KINGDOM KINGDOM MONERAMONERAThe Prokaryotes: The Prokaryotes:

Archaebacteria and Archaebacteria and EubacteriaEubacteria

Characteristics of BacteriaCharacteristics of Bacteria Prokaryote means “before a Prokaryote means “before a

nucleus.” They are single-nucleus.” They are single-celled organisms and the celled organisms and the smallest, simplest smallest, simplest organisms.organisms.

This kingdom is subdivided This kingdom is subdivided into two kingdoms:into two kingdoms:

i.i. ArchaebacteriaArchaebacteriaii.ii. EubacteriaEubacteria

i. i. ArchaebacteriaArchaebacteria – “achaio” comes – “achaio” comes from the Greek means “ancient”.from the Greek means “ancient”. Found in anaerobic conditions with Found in anaerobic conditions with high salt concentrations, high high salt concentrations, high temperatures and a low pH. temperatures and a low pH.

ii. ii. EubacteriaEubacteria – This group – This group includes the true bacteria and is includes the true bacteria and is the largest and most successful the largest and most successful of the two kingdoms. of the two kingdoms.

Bacteria all share these five Bacteria all share these five characteristicscharacteristics

-All bacteria are single-celled-All bacteria are single-celled

-All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their DNA -All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their DNA is not surrounded by a membrane.is not surrounded by a membrane.

-Cell organelles in bacteria are not -Cell organelles in bacteria are not surrounded by membranes.surrounded by membranes.

-The DNA of bacteria is made of a single -The DNA of bacteria is made of a single chromosome.chromosome.

- Bacteria are the smallest organisms - Bacteria are the smallest organisms measuring from 1-10 micrometres.measuring from 1-10 micrometres.

Kingdom Kingdom EubacteriaEubacteria

Unicellular (single-cell)Unicellular (single-cell) Prokaryotes (no membrane-Prokaryotes (no membrane-

bound organelles)bound organelles) Cell Walls contain Cell Walls contain

peptidoglycan, not cellulosepeptidoglycan, not cellulose

It contains a cell wall that It contains a cell wall that provides support and provides support and protection for the contents of protection for the contents of the cell.the cell.

The cytoplasm contains The cytoplasm contains ribosomes, responsible for ribosomes, responsible for the formation of proteins and the formation of proteins and DNA.DNA.

The DNA forms a single The DNA forms a single chromosome and forms a chromosome and forms a ring.ring.

Some bacteria have a flagella Some bacteria have a flagella that act like propellers that act like propellers moving the organism moving the organism forward. forward.

Bacteria are classified by Bacteria are classified by their shape, reaction to being their shape, reaction to being stained, nutrition and stained, nutrition and respiration.respiration.

Shape of EubacteriaShape of Eubacteria

Bacterial Cell ShapeBacterial Cell Shape Bacteria can be classified by shape.Bacteria can be classified by shape.

-A spherical cell is called a -A spherical cell is called a coccuscoccus (pl. (pl. coccicocci))

-A rod-shaped cell is called a -A rod-shaped cell is called a bacillusbacillus (pl. (pl. bacillibacilli))

-A spiral-shaped cell is called a -A spiral-shaped cell is called a spirillumspirillum (pl. (pl. spirillaspirilla))

CocciCocci living as separate cells are called living as separate cells are called monococcimonococci, , pairspairs are called are called diplococcidiplococci, , chainschains are called are called streptococcistreptococci, and , and grapelikegrapelike clusters are called clusters are called staphlococcistaphlococci..

BacilliBacilli also exist as single cells, pairs also exist as single cells, pairs (diplobacilli), or chains (streptobacilli). (diplobacilli), or chains (streptobacilli).

Spiral bacteria exist only as single cells.Spiral bacteria exist only as single cells.

Staining bacteria results in two forms: Staining bacteria results in two forms: gram-positivegram-positive (purple) vs. (purple) vs. gram gram negativenegative (pink). (pink).

GroupingGrouping

Diplo- PairsDiplo- Pairs Streptos- ChainsStreptos- Chains Staphylo- ClustersStaphylo- Clusters

http://genome.microbio.uab.edu/strep/info/strep5.gif

http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/00520/gallery/thumbnails/thumb_diplococcus.jpg

These are the general shapes:These are the general shapes:

Examples of Spherical-Examples of Spherical-shaped cells shaped cells

Coccus (sng) , cocci (pl)Coccus (sng) , cocci (pl)

CoccusCoccus

http://www.uleth.ca/bio/bio1010/Coccus1.jpg

A Group of Two is referred A Group of Two is referred to as: Diplo…….. This is to as: Diplo…….. This is

diplococccusdiplococccus

A Cluster of cells is referred A Cluster of cells is referred to as: Staphylo…. This is to as: Staphylo…. This is

StaphylococcusStaphylococcus

What a slide of Typical What a slide of Typical coccus looks like in a coccus looks like in a

microscope.microscope.

Streptococcus aureliusStreptococcus aurelius

Strep ThroatStrep Throat

Staph Staph InfectionInfection

Rod-shaped cells Rod-shaped cells Bacillus (sng) , Bacilli (pl)Bacillus (sng) , Bacilli (pl)

Typical BacillusTypical Bacillus

BacillusBacillus

Typical Bacillus in a Typical Bacillus in a MicroscopeMicroscope

Spiral-shaped cells Spiral-shaped cells Spirillum (sng) , Spirlli (pl)Spirillum (sng) , Spirlli (pl)

SpirochetesSpirochetes

Struktur dan Fungsi Utama Sel BakteriStruktur dan Fungsi Utama Sel Bakteri

Struktur Utama BakteriStruktur Utama Bakteri Membran PlasmaMembran Plasma

tersusun atas fosfolipid dan tersusun atas fosfolipid dan protein, bersifat semipermeable.protein, bersifat semipermeable.

Dinding SelDinding Sel

tersusun atas mukopolisakarida tersusun atas mukopolisakarida dan peptidoglikan (protein dan dan peptidoglikan (protein dan polisakarida)polisakarida)

SitoplasmaSitoplasma

tersusun atas air, asam nukleat, tersusun atas air, asam nukleat, protein, karbohidrat, lemak.protein, karbohidrat, lemak.

RibosomeRibosome

sintesis protein sintesis protein DNADNA

materi genetikmateri genetik Granula penyimpananGranula penyimpanan

Struktur Tambahan BakteriStruktur Tambahan Bakteri KapsulKapsul

tersusun atas polisakarida dan air yang tersusun atas polisakarida dan air yang berfungsi untuk membantu melekat pada berfungsi untuk membantu melekat pada permukaan sel bakteri lainnya. Cth: permukaan sel bakteri lainnya. Cth: Streptococcus mutansStreptococcus mutans

Pertahanan bakteriPertahanan bakteri Flagellum Flagellum

Monotrik : Monotrik : flagellum pada bakteri flagellum pada bakteri berjumlah berjumlah satu satu

Lofotrik : Lofotrik : flagella pada satu sisiflagella pada satu sisi

Amfitrik : Amfitrik : flagella atau flagellum di kedua flagella atau flagellum di kedua ujungujung

Peritrik : Peritrik : flagella tersebar di seluruh flagella tersebar di seluruh permukaan permukaan sel sel

Struktur Tambahan BakteriStruktur Tambahan Bakteri KlorosomKlorosom

pigmen klorofil untuk proses fotosintesis. pigmen klorofil untuk proses fotosintesis. Cth: Cth: Chlorobium.Chlorobium.

Vakuola Gas Vakuola Gas

terdapat pada bakteri yang hidup di terdapat pada bakteri yang hidup di air dan melakukan fotosintesis.air dan melakukan fotosintesis.

EndosporaEndospora

bentuk istirahat/laten bakteri. Cth : bentuk istirahat/laten bakteri. Cth : Bacillus antracis, Clostridium tetani, Bacillus antracis, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium botulinumClostridium botulinum

Life CycleLife Cycle

Bakteri HeterotrofBakteri Heterotrof

Bakteri SaprofitBakteri Saprofit

bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari sisa organisme lain cth: sisa organisme lain cth: Eschericia Eschericia collicolli, , Lactobacillus bulgaricusLactobacillus bulgaricus

Bakteri ParasitBakteri Parasit

bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari bakteri yang memperoleh makanan dari inangnya. Inang tempat hidup bakteri inangnya. Inang tempat hidup bakteri adalah tumbuhan, hewan atau manusia.adalah tumbuhan, hewan atau manusia.

Cth: Cth: Mycobacterium tuberculosisMycobacterium tuberculosis

Bakteri AutotrofBakteri Autotrof AutoAuto = diri, = diri, trophostrophos = memakan = memakan

Bakteri yang mampu membuat makanan Bakteri yang mampu membuat makanan sendiri. sendiri.

Bakteri FotoautotrofBakteri Fotoautotrof

bakteri yang menggunakan energi cahaya bakteri yang menggunakan energi cahaya matahari untuk membuat makanannya. Cth: matahari untuk membuat makanannya. Cth: Thiocytstis sp. Thiocytstis sp.

Bakteri KemoautotrofBakteri Kemoautotrof

menggunakan energi kimia (proses oksidasi menggunakan energi kimia (proses oksidasi senyawa anorganik) untuk mensintesis senyawa anorganik) untuk mensintesis makanannya. Cth: makanannya. Cth: Nitrosomonas dan Nitrosomonas dan NitrosococcusNitrosococcus

NutritionNutrition Most eubacteria are heterotrophs Most eubacteria are heterotrophs

and obtain energy by breaking down and obtain energy by breaking down organic molecules from their organic molecules from their environment. Some are parasites, environment. Some are parasites, absorbing nutrients from living absorbing nutrients from living organisms. Others are saprobes, organisms. Others are saprobes, decomposing dead organic matter.decomposing dead organic matter.Mode of Mode of

nutritionnutritionEnergy SourceEnergy Source Carbon SourceCarbon Source

PhotoautotrophPhotoautotroph Light Light Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide

ChemoautotrophChemoautotroph Inorganic Inorganic Chemicals Chemicals

Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide

PhotoheterotrophPhotoheterotroph LightLight Organic Organic CompoundsCompounds

ChemoheterotropChemoheterotrophh

Organic Organic Compounds Compounds

Organic Organic CompoundsCompounds

Bakteri AerobBakteri Aerob

Membutuhkan oksigen bebas Membutuhkan oksigen bebas untuk memperoleh energinya. Cth: untuk memperoleh energinya. Cth: Nitrosomonas, Nitrosoccus.Nitrosomonas, Nitrosoccus.

Nitrosomonas : amonia – nitritNitrosomonas : amonia – nitrit NitrobacterNitrobacter : nitrit - nitrat: nitrit - nitrat

Bakteri AnaerobBakteri Anaerob

Tidak Membutuhkan oksigen bebas Tidak Membutuhkan oksigen bebas untuk memperoleh energinya. Energi yang untuk memperoleh energinya. Energi yang diperoleh bersumber dari fermentasi.diperoleh bersumber dari fermentasi.

Bakteri Anerob Obligat Bakteri Anerob Obligat

hanya dapat hidup jika tidak ada oksigen. hanya dapat hidup jika tidak ada oksigen. Cth: Cth: Clostridium botulinumClostridium botulinum

Bakteri Anaerob FakultatifBakteri Anaerob Fakultatif

dapat hidup jika ada oksigen maupun dapat hidup jika ada oksigen maupun tidak ada oksigen. Cth : tidak ada oksigen. Cth : Eschericia colliEschericia colli

RespirationRespiration If respiration requires oxygen, If respiration requires oxygen,

bacteria are termed bacteria are termed aerobesaerobes. If oxygen . If oxygen is absolutely necessary for survival is absolutely necessary for survival they are called obligate aerobes.they are called obligate aerobes.

Bacteria that carry out respiration Bacteria that carry out respiration without oxygen are called without oxygen are called anaerobesanaerobes. . Presence of oxygen kills some bacteria Presence of oxygen kills some bacteria and these are called obligate and these are called obligate anaerobes. (example- anaerobes. (example- Clostridium Clostridium botulinum)botulinum)

Another group of bacteria can survive Another group of bacteria can survive with or without oxygen and they are with or without oxygen and they are called called facultative anaerobesfacultative anaerobes..

Gram StainGram Stain A staining method to differentiate A staining method to differentiate

bacteriabacteria

Gram-negative refers to the inability Gram-negative refers to the inability to retain the deep violet dyeto retain the deep violet dye

Gram-positive refers to the ability to Gram-positive refers to the ability to retain the deep violet dyeretain the deep violet dye

Bakteri berdasarkan Bakteri berdasarkan Lap.Peptidoglikan pada Lap.Peptidoglikan pada

Dinding SelDinding Sel Bakteri gram positifBakteri gram positif

(dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan (dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang tebal, berwarna ungu). Cth: yang tebal, berwarna ungu). Cth: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Treponema Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Treponema pallidum, Vibrio choleraepallidum, Vibrio cholerae

Bakteri gram negatifBakteri gram negatif (dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang (dinding sel dengan lap.peptidoglikan yang tipis, berwarna merah muda). Cth: tipis, berwarna merah muda). Cth: Streptococcus mutans, Eschericia coli.Streptococcus mutans, Eschericia coli.

Gram StainingGram Staining

                             

Gram Negative cells Gram Positive Cells

Bacteria PhotosBacteria Photos

Anthrax

Clostridium perfringes

Bacteria PhotosBacteria Photos

E. coliClostridium

tetani

Bacteria PhotosBacteria Photos

Staphylococcus aureus

Neisseria gonorrho

eae

Bacteria PhotosBacteria Photos

Strep

ReproductionReproduction

Reproduction 1. By binary fission

• a bacterium may undergo fission every 10-20 minutes

2. Conjugation

• part of a chromosome is transferred from donor cell to recipient through pilus

3. Transformation

• living cell picks up fragments of DNA released by dead cells

4. Transduction

• fragments of DNA carried from one cell to another by viruses

[1] Asexual Reproduction[1] Asexual Reproduction

Binary FissionBinary Fission – cells grow in size – cells grow in size the split in two…. Genetically identicalthe split in two…. Genetically identical

[2] Sexual Reproduction (exchanging [2] Sexual Reproduction (exchanging DNA)DNA)

a. Conjugation a. Conjugation

two bacteria join together and two bacteria join together and exchange portions of DNA. Ex: exchange portions of DNA. Ex: E.colliE.colli

b. Transformationb. Transformation

DNA is taken in by a bacterium, and then DNA is taken in by a bacterium, and then used.used.

Transduction Transduction

DNA is transferred to a DNA is transferred to a bacterium by a virus.bacterium by a virus.

EndosporesEndospores When When

environmental environmental factors become factors become harsh, bacteria harsh, bacteria will either die will either die or form or form endospores.endospores.

If bacteria have If bacteria have time, if the time, if the environmental environmental changes are changes are slow enough, slow enough, they usually they usually form form endospores.endospores.

When growth When growth conditions become conditions become extremely extremely unfavourable, many unfavourable, many bacteria form bacteria form structures called structures called endospores. endospores.

Endospores are DNA Endospores are DNA and a small amount of and a small amount of cytoplasm enclosed in a cytoplasm enclosed in a tough cell wall. They tough cell wall. They are resistant to are resistant to extremes in extremes in temperature, drying, temperature, drying, and harsh chemicals.and harsh chemicals.

Advantages:Advantages: Widely dispersed populations can still Widely dispersed populations can still

reproduce. reproduce. Cells are identical to parents and should Cells are identical to parents and should

survive well if conditions don't change. survive well if conditions don't change. Disadvantages:Disadvantages:

Cells are identical to parents and so are Cells are identical to parents and so are vulnerable to the same environmental stresses. vulnerable to the same environmental stresses.

The characteristics of the cells change very The characteristics of the cells change very slowly slowly

there is very little innovation in survival there is very little innovation in survival strategies. strategies.

Unchanging cells may be slow to take Unchanging cells may be slow to take advantage of new energy sources. advantage of new energy sources.

Classification of Classification of EubacteriaEubacteria

ProteobacteriaProteobacteria

Proteobacteria bersifat fotoautotrof Proteobacteria bersifat fotoautotrof (bakteri ungu) : memiliki klorofil, (bakteri ungu) : memiliki klorofil, beberapa spesies merupakan beberapa spesies merupakan anaerob obligat, hidup di endapan anaerob obligat, hidup di endapan kolam, danau atau lumpur. Cth: kolam, danau atau lumpur. Cth: ChromatinChromatin

Proteobacteria bersifat Proteobacteria bersifat kemoheterotrofkemoheterotrof

Cth: Cth: Rhizobium, E.ColliRhizobium, E.Colli

CyanobacteriaCyanobacteria Ganggang hijau biru berlendirGanggang hijau biru berlendir Lendir berfungsi membantu gerakan secara meluncurLendir berfungsi membantu gerakan secara meluncur Ukuran 1-60 miikrometerUkuran 1-60 miikrometer Hidup soliterHidup soliter Pigmen tambahan : fikosianin (biru), fikoeritrin (merah)Pigmen tambahan : fikosianin (biru), fikoeritrin (merah) Memiliki vakuola gas, fotoautotrof menghasilkan OMemiliki vakuola gas, fotoautotrof menghasilkan O22

Sexual reproduction : Sexual reproduction : Asexual reproduction: pembelahan biner, fragmentasi dan Asexual reproduction: pembelahan biner, fragmentasi dan

pembentukan spora (akinet) pembentukan spora (akinet)

Ex: Ex: NostocNostoc bersimbiosis dengan jamur – lumut kerak bersimbiosis dengan jamur – lumut kerak (lichenes)(lichenes)

Anabaena azollae Anabaena azollae hidup di daun tumbuhan paku hidup di daun tumbuhan paku air air Azolla pinataAzolla pinata

CyanobacteriaCyanobacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs are photosynthetic autotrophs

that produce carbohydrates and that produce carbohydrates and oxygenoxygen

tend to cling together in chains tend to cling together in chains or coloniesor colonies

contain enzymes that allow them contain enzymes that allow them to “fix” atmospheric nitrogento “fix” atmospheric nitrogen

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/maderbiology7/graphics/mader07b/online_vrl/images/0510l.jpg

Filamentous: Chain of Filamentous: Chain of cellscells

http://www.spea.indiana.edu/joneswi/e455/Anabaena.jpg

OscillatoriaOscillatoria

http://botit.botany.wisc.edu:16080/images/130/Bacteria/Cyanobacteria/Oscillatoria/Oscillatoria_MC.jpg

AnabaenaAnabaena

_ http://www.bio.mtu.edu/~jkoyadom/algae_webpage/ALGAL_IMAGES/cyanobacteria/Anabaena_jason_dbtow17 2016.jpg

Some filamentous cyanobacteria have Some filamentous cyanobacteria have Heterocysts, which are Nitrogen-fixing Heterocysts, which are Nitrogen-fixing

structuresstructures

http://www.people.vcu.edu/~elhaij/IntroBioinf/Scenarios/heterocyst2.JPG

SpirochetesSpirochetes

Berbentuk spiral dengan panjang Berbentuk spiral dengan panjang 5-250 mikrometer5-250 mikrometer

Bakteri gram negatifBakteri gram negatif Ukuran 5-250 miikrometerUkuran 5-250 miikrometer Memiliki filamen aksialMemiliki filamen aksial Habitat : lumpur, airHabitat : lumpur, air Sexual reproduction : Sexual reproduction : Treponema pallidumTreponema pallidum

ArchaebacteriaArchaebacteria

MethanogensMethanogens These Archebacteria are These Archebacteria are anaerobes. They make anaerobes. They make methane (natural gas) as methane (natural gas) as a waste product. They a waste product. They are found in swamp are found in swamp sediments, sewage, and sediments, sewage, and in buried landfills. In the in buried landfills. In the future, they could be future, they could be used to produce methane used to produce methane as a byproduct of sewage as a byproduct of sewage treatment or landfill treatment or landfill operation.operation.

MethanogenMethanogen

HH22 digunakan untuk mereduksi CO digunakan untuk mereduksi CO22 menjadi metana (CHmenjadi metana (CH44))

Bakteri anaerobBakteri anaerob Habitat : lumpur dan rawa Habitat : lumpur dan rawa Berperan sebagai penguraiBerperan sebagai pengurai Beberapa species bakteri metanogen Beberapa species bakteri metanogen

hidup di lingkungan anerobik di hidup di lingkungan anerobik di dalam perut hewandalam perut hewan

HalophilesHalophilesThese are salt-loving Archaebacteria These are salt-loving Archaebacteria that grow in salt ponds. Large numbers that grow in salt ponds. Large numbers of certain halophiles can turn these of certain halophiles can turn these waters a dark pink. Pink halophiles waters a dark pink. Pink halophiles contain a pigment very similar to the contain a pigment very similar to the rhodopsin in the human retina. They rhodopsin in the human retina. They use this visual pigment for a type of use this visual pigment for a type of photosynthesis that does not produce photosynthesis that does not produce oxygen. Halophiles are aerobes.oxygen. Halophiles are aerobes.

Extreme halophiles can live in extremely salty environments. Most are photosynthetic autotrophs. The photosynthesizers in this category are purple because instead of using chlorophyll to photosynthesize, they use a similar pigment called bacteriorhodopsin that uses all light except for purple light, making the cells appear purple.

Halofil EkstrimHalofil Ekstrim

Hidup di tempat yang salinitasnya tinggiHidup di tempat yang salinitasnya tinggi

(halo = garam, philos=pecinta)(halo = garam, philos=pecinta) Pecinta garam atau hidup di tempat Pecinta garam atau hidup di tempat

yang memiliki salinitas yang tinggiyang memiliki salinitas yang tinggi

Cth : di danau air asin, laut matiCth : di danau air asin, laut mati

Ex: Ex: Halobacterium salinariumHalobacterium salinarium Koloni halofil membentuk buih Koloni halofil membentuk buih

berwarna merah ungu yang dihasilkan berwarna merah ungu yang dihasilkan oleh pigmen rhodopsin. Pigmen ini oleh pigmen rhodopsin. Pigmen ini menangkap cahaya.menangkap cahaya.

ThermophilesThermophiles

These are Archaebacteria from hot These are Archaebacteria from hot springs and other high temperature springs and other high temperature environments. Some can grow above the environments. Some can grow above the boiling temperature of water. They are boiling temperature of water. They are anaerobes, performing anaerobic anaerobes, performing anaerobic respiration. respiration.

Thermophiles are interesting because Thermophiles are interesting because they contain genes for heat-stable they contain genes for heat-stable enzymes that may be of great value in enzymes that may be of great value in industry and medicine. An example is taq industry and medicine. An example is taq polymerase, the gene for which was polymerase, the gene for which was isolated from a collection of isolated from a collection of Thermus Thermus aquaticusaquaticus in a Yellowstone Park hot in a Yellowstone Park hot spring. Annual sales of taq polymerase spring. Annual sales of taq polymerase are roughly half a billion dollars.are roughly half a billion dollars.

TermofilTermofil Hidup pada suhu yang ekstrim Hidup pada suhu yang ekstrim

panas dengan suhu optimum 60-panas dengan suhu optimum 60-80 C.80 C.

Bakteri ini hidup dengan Bakteri ini hidup dengan mengoksidasi sulfurmengoksidasi sulfur

Ex : Ex : Sulfolobus sp Sulfolobus sp yang yang menempati mata air panas sulfur menempati mata air panas sulfur di Yellowstone National di Yellowstone National Park,USAPark,USA

Bahan DiskusiBahan Diskusi

Dalam klasifikasi sebelumnya, Dalam klasifikasi sebelumnya, Cyanobacteria disebut juga Cyanobacteria disebut juga ganggang hijau biru dan tidak ganggang hijau biru dan tidak dikelompokkan ke dalam bakteri. dikelompokkan ke dalam bakteri. Berikan alasan mengapa Berikan alasan mengapa Cyanobacteria dipisahkan dari Cyanobacteria dipisahkan dari bakteri. Mengapa dalam bakteri. Mengapa dalam klasifikasi sekarang Cyanobacteria klasifikasi sekarang Cyanobacteria dikelompokkan ke dalam bakteri ?dikelompokkan ke dalam bakteri ?

JawabanJawaban

Tubuh monoselluler/multisellulerTubuh monoselluler/multiselluler Memiliki ribosomMemiliki ribosom ProkariotikProkariotik Terdapat pigmen fikosianin dalam Terdapat pigmen fikosianin dalam

membran tilakoidmembran tilakoid Tidak mengandung plastida dan RETidak mengandung plastida dan RE

DISADVANTAGEDISADVANTAGE

Bacterial DiseasesBacterial Diseases

AnthraxAnthrax BotulismBotulism Lyme DiseaseLyme Disease SalmonellaSalmonella TetanusTetanus Tooth decayTooth decay TuberculosisTuberculosis

EubacteriaEubacteria Clostridium botulinum (pClostridium botulinum (pembusukan embusukan

makanan)makanan) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TBC)Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TBC) Vibrio cholerae ( penyakit kolera)Vibrio cholerae ( penyakit kolera) Clostridium tetani (tetanus)Clostridium tetani (tetanus) Mycobacterium leprae (penyebab lepra)Mycobacterium leprae (penyebab lepra) Bacillus anthracis (antraks pada sapi)Bacillus anthracis (antraks pada sapi) Agrobacterium tumefaciens (tumor Agrobacterium tumefaciens (tumor

pada tumbuhan)pada tumbuhan)

ArchaebacteriaArchaebacteria

Merusak makanan yang telah Merusak makanan yang telah diawetkan dengan garamdiawetkan dengan garam

The role of bacteria in the The role of bacteria in the Nitrogen cycleNitrogen cycle

Nitrogen-fixationNitrogen-fixation

some soil bacteria live in the some soil bacteria live in the ground and take in Nitrogen ground and take in Nitrogen from the surroundings.from the surroundings.

the Nitrogen is combined with the Nitrogen is combined with oxygen to form nitrites and oxygen to form nitrites and nitrates. Plants use the nitrates nitrates. Plants use the nitrates and nitrites to make proteins.and nitrites to make proteins.

DenitrificationDenitrification

some soil bacteria break some soil bacteria break down the nitrogen down the nitrogen compounds and release the compounds and release the nitrogen back into the nitrogen back into the environment.environment.

plants could not live plants could not live without Nitrogen-fixing without Nitrogen-fixing and Denitrifying bacteria.and Denitrifying bacteria.

Examples of Symbiotic Examples of Symbiotic RelationshipsRelationships

Mutualism – E. coli in the Mutualism – E. coli in the intestines of mammals aid in intestines of mammals aid in digestion. digestion.

Parasitism – some bacteria are Parasitism – some bacteria are parasites. They live in a host and parasites. They live in a host and eventually overpopulate. As they eventually overpopulate. As they do they use the host’s food and do they use the host’s food and water, and eventually they starve water, and eventually they starve the tissues.the tissues.

Beneficial Uses/EffectsBeneficial Uses/Effects

chemical recyclers (Nitrogen chemical recyclers (Nitrogen Cycle)Cycle)

the production of HGH, Insulin, the production of HGH, Insulin, Etc., through Genetic EngineeringEtc., through Genetic Engineering

oil spill cleanupoil spill cleanup synthesis of Vitamins in your synthesis of Vitamins in your

intestinesintestines

Other Bacteria live symbiotically in Other Bacteria live symbiotically in the guts of animals or elsewhere in the guts of animals or elsewhere in their bodies.their bodies.

For example, bacteria in your gut For example, bacteria in your gut produce vitamin K which is essential produce vitamin K which is essential to blood clot formation.to blood clot formation.

Still other Bacteria Still other Bacteria live on the roots of live on the roots of certain plants, certain plants, converting converting nitrogen into a nitrogen into a usable form.usable form.

Bacteria put the Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and tang in yogurt and the sour in the sour in sourdough bread.sourdough bread.

Saprobes help to Saprobes help to break down dead break down dead organic matter.organic matter.

Bacteria make up Bacteria make up the base of the food the base of the food web in many web in many environments.environments. Streptococcus thermophilus in yogurt

Penanggulangan BakteriPenanggulangan Bakteri

Pengawetan dan Pengolahan Pengawetan dan Pengolahan MakananMakanan

Kebersihan dan Kesehatan Kebersihan dan Kesehatan Diri serta LingkunganDiri serta Lingkungan

ImunisasiImunisasi

STAINING STAINING PROCESSPROCESS

In Gram-positive bacteria, the purple crystal violet stain is trapped by the layer of peptidoglycan which forms the outer layer of the cell. In Gram-negative bacteria, the outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides prevents the stain from reaching the peptidoglycan layer. The outer membrane is then permeabilized by acetone treatment, and the pink safranin counterstain is trapped by the peptidoglycan layer.

The Gram stain has four steps:The Gram stain has four steps: 1. 1. crystal violet,crystal violet, the the primary stainprimary stain: :

followed byfollowed by

2. 2. iodineiodine, which acts as a , which acts as a mordantmordant by forming a crystal violet-iodine by forming a crystal violet-iodine complex, thencomplex, then

3. 3. alcoholalcohol, which , which decolorizesdecolorizes, , followed byfollowed by

4. 4. safraninsafranin, the , the counterstaincounterstain..

Gram staining tests the bacterial cell wall's Gram staining tests the bacterial cell wall's ability to retain ability to retain crystal violetcrystal violet dye during dye during solvent treatment. solvent treatment.

Safranin is added as a mordant to form the Safranin is added as a mordant to form the crystal violet/safranincrystal violet/safranin complex in order to complex in order to render the dye impossible to remove. render the dye impossible to remove.

Ethyl-alcohol solvent acts as a decolorizer Ethyl-alcohol solvent acts as a decolorizer and dissolves the lipid layer from gram-and dissolves the lipid layer from gram-negative cells. This enhances leaching of negative cells. This enhances leaching of the primary stain from the cells into the the primary stain from the cells into the surrounding solvent.surrounding solvent.

Ethyl-alcohol will dehydrate the thicker Ethyl-alcohol will dehydrate the thicker gram-positive cell walls, closing the pores gram-positive cell walls, closing the pores as the cell wall shrinks.  as the cell wall shrinks. 

For this reason, the diffusion of the crystal For this reason, the diffusion of the crystal violet-safranin staining is inhibited, so the violet-safranin staining is inhibited, so the bacteria remain stained.  bacteria remain stained.