe due to temperature difference at two different
locations. Along with this, these advanced nuclear reactors
are designed with severe accident management strategies
and have severe accident safety systems as well to mitigate
the consequences of Fukushima or Tchernobyl type of
accidents. In some advanced reactor designs, the possibility
of occurrence of such severe accidents has been nearly
omitted using innovative physics designs, e.g. molten salt
nuclear reactors, accelerator driven systems, etc.
Generally, people have a fear of radiations due to lack of
understanding and information about the benefits of it. Let
me tell you this, the flora and fauna around the nuclear
power plants are healthier than their counterparts in other
places. The vegetation and the species around the
Tchernobyl power plant in present day are healthier. This is
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not because of any kind of mutation or something, this is
because our body has natural mechanism of interaction with
radiations. Of course, higher interaction is always risky like
eating more will spoil the stomach. All these studies can be
accessed in scientific publications and research journals.
Also, sharing of legit information, awareness and outreach
activities have been increased. All nuclear organizations
have public awareness department to reach to the public to
address their queries.
There are several independent organizations working
globally to increase the public acceptance through direct and
indirect interactions and communications. A few of them are
listed below:
Nuclear4Climate
https://www.euronuclear.org/nuclear-for-climate/
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
https://www.oecd-nea.org/
Energy for Humanity
https://energyforhumanity.org/en/
International Youth Nuclear Congress (IYNC)
IYNS have national, regional and institutional chapters
to spread its network in several countries altogether.
IYNS is also approved under IYNC as the national
chapter.
https://www.iync.org/
Women in Nuclear (WiN Global)
WiN also have several national, regional and
institutional chapters to spread the word about
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benefits of nuclear technologies and also to encourage
women participation in nuclear industry. India also
has launch its women in nuclear organization.
https://win-global.org/
All the national nuclear departments also have their own
public awareness departments working towards the same
cause. In India, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is the
official national body for nuclear related activities in the
country. There are national and independent organizations
in India working towards the similar goals. A few of them
are as follows:
Indian Nuclear Society (INS)
https://www.indiannuclearsociety.com/
Indian Youth Nuclear Society (IYNS)
http://iyns.in/
Women in Nuclear India (WiN-India)
http://win-india.org.in/
Nuclear Friends Foundation (NFF)
https://www.nuclearfriendsfoundation.com/
The governments have also took stringent actions to ensure
the liabilities and accountabilities. For example, in India a
dedicated “Nuclear Liability Bill” was passed in the
parliament soon after the Fukushima accident stating the
responsibilities and liabilities of parties involved in design,
operation and supply of nuclear power plants.
Several millionaires have also joined the league to pro-
nuclear people while understanding the necessity as a
whole. Mr. Bill Gates and Mr. Mukesh Ambani are two big
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names who announced a new reactor technology in a joint
venture.
4.3.2.2. Initial capital investment
In order to reduce the capital investment, the best way is to
reduce the significant construction cost of a nuclear power
plant. This could be done if construction is done in fleet or
module mode. Exactly this is done for Small Modular
Reactors (SMR). Instead of constructing one big plant of say
1000MW, fabricate 10 small modules of 100MW each and
install them together to constitute a bog plant. This saves
the cost and also make the construction much faster.
During the International Conference on Climate Change and
the Role of Nuclear Power held in September 2019, it was
revealed that SMRs are being considered by many Member
States as a potential viable nuclear option to contribute
mitigating the climate change. SMRs are newer generation
reactors designed to generate electric power typically up to
300 MW, whose components and systems can be shop
fabricated and then transported as modules to the sites for
installation as demand arises. Most of the SMR designs
adopt advanced or even inherent safety features and are
deployable either as a single or multi-module plant. The key
driving forces of SMR development are fulfilling the need for
flexible power generation for a wider range of users and
applications, replacing ageing fossil-fired units, enhancing
safety performance, and offering better economic
affordability. Many SMRs are envisioned for niche electricity
or energy markets where large reactors would not be viable.
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SMRs could fulfil the need of flexible power generation for a
wider range of users and applications, including replacing
aging fossil power plants, providing cogeneration for
developing countries with small electricity grids, remote and
off grid areas, and enabling hybrid nuclear/renewables
energy systems. Through modularization technology, SMRs
target the economics of serial production with shorter
construction time. Near term deployable SMRs will have
safety performance comparable or better to that of
evolutionary reactor designs.
4.3.2.3. Waste management
As mentioned in the previous chapters that closed fuel cycle
policy is better and efficient in terms of waste management,
harnessing more power and making nuclear renewable
source.
This could be better understood with this example. An
aluminum can of say coca cola is a waste. If you keep
dumping that as it is, it will create a mountain in no time.
However, if you “recycle” or “reprocess” it then you will get
the aluminum, some impurities due to oxidation of
aluminum in open environment, chemical impurities. This
recovered aluminum could be used again to fabricate coca
cola cans.
Precisely, this is what done in India with nuclear fuel and
thus we generate almost negligible waste compared to other
nations, say USA. Now, many other nations are following
this strategy.
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4.3.2.4. Proliferation concerns
Plutonium is one of the nuclear forms during the nuclear
fission reaction in a nuclear reactor. This could be used as
the fuel for weapon program owing to its nuclear properties.
This could be addressed by using the Thorium as fuel.
Thorium is not a fissile material but gives Uranium-233,
which is fissile fuel, and could be used as a replacement of
Uranium-235. This will remove the proliferation concerns
using the intrinsic natural properties of the materials.
4.3.2.5. Sabotages and nuclear security
To address this issue, the nuclear industry across the globe
is already upgrading itself to improved security culture with
industry 4.0 alignments and Artificial Intelligence
considerations in design, operation and safety systems.
Along with this, dedicated awareness activities are
organized to make people about this risk and role of their
vigilance in tackling this. A few organizations from where
such workshops can be attended are as follows:
Indian Youth Nuclear Society (IYNS)
http://iyns.in/
Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership (GCNEP)
http://gcnep.gov.in/
International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP)
https://www.ictp.it/
World Institute of Nuclear Security (WINS)
https://wins.org/
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4.3.2.6. Knowledge economy
In order to run an efficient and safe nuclear industry, a well-
trained and competence nuclear workforce is a must. This
could only be achieved by having a nuclear as a field in
schools, universities and industries to train in right direction.
Along with this, nuclear industry is unique in the sense that
it believes in knowledge sharing and learning from each
other’s mistakes. There are global professional and
governmental bodies to take care of this aspect. A few of
them are listed here:
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
IAEA is a United Nations official body to regulate and
ensure peaceful utilization of nuclear technologies
across the globe. India was one of the founding
members of this organization.
https://www.iaea.org/
World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO)
https://www.wano.info/
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI)
https://nei.org/home
World Nuclear University (WNU)
https://www.world-nuclear-university.org/
4.4. Closure
Nuclear energy and related technologies have tremendous benefits for
us and for the environment. It is the natural process which occurs even
without the existence of human race. The industry so well regulated
that it accounts and takes care of all deviations. It is the need of this
hour to choose wisely for our future and our very existence.
Einstein’s this “modern” equation considers all aspects of our society
And suggests,
Nuclear is the part of solution to save our planet!!
Choose wisely
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