Kharkov Sinai a View of Operational Transicion

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Kharkov

and S ina i

A S t u d y i n O p e r a t i o n a l T r a n s i ti o n

by

Major James E. Sikes

In an ry

School of Advanced Mil i tary Studles

US

Army Command

&

General Staff College

Fort Leavonworth, t<ansas

28 Apr i l

988

Approved

for

public

release

d i s

l r i

bu

t ion i s un

limi

led

88-2866



D i r e c t o r , S c h o o l o f

A d v a n c e d M l l i t a r y

i t i h L c , .

U i r e c t o r , t i r a d t i a t t . l I c r r + v

P r o g r a m



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86 pages.

1111< stu l l , t e ~ j t ~ the h y p o t : h f . S l ~

tha t , a t the

operatIona.1

Ipvel . thf:irl.' I 1 fP

l L ~ J f ~ r d Jul Edf'merltc:. u{ upera t iona l

t r ans I t ion

t h a t the commander may II li

r·

n

lJulde ttl d p . t e m l l l ~ the ac t Ions that must

be

tal:en

to

purslie t.he pusi t . l I f d.Im,

thp

LUll l l te>rof tensive.

The

act ions

a

force

takes from the successful d E ? f e I l 5 r ~

to

the JnItlation

of a [ounteroffenSlve IS operatIonal

transItIon. To defille

t t lE

~ e a r c h tor e5sential elements of operatIonal transition, the paper bpQlrlS

witll

d

review

of

theory

and current US

Army

doctrine concerning the mix of

offenSive and deferlslve actions

in

the operational defense. It

then closely

e ~ a m l n ~ s two successful operational tranSitions by forces

that were

s u r p r l S ~ ~ o ~ t n l l m b e r e d and

mal-posltioned. The

campalgns

chosen for study

are

Mallst.eln 5

count.eFoffenslve

against

the

Soviets on the

Eastern

Front from

Februdry to

March

1943

and

the Israel counteroffensive against the

Eqypt ldns

In tho

1973 Arab-Israel . War.

l11e IBonograpn f i r s t studies the

linkage

of

ends, ways,

means

and

r I S ~ S

reQuired for' successful operational

defense

and the t ransi t ion

to

the

offens ?

Second. the paper e)lamines the

elements

of operational d e ~ l g n tllat

m I A ~ ; t

tJe

COI1Sldereri to produce

a

campaign

plan

t h a t facil l ta tes opera

I t J n ~ i

trdnt:. ltlon.

Las t ly ,

the study

e ~ a l l l i n e s

the elements of

comhat

power tlldt

trltl[dl

for s u c [ ~ ~ s f l l l

defense dnd

pursuit

of th counteroffensivP dl tIle

Clpt: rat

l t lr lrd ievpl.

T 1 1 ~ monograph

concilldes

that there are

essent ia l

elements of operat .onal

t r ans , t .on that

may

be used to gUIde

campaign

plannIng. Firs t , ends-ways

l e i l l l ~ - r 15k must be harmollized

so that

strategy,

operational art and

tact ics

are

s y n c n r o n l ~ e d

to

pursue the POSitive

aim

of

the

counteroffensive.

Second,

tile operatlonal commander

should understand

and

apply

the ana lyt ica l

to()ls

of

operational design in

order

to be successful 1n the

defense

and t r a n s i t i o n to

t l l ~

[OLlnteruffenslve.

These cOllcepts are

ttlose

of th center

of gravity,

the

culmillatlng OOlnt, the determInation

of deCisive

pOints and

the

designation

uf l l r l ~ ~ s of operation and

support. This understanding

and

appl1catlon

p r o d u c ~ ~

a

wor l:able,

ln i t la l campaign plan tha t focuses on set t ing the

condJtlrl"s ior' the t r ans . t lon to the counteroffensive. Lastly,

through

the

d p ~ l J l l a t l o n of intel l igence,

deception,

generation of operational reserves

and sll '3talnlltent, the operatIonal commander must meld the

operat ional comhat

~ l ) W e r

~ · H s o u r c e s of leadership. maneuver, firepower, and

protection

InLo a

fO (1 e (dp,:dlle of t . ' ) ,ecutlnq hIS campalgn pIau .

Ihp

mOIlOt]r ' rlph

(lJllL.ludes

t h a ~

the

dp.tense

15

the

~ i t r ( ) n L J p . r

form of

wdr

Dilly

Lt I t l ln /u lves rlO t lp£ . r . : l t J lJ l l r l l transltiClrl tu the of fe r l s lve .

lh lh monograph also contains three appendices that

may

be useful to

CJfleratlorlal

planner s

In developing campaign plans. While

the

discllsslon

in

the appendIces i s not completely supported by the two case s tudIes presentel i ,

the append

••

e .

may

prOVIde s ta r t points for those in teres ted ,n conductIng

f ~ r t h e r research

into the subjects of operational defense and t ransi t ion to

til£

uffp.ltl,e.



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i s

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. h I l l e r r ~ f o r e , o n e may s ay t h a t , i r i t h e i n i t i a l d e f ~ n s e , tl ir r t ' , i i I i v e

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i 5 q a i i i e r l ,

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o f t h e d e t e n s e a r e u p e r a t i o n a l . T h r ou gh t h i s

t i a n s i

t l o n

t h e d e f e t id e r b ec o m es t h e a t t a c k e r a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l .

O p e r a t i o n a l o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n i n t h e d e f e n s e i s 1 t h e r e f o r e , m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t

f r o m t.Ii<it o f p u r e d e f e n s e .

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a

d i s t i n c t i o n b et w e e n r e a c t i v e t a c t i c a l o f f e r t s i v e

a c t i o i i s

i n t h e d e f e n s e an d t h o s e o p e r a t i o n a l o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n s o f t h e

s t r d t e g i c d e f e n d e r :

" E v e n w hen t h e p o i n t o f w ar i s t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t a t u s q uo , t h e f a c t

r e m a i n s t h a t m e r e l y p a r r y i n

a

b l o w g o e s a g a i n s t t h e e s a e n t i a l

i i a t t i r e o f w a r , w h i c h c e r t a i n q y d o e s n o t c o n s i s t m e r e l y o f e n d u r i n g .

O n c e

t h e d e f e n d e r h a s g a i n e d an i m p o r t a n t a d v a n ta g e , d e f e n s e a s

s i i r h

h a s d o ne i t s w o r k . W h i l e h e i s e r i l o y i n t h i s a d v a n ta g e ,

he

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? h i s t r a n s i t i o n t o t l i e

c o u n t e r a t t a c k n u r t b e a c c e p t e d a s a t e n d en c y i n h e r e n t i n t h e d e f e r r j r

- i n d e e d . a s o n e o f i t s e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s . W h e r e v er a v i c t o r y

a c h i e v e d b y t h e d e f e n s i v e f o r m . . . i s a l l o w e d t o w i t h e r aw ay u n u s e d

ci

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t o

h r

o f l r n s i w e - t h e ' f l a s h i r r g s w o rd o f v e1 ,p ea nc e ' - I S t h e g r e a t e s t m 1 ) i e i ~ l

f o r t h e d e f e n d e r . I f

i t

i s n o t i n t h e c o m m a n de r ' s m i n d f o r m t h ( >

s t a r t , o r r a . t h e r

i f

i t

i s n o t a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h i s i d e a o i

d e f e n s e , h e w i l l n e v e r b e p e rs u a d e d o f t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f tlle

d e f r r l s i v e f o r m . . . 7 ( 1 t a l c s a d d e d)

C l a u s e m i t i , t l i u 5 , m a k e s c l e a r t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l u f f e n s i v e r e s u l t i n g

f r o m w c c e s s f u l d e t e n s e i s t h e m or e p o w e r f u l .

Once

s t r o n g e r , t h e d e f e n d e r

m u s t a t t a c k . T h i s c ha n ge , f r o m t h e s u c c e s s f u l d e f e n s e t o t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f

t h e a t t d c l : i s o p e r a t i q n a l t r a n s i t i o n . O p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n m us t

b e

p l a n n e d

i r u m t h e

i ~ e g i i i i t i n g o f t h e d e f e l t s e i n o r d e r t o a l l o w f o c u s o n

a

p o s i t i v c a im .

I l l ? p o s i t i v e a i m

1 5

e s s e n t i a l t o w a r f i g h t i n g or ' , a s C l a u s e w i t z h a s s a i d , t h e

e n t i r e c f t o r t o f k i l r

i c ,

a b s u r d .

T h e

p r i n c i p a l d u t y o f e v e r y c o m p e t e n t a n d

.iui . t : t?Li ' i fu l ~ : o m m a n i l i ~ r 1111 t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f e n s e i s a p o w e r f u l t r d n s i t i o n t o

t l l r ? o f f r r i s e t o g a i i i ( i 1 ) 5 i t i v ~ 1e n d .

1 : u r r

e r t t

l l q c t r l n e o f Oeer . a_ t _ on_a l . . T , : a?5 l . t p r i .

i : u r r e i : t l l f i A rm y o a s r a t . i ~ ~ n a l o c t r i n e a 5 s t a t e d i n FH. loo:? O p e r a t q s .

s t a t e s

t h a t " a

d e f e n s i v e s t r a t e g y d e s i g n e d t o d e n y 5 u c c e s s w i l l r p q i r i r e

LI Ii ei i i v t? 1: ump on e i i t i

t u p r ec 1i id e d e f e a t . '''

A i r L a n d B a t t l e d o c t r i n e , l i k e

[ . l a L is L'w it ; id It t h e o r y , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e a n o f f e n s i v e o p e r a t i o n

i n

a d e f e n s i v e c a m o a i g n t u p u r s u e a p o s i t i v e a i m . I n o r d e r t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e

i i f f e n ~ i v e , I le d e f e n s e m u s t d en y s u c c e s s t o t h e e n e m y.

US

A rm y d o c t r i n e

> td t t? , t h a t w h i l e " r e a c t i v e m e a su r es may h a l t t h e en e m y, e a r l y c o u n t e r a t . t a c k s

i ii i( ir o v? a t h e c h a l i c e s f o r

5 ~ 1 c c e s s

[ i n t , h e d e f e n s e ] . [ B u t ] d e f e n s e

r a r l

g r e a t l y

[ ; I



d am ag e t h e enem y o n l y w hen e a r l y c o u n t e r s t r o k e s a cc om pa ny t t i e r e a c t i v e ( i l ia r,e

o f t h e b a t t l e .

" '

O nce a g a i n , t h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t a c t i c a i

I e v r l

n f f e n s i v e c o u n t e r a t t a c k s an d o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l o f f e n s i v e c o u n t e r s t r o k r l s .

F i n a l l y , d o c t r i n e c l e a r l y s t a t e s t h a t s u c c e s s f u l d e f e n s e m ii s t r o n c l i i d e

w i t h

a

s u c c e 5 s f u l o f f e n s i v e .

" . r o w i n [ co m m an d er s1 m u st p r e s e r v e t h e i r own f0 r r .e t h r o u g h

s u r c e s s f u i d e f e n s e , w e a k e n t h e e ne m y, a nd t h e n t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e .

I n some c a s e s , , co m ma nd er s c a n s e c u r e t h e a t e r o b j e c t i v e r I h r -o u gh t h e

t a r : t i c a l o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n s o f a d e f e n s i v e c am pa i 11, i l o r e i i j m m o n l v ,

s u c c e 5 s

w i l l

r e q u i r e f o l l o w i n g

a

s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a Y t o na 1 d e f e n s e w i t t i

a i l o f f e n s i v e c a m p a i g n . " lO

D o c t r i n e a n d t h e o r y a r e , t h e r e f o r e , i n a g r ee m en t t h a t t h e d e f e r i d e r must

t r a n s i t i o i i t o t h e o f f e n s e

t o

p ut ' f iu e a p o s i t i v e a i m . R u t h d r a w a ( l i s t i i i i : t i n n

h e t w e e n r e a c t i v e o f f e n s i v e a c t i o r i s o f s u c c e s s f u l

d e t e n s e ,

t n a t

I S

c o u n t ~ r a t t a c k s , a n d t h e p r o a c t i v e o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n s

[ i f t h e

a t t a c k t .h at q r i jw s

f ro n , t t l e d e f e n s e , t h a t i s t t i e C D U l i t e r5 t r o k e o r c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .

S i n c e

t h e r e

c l e b r l y se em s t o b e a d i f f e r e n c e a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l b e t w e e n the ;*

t w o

t y i i e s o f o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n , o n e r e a c t i v e a n d o n e p r o a c t i v e , t h e i ~ s i i ea r i = . e s

c o t i c s r n i n q t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o e n a b l e t h e co m ma n de r

t o

p u r s u e t h e

p 0 5 i t i v ~

a i m .

C u r r e n t l y , A i r L a n d

B a t t l e

d o c t r i n e a d d r r r s e s t h e s e

p r e r e q u i a i t e 5 i n o n l y a s u p e r f i c i a l w ay.

THESIS.

1 I i i s s t u d y

w i l l

t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t , a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l : t h e r e

a r e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t h a t

t h e

commander may

, i 5 e

a s a q u i d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c t i o n s t h a t m us t be t a k e n u l t i m a t e l v

t i ]

p u r s u e a

O C I S I ~ ~ Y Pa i m , t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .

To

d e t e r m i n e t h e s e e l e m e n t s t w o

h i s t . u r i c a 1 c a s e s t u d i e s

w i i l

b e a n a l y z e d .

Definitions

l l i r e e d e f i n i t i o n s a r e c r i t i i : a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e i e m e i i t s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n w h i c h w i l l h e e x a m i n e d. T he y a r e :

;Jp u r xt I on a 1

1.ra n 5 i

t i

on.:

1

h e a c t 1 on s t a k e n b y

an o e r a t i o n a l

co mma n d e r t o

s e t

f h i c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h

e i h a n q r

111

o p e r a o n s i r o l i l

t h r s u c c e s s f u l d e f e n s e t o t h e i n i t i a t i n o f t h e c

o u 11

t

e

I

i) f f

e n s

1 v e .

T t t E a 5 r

a c t i o n s c e n t . er o n t h e m ovem en:

t o f l a r g e f o r m a t i o n s o v e r v a s t

d i L j la i i r e s , d e f e n s i v e o p e r a t

i o n s ,

f o r c e q e i i e r a t

i o ~ i

o f i i p e r a ' t

1 [ i i i d i

r P L c , r v e s , s u s ta i nm e n t . o p r r a t i n n s a nd ,

f i n a 1 y ,

1

O I I

IIt

er n f f P I L,

1

. I f

[ l p e r

"j n.n.a ...

Desi.qr1:

F o u r t h e o r e t . i c a 1 c o n c e p t s c e n t r a l t o till

p a n n i n r j a n . T ' e i e e u t i o n o f c a m p a ig n s a n d m a i r w o p e r a t i o n s a r t ?

r : r n t i . , :

o f r a v l t v , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p n i ro t s , art11 l i r ~ e ? .

,,i

' j p w

a

9 1 u n s1 s u p p o r t .

Camp

a ig n

d

e s i y ii 1

i

n

I:

s

5 1

r

a t et j y , 11

p

p

r

a

t

1

i i i i a I

.>

t'

t



a l i t l t ;~ i ' l i i : ; I i y

p r o v i d i n g a n a l y t i c a l t o r i l s f u r t h e p l a n n e r t o

use

111

< i e t e r m i n i n g t l i t ' b e s t u s e o f c o m ba t p o w e r

i n

r e l a t i o n t o t h e f a c t o r s

<i f

M E T I - T a i i d I.he i i i f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y o p e r a t i o n a l i n t e l l i q w t [ i ~

~ i r - i ~ i i a r a t i a i iif t h e b a t t l e f i e l d .

I J ( i e r a t i o i l d 1 C o m b a t

P q w e r :

I i ~ c l u d e s h e d o c t r i n a l e l e m e n t s o f com ba t

p o w e r : l e a d e r s h i p , m an eu ve r, f i r e p o w e r a nd p r o t e c t i o n a s g r o u p o n e

a nd a dd s i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n , f o r c e e n e r a t i o n , a nd s u s t a i n m e n t

a s e l e m e n t s o f a s e co n d g r o u p t h a t a ? f e c t s r o u p o ne . Th es e t w o

t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f comba p ow er a nd c r i t i c a l

u n c ' i o n s , t h a t e l e m e n t so r m p l a n s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s i m p a c t t h e d o c t r i n a l

u f c om ba t power a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l .

M e t hodo1 . ogy

T h i s m o n o s r a p h

u s e 5

t h e c a se s t u d y a p p r o a ch t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e 5 5 e l l t i d l

e l e m e n t s

1

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o c o n d u c t c am p a i gn s . T he

c r i t e r i a f o r s t u d y enters on t h r e e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l a r t. t a k e n f r o m FM 1 0 0 - 5

Opgrat pn5 1 1 :

1 . WHAT MIL IT AR Y CONDITIO N

M U S T

BE PRODUCED I N THE THEATER OF

WAR

[IR

O P E R A T I O N S

r[i

A C H I E V E T H E

S T R A T E G I C

G O A L ?

( t h e l i n k a g e of s t r a t e q i c e n d s a n d m i l i t a r y m ea n s )

2 . WHAT SEOUENCE OF ACTIONS I S MOST LIKELY I 0 PRODUCE THAT CONDll l i lN'. '

( t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m b a l a n c i n g e n d s , w ay s , m e d l 1 5

a n d r i s k )

i.

HOW SHOULD THE RESOURCES OF THE FORCE BE APPLIED

T O

ACCOMPLISH Tl lk:

SEOLIENCE [IF ACTIONS7

i t l i e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l c o n h at p uw er e l e m e n t s t h a t e n a b l e operat. ion.-.:

drs ly l l i

I t i t .

c a m p a i g i i s

~ t i o s e r i

f o r t h e s t u d y a r e M a n s t e i n ' s c o u i i t e r o f f e i l . i v e

a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t 5

i n

F e b r u a r y

1943 ,

s t u d i e d u n de r t h e r u b r i c o f " K h a r k o v "

J Q I I

t h e I s r a e l i c o u n t e r o f f e r i s i v e a g a i n s t t h e E g y p t i a n s i n t h e

1 9 7 ;

A r a b -

I s r a e l i i J ar , s t u d i e d u n de r t h e r u b r i c o f " S i n a i " . T he se c am p a ig n s w er e

c h n s e r ~

b ec au se t h e y d e p i c t s u c c e s ~ f 1 1 1o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s b y s u r p r i s e d ,

o u t i i u m h e r e i l a n d , n d I p o s i t i o n e d f o r c e s . T he K h a r l i o v c a m p a i g n may b e d e s c r i b e d

a s a i i ~ d j o r o p e r a t i t i i t t h a t t e m p o r a r i l y a c h ie v e d o p e r a t i o n a l 5 1 1 c c e 5 5 ar:d

t h e r e i i y s t a b i l i z e d t h e G erm an s t r a t e g i c d e f e n s e . T he S i n a i c a m p a ig n

f e p r e s r n t s t r u e o w e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n i n t h a t I s r a e l s h i f t e d from a p u r e 1 . r

i l r f e r i s i v e p o s i t i o n , f i g h t i n g f o r h e r p e r c e i v e d S U r V i V a l , t o a S t r a t e g i c

r i f i e r i s i v e t h a t r e s u l t e d

111

t h e d e f e a t o f h e r a t t a c k e r . O p e r a t i o n a l co mm al id er s

m a y f a c e s u c h a s i t u a t i o n i n NATO o r a s h o r t n o t i c e c o n t i n g e n c y o p e r a t i o n .



O n e of t h e

most

s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s i n h is t o r y w a s

c o n d u c t e d

b y

F i e l d - M a r s h a l E r i c h v o n M a n s t e i n a n d A r m y G r o u p S o u t h

l A G l

d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d N o v e m b e r 1942 t o M a r c h 19 4 3. O n a f r o n t o f v a s t s c a l e ,

w i t h f e w o u t s i d e r e s o u r c e s a nd f a c i n g a n u m e r i c a l l y s u p e r i o r S o v i e t f o r c e ,

M a n s t e i n i n f l i c t e d t r e m e n d o u s ~ O S S R B o n h i s e n e my a nd r e g a i n e d h u n d r e d s o f

m i l e s o f t e r ri t o r y. H e c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a rt a nd i t s p r o p er

e x e c u t i o n . M a n s t e i n ' s i n c r e d i b l e f e a t o v e r c a m e

a

f l a w e d G e r m a n s t r a t e g y t h a t

h a d its r o o t s in t h e s u m m e r o f

1942.

H i t l e r ' e

1942

s u m m e r o f f e n s i v e a g s i n r t S t a l i n g r a d a n d t h e o i l r i c h

C a u c a s u s r e g i on

of

t h e s o u t h e r n S o v i e t U n i o n h a d g r o u n d t o a h a l t by t h e

aut .umn o f

1942. G e r m a n g r o u n d f o r c e s w e r e w e a r y f r o m m o n t h s o f w ar a n d

d a n g e r o u s l y o v e r e x t e n d e d a c r o s s s o u t h e r n R u s si a . T h o u g h

in p o o r

c o n d i t i o n

t h e m s e l v e s , t h e S o v i e t s s e i ze d t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o s t r i k e a s t r a t e g i c b l o w

a n d i n t h e i r W i n t e r O f f e n s i v e of ' 4 2 - 4 3 d e s t r o y e d t h e G e r m a n 6 t h A r m y a n d

c a p t u r e d S t r l i n g r a d . T h e lams o f S t a l i n g r a d a nd t h e G e r m a n 6 t h A rm y

was

a

g r a v e b l o w to H i t l e r ' s o f f e n s i v e pl a n s , b u t i t w a s n o t s t r a t e g i c a l l y

d e c i s i v e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e S o v i e t s w e r e u pl i f t ed b y t h e i r f i r s t

m a j o r

v i c t o r y a n d b e l i ev e d t h e G e r m a n s

w e r e

c r u mb l i ng . B a s ed o n t h i s e r r o n e o u s

a n a l y s i s , t h e y l a u n c h e d f u r t h e r o f f e n s i v e e t o d e s t r o y t h e G e r m a n s o u t h e r n

w i n g i n a n a t t e m p t t o r e g a i n t h e s t r a t e g i c i n i t i a t i v e p e r m a n e n t l y . ( S e e M a p

112, p a g e s

61,

b 2 , a n d

b 3 )

O n

20

N o v e m b e r 1942, M a n s t e i n t o o k c o m m a n d o f P O D o n w i t h t h e m i s s i o n o f

f r e e i n g t h e G e r m a n

6th

A r m y f r o m e n c i r c l e m e n t a t S t a l i n g r a d a n d s o l i d i f y i n g

t h e f r o n t a r o u nd R o s to v . T h i s m i s s i o n i n c l u d ed t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e

vul ner abl e s uppl y li ne s to PIG P w h i c h w a s a t t a c k i n g in t h e C a u ca s u s .

M a n s t e i n f a c e d t w o i m m e d i a t e p r o bl e m s i S o v i e t s u p e r i o r i t y o f

B

t o

1

and

poor

g e o g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n .

l 3

C o n s e q u e n t l y , w i t h t h e b a t t e r e d f o r c e s at h i 5

d i s p o s a l , h e w a s u n a b l e to s a v e t h e G e r m a n 6 t h A r my n o r , w i t h t h e r e n e w e d

S o v i e t o f f e n r i v e s , c o u l d h e

k e e p

t h e l i n e r of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t o

A G A

open.

M a n s t e i n f e l t his o n l y r e c o u r s e w a s t o shorten t h e d e f en s i v e l i n e s o f A6 D o n

a n d t o g e n e r a t e s u f f i c i e n t c o m b a t

p o w e r

to h a l t t h e S o v i e t t h r u s t s .

To



a s s e m b l e t h e m o b i l e P _ u f o r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e , h e

p r o p o s e d t h a t

the

e a s t e r n w i n g

of

AG A and AG Don be draw n in and the

o p e r a t i on a l r e s e r v e s t h u s g e n e r a t ed b e u s e d t o a n a s h t h e S o v i e t t h ru s t s.

H o w e v e r , H i t l e r w o u l d n o t a l l o w a n y w i t h d r aw a l . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

A G

D o n w a s

place d in an unt enab le position. The front warn in ruch a st ate

of

d i s a r r a y

f o l l o w i n g t h e S o v i e t d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e I t a l i a n, H u n g a r i a n a n d R u m a n i a n

a r m i e s ( f i g h t i n g w i th t h e G e r m a n s on t h e m o u t h e rn w i n g ) t h a t M a n s t e i n w a s

u n a b l e t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s m i s s i o n s w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s .

( S e e Map 3,

p a g e

6 4 I

On

15

J a n u a r y 1943, t h e S o v i e t s t o o k a d v a n t a g e of t h e d e r p e r a t e G e r m a n

p o s i t i o n t o l a u n c h t h e V o r o n e zh

F-cr

( s u p p o r t ed by t h e S o u t h w e s t e r n

F r 0 n . t )

14

t h r o u g h t h e 270 m i l e g a p l e ft by t h e r e t r e a t i n g G e r m a n a l l i e d a r m i es .

B y

t h e e n d of J a n u a r y t h e S o v i e t s h a d t a k e n K u r s k , c r o a s e d t h e D o n e t s R i v e r a n d

w e r e r e a d y

t o

t a k e K h a r k o v . N a n s t e in ' s s t r i d e n t d e n a n d s f o r f r e e d o m

of

a c t i o n a nd t h e o b v i o u s s t r e n g t h o f t h e S o v i e t d r i v e c o m p e l l e d H i t l e r t o

a u t h o r i z e r e l u c t a n tl y t h e w i t h d r a wa l o f t h e G e r n a n 1 s t

k * f . A r m y

f r o m t h e

C a u c a s u s a n d p o s i t i o n i t t o t h e r e a r o f

A G Don s o

t h a t t h e S o v i e t t h r u s t s

a l o n g t h e

Don

R i v e r c o u l d b e s t o p p e d , E v e r y t h l n g d e p e n d e d o n M a n s t e i n ' s

ability t o shift f o r c e r , c o n s ta n t l y b a c k a n d f o r t h a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t t h r u s t s

on

R o s t o v . N a n s t e i n c o o l l y h a n d l e d t h e s i t u a t i o n t h r o u g h s o u n d j u d g e m e n t ,

s h r e w d r i s k a s s e s s m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n a l a d r o l t ne n r . U r i n g i n t e r i o r l i n e s ,

s t r o n g p o l n t e a t d e c i s i v e p o i n t s , a n d m o b i l e c o u n t e r a t t a c k f o r c e s

h e s l o w e d

t h e S o v i e t a d v a n c e a n d e m p l o y e d h i s 4 t h

A r m y

t o s a v e t h e s i t u a t i o n a t

R o s t o v . B u t h i s s u c c e s s w a s t e m p o r a r y as t h e S o v ie t t h r u s t s w e r e too s t r o n g

f o r h i m t o h o l d i n d e f i n i t e l y .

A l t h o u g h t h e G e r m a n

1st P m g ~ r -A r m y

w a s s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h d r a w n ,

a

"super-

S t a l i n g r a d " l o o me d b e f o r e N a n s t e i n' s f o r c e s p r o j e c t in g

out

f r o m t h e D n ei p e r

R i v e r b e t w e e n t h e D o n e t s R i v e r a n d t h e S e a

o f

A z ov . T h e c r i t i c a l j u n c t i o n s

o f t h e r o a d a n d r a i l n e t w o r k a l o n g w i t h t h e m a j o r r i v e r c r o s s i n g p o i n t s

i n

t h e a r e a

of

o p e r a t i o n 6 w e r e S l a v y a n s k , R o s t o v , D n e p r o p e t r o v s k , a n d

Z a p o r o z hy e . T h e S o v i e t s w e r e o n e h a lf t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e s e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s

a s w er e t he ma in Ge r m a n f ~ r m a t i o n s , ~ ~n d t h e y d e c i d e d t o u s e t h c i r n u m e ri c a l

s u p e r i o ri t y a nd f a v o r a b l e g e o g r a p hi c p o s i t i o n t o s t r i k e t o t h e S e a

o f

Azov in

o r d e r to s h a t t e r A G B a n d c u t o f f AG D o n a n d A G A . (See N a p 4. p a g e 651



Renewed S o v i e t a t t a c k s c o u p l e d w i t h H i t l e r ' 5 o b s t i n a c y , a l m os t ca us ed t h e

German O p e r a t i o n a l a nd t a c t i c a l command an d c o n t r o l s y s te m t o f a i l .

A G

8 , A G

Don and A G A e ac h h ad d i v e r g e n t m i s s i o n s and t hu s , t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n s

d i d n o t c om ple me nt e ac h o t h e r . F o r h i s p a r t , M a n s t e i n a sk e d p e r m i s s i o n t o

c o n d u c t an o p e r a t i o n a l l y m o b i l e d e f e n se so h e c o u l d m an eu ve r a n d g i v e g r n u n d

i n o r d e r t o g r i n d down t h e S o v i e t o f f e n s i v e . H i t l e r r e f u s e d any g i v i n g up o f

t e r r a i n and f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d t h e i s s u e b y p e r s o n a l l y d i r e c t i n g t h e com ba t

16

n f s e v e r a l c r i t i c a l P$,nm.c d i v i s i o n s .

H i t l e r ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l command a nd c o n t r o l o f t h e

f l u i d s i t u a t i o n i n t h e G erman s o u t h e rn w in g c u l m i n a t e d

wi th

t h e 1135s o f

K h a r k o v . l7 T he s o u t h e r n f r o n t was i n

a

s h a m bl e s. F a c e d w i t h

a

p o t e n t i a l

d e ba c l e , H i t l e r o r d e re d t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f

A G

Don and

A G B

i n t o

A G

S o u t h

a nd p l a c e d M a n s t e i n i n command. Now w i t h o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l , M a n s t e i n

moved h i s 1 s t

P

A rm y a nd 4 t h

F'a'apy-

Army t o t h e n o r t h ba nk o f t h e D o n et s

R i v e r t h e r e t o b e

a

s t r i k e f o r c e t h a t c o u l d d e f e a t any c o n t in u e d S o v i e t

o f f e n s i v e d e s i gn e d t o i n f l i c t f u r t h e r c r i t i c a l l o s s e s s u c h a s ha d b e f a l l e n

t h e G e rm an s a t K h a r k o v .

M a n s t e ln now p r e p a r e d an o p e r a t i o n a l d e f e ns e t h a t m ix ed t a c t i c a l d e fe n s e

a t d e c i s i v e p o i n t s w i t h t a c t i c a l o f f e n s i v e c o u n t e r a t t a c k s t o b l e e d o f f t h e

s te am o f t h e S o v i e t a t t a c k . A f t e r s t a b i l i z i n g t h e f r o n t , t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e c o u l d b e c r e a t e d . M a ns te in ,

t h e r e f o r e , r e n ew ed h i s c a l l f o r a d e f e n s i v e l i n e a l o n g t h e M iu s R i v e r ,

c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f

o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s an d p r i o r i t i z a t i o n o f s u p p l i e r t o

A G

S o ut h. H i t l e r r e s i s t e d v e h em e n t l y , b u t a f t e r t wo t e n s e c o n f e r e n c e s , o n 6 F eb

and I h F eb, h e r e l u c t a n t l y ga ve i n t o M a n B t e i n ' s p l a n . I 9 (S ee Map

5,

p a g e 6 6 1

M a n s t e i n knew t h e S o v i e t su c ce 6s wo u ld r e s u l t i n t h e i r o v e r e x t e n s i o n a nd

e nc ou ra ge d t h i s b y j u d i c i o u s l y r e l i n q u i s h i n g R o s t ov an d t h e g ro u nd b et w ee n

t h e Don a nd t h e D o n e t r R i v e r o n a l i n e f r om t h e M i u s R i v e r t o t h e w es t o f

K h a r kn v . J u b i l a n t a t t h e i r p e r c e i v e d s uc ce ss , t h e S o v i e t s p us he d on

r e l e n t l e s s l y and r e c k l e s s l y , t h u s p r e s e n t i n g M a ns te in w i t h t h e c ha nc e f o r a

s m as h in g b l o w . S oon t h e S o v i e t f o r c e s w e re e x h a u s t e dz 0 a nd M a n s t e i n l a u n c h e d

t h e c o u n t e r e t r o k e . ( Se e Map 6 , p a g e

b71

M a ns te in began h i s c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e b y s eq u e nc in g b a t t l e s t o s t a b i l i z e

t h e f r o n t , t h e n h e t a c k l e d e ac h S o v i e t t h r u s t i n t u r n . On

20

Feb ,

SS P_anzer-

C o rp s d r o v e f o r w a r d f r o m K r r s n o g r a d a nd sm ash ed i n t o

the

r i a r o f t h e S o v i e t

6 t h

A r m y

w h i l e 4 8 t h

P g n e r .

C o r p i d r o v e n o r t h i n t o t h e t h e l r f l a n k . T h i s



c o n c e n t r i c a t t a c k s t u n n ed t h e S o v l e t s . 1 s t

Pjggri

A r m y t h l n n e d

I t #

e x t e n d s d

l i n e s , c o n d u c t i n g a r i s k y economy o f f o r c e ,

t o

m u s t e r 40th Pm: C o rp s t o

s t r i k e t h e S o v i e t t a n k f o r m a t i o n , P opo v M o b i l e G ro up , an d d r i v e n o r t h .

German i n t e l l i g e n c e p r o v i d e d a rm or f o r m a t i o n s w i t h e n a c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e

size,

l o c a t i o n , a nd d i r e c t i o n o f movement o f e ac h S o v i e t t h r u n t .

2 1

rhus,

G erm an a r m o r k e p t d r i v i n g , a v o i d i n g d e c i s i v e en g ag e me n t, w h i l e G erm an

i n f a n t r y h e l d d e c i s i v e p o i n t s . I n

t h i s

m a nn er , t h e Ge rm an s w e r e a b l e t o

b e

s t r o n g

a t

e v e ry en ga ge me nt , s t r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r s u c c e i m fu l t a c t i c a l b a t t l e s

i n t o o p e r a t i o n a l v i c t o r y .

I n q u i ck s u c c e s s io n , s tu n ne d S o v i e t t a c t i c a l 1 P ld e rS C r i e d f o r h e l p .

V a t u t i n w ou l d n o t l i s t e n t o s u b o r d in a t e s i t u a t l o n r e p o r t s and w ou ld t o l e r a t e

n u

s l o w i n g o f t h e a t t a c k .

2 2

T he S o v i e t ' s o f f e n s i v e c o a b a t p ow er was

so

d i s s i p a t e d i t ith he red.'^ S o v i e t o p e r a t l o n a l c om ma nd ers an d t h e S o v i e t H i g h

Command

( S T A V K A )

c o n t i n u e d t o c o m mi t a d d i t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n s t o

an

a l r e a d y

f a i l e d e f f o r t .

2 4

By 23 F e b H a u s s e r ' s SS P3na~. C o r p s a n d 4 8 t h

fl.$azpr

C o r p s

l i n k e d

up

a t P a v lo g r a d and t h e S o v i e t 6 t h

A r m y was

r u l n r d .

By 2S

Feb ,

a f t e r

a s e r i e s o f d e s p e r a t e s i g n a l s b etw e en t h e S o u th w es t F r o n t commander , V a t u t i n ,

a nd P op ov , (c om ma nd er o f t h e 6 t h Army s t r i k e f o r c e , Po po v M o b i l e G r o u p ) ,

V a t u t i n r e a l i z e d h e w as d e f e a t e d an d c a l l e d a h a l t . B u t , h e was p a s t h i s

c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t a nd h e c o u l d n o t d e f en d h i e g a in s . (See Hap

7,

p a g e

6 8 )

S T A V K A w ou ld n o t g i v e up and d i r e c t e d t h s S o v i e t 6 9 t h A r m y a n d 3 r d T a n k

Army s o u t h t o h e l p V a t u t i n ' s a t t a c k . T he y s l o w l y moved s o u t h , t h e i n f a n t r y

w i t h l i t t l e a r m or s u p p o r t , s h o r t o f s u p p l i e s and w i t h u n t r a i n e d c o n s c r i p t

p e a sa n ts a s s o l d i e r s .

25

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e m i s e r i e s , S o v i e t f o r m a t i o n s ,

o u t o f f u e l and w i t h n o m u t u a l s u p p o r t , became h o p e l e s s l y i s o l a t e d . The

e u p h o r i c e x p a n s io n o f t h e o f f e n s i v e h a d d i s m i p a t e d t h e S o v i e t S ch w er pu n kt .

The G erman c o u n t e r s t r o k e h a r k e n e d t o t h e

Bllt?_k~zkjq

d a y s

a s

t h e S t u ka d i v e

b o m b er s d i s c o v e r e d t h e S o v i e t 3 r d T an k f ir my a s s e m b ly a r e a s a nd s m as he d t he m .

Th e G erm an s t u r n e d t h e t a b l e s on t h e i r enemy e n c i r c l i n g

small

S o v i e t f o r c e s

t i m e a f t e r t i m e an d o v e r w h e l m i n g t h e n . ( Se e Map B, p a ~ e6 9 )

By

I

M arc h t h e S o v i e t s c o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e a nd w e nt o n t h e d e f e n s i v e

a c ro s s t h e f r o n t . By 2

M a r c h ,

4 t h hn ; gc . A r m y

on

t h e l e f t w i n g an d 1 s t P ~ E ~ T .

Army

on

t h e r i g h t d e s t r o y e d t h e i r enemy b e tw e en t h e D n e ip e r an d t h e Do n e ts .

A G

S o u th h ad r e g a i n e d t h e i n i t i a t i v e an d now t u r n e d t o d e l i v e r t h e d e c i s i v e

b l o w o n t h e S o v i e t V o ro n ez h

p g n t .

H a n s t e i n k new t h e S o v i e t s w o u l d c om m it

e v e r y t h i n g t o h o l d I lh a rk o v . The d e s t r u c t i o n o f S o v i e t 6 t h Army and P op ov



d o b i l e G ro up c r e a t e d a 120 m i l e g ap i n t h e S o v i e t f r o n t l i n e . 2 6 But, e v e r y

S o v i e t a t t e m p t t o p l u g t h e g ap warn p i e c e m e a l , u n c o o r d i n a t e d , a n d o u t o f s t e p

w i t h t h e tem po o f t h e b a t t l e . By

1 4

d a rc h , K h ar ko v f e l l t o t h e G ermans a f t e r

b i t t e r f i g h t i n g . By t h e 1 9 t h , B e l g o r o d was a g a i n i n G erm an h an ds . E x c e p t

f o r

t h e i s o l a t e d 1 7 t h Army o n t h e Taman p e n i n s u l a i n t h e C au ca su s, d a n s t e i n

h ad p r a c t i c a l l y r e g a i n e d t h e

s a m e

p o s i t i o n s t h e Germ ans h ad h e l d a t t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f

1 9 4 2

a nd i n t h e p r o c e ss h a d d e s t r o y e d 5 2 S o v i e t d i v i s i o n s

27

i n c l u d i n g 25 p r e c i o u s a rm o re d b r i g a d e s .

6 . n a l y s j s o f .& h ,a r k o v

To r e v i e w t h e c r i t e r i a u se d I n t h e a n a l y s i s o f M a n s t e i n ' s a c t i o n s d u r i n g

t h e K h ar k o v c o u n t e r o f f e n m i v e , we r e t u r n t o t h e t h r e e q u e s t i o n s p o se d b y Fd

100-5 O p e r a t i o n s . F i r s t , we m us t u n d er s ta n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n

s t r a t e g i c e nd s, t h e means a v a i l a b l e t o a c h i e ve t h o s e e nd s, and o p e r a t i o n a l

w ay s t o u s e t h e g i v e n r e s o u r c e s a nd manage t h e c o n c o m i t a n t r i s k s 1 T h i s

p o r t i o n o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s b e s t s t u d i e d b y d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l i n k b e tw e e n t h e

s t a t e d s t r a t e g i c g o a l s a s p r es e n t e d b y H i t l e r and t h e m i l i t a r y means

a v a i l a b l e t o d a n s t e i n . S eco nd , we must d e t e r m i n e t h e s e q u e n c e o f a c t i o n s t h e

o p e r a t i o n a l commander t o o k t o p r o du c e a s a t i m f a c t o r y m i l i t a r y end

s t a t e .

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o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a s

i t

r e l a t e d t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i d e a s o f c e n t e r o f

g r a v i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p o i n t s and l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n s / s u p p o r t .

T h i r d , we m us t a n a l y z e t h e r e 6 o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e a nd how t h e y w e re u s e d t o

a c h i e ve s u c c e ~ s . T h i s i s b e s t d on e b y e x a m in i ng o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l com bat

p ow er . T he se t h r e e q u e s t i o n s fo r m t h e f ra m ew or k f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n f ro m t h e d e f en se t o t h e o f f e n s e .

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d a n s t e i n h ad t o ov erc om e p o or s t r a t e g i c g u id a nc e t o a v e r t d i s a s t e r . The

German G e ne ra l S t a f f t r a d i t i o n a l l y t r a n s l a t e d s t r a t e g i c en ds i n t o o p e r a t i o n a l

o b j e c t i v e s . Th e O p e r a t i o n a l com mander t h e n c r e a t e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e s ig r l o r

w ay s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e e nd s b y b a l a n c i n g means and r i s k s . H i t l e r a b r o g a te d

t h i s p ro c es s t h r o u g h h i s u n r e a l i s t i c s t r a t e g i c g o a l5 a nd t h e r e s u l t a n t

" s t a n d f a s t " p o l i c y . H i t l e r f a i l e d t o u n d e r s t an d t h e c h a n g in g r e a l i t y o f

h i s enemy, t h e S o v i e t s , who w er e m a t u r i n g i n t h e i r w a r f i g h t i n g

s k i l l s

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t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l m l q h t p ro du ce d q u a l i t y e qu ip me nt i n q u a n t i t i e s t h e Germ ans

c o u l d n o t m atch . H i t l e r ' s f o cu s on a s t r a t e g y o f a n n i h i l a t i o n b as ed on a

d e c i s i v e b a t t l e was b e y on d t h e m eans o f G erm any.

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an o u t g r o w t h o f t h i s



o b s t i n a t e p u r s u i t o f t h e o f f e n s i v e , H i t l e r w o u l d no t g i v e u p a n y g a i n s in t h e

u n r e a l i s t i c h o p e t h a t h e c o u l d r e b u i l d h i s f o r c e s f o r t h e c l i m a c t i c a t ta c k.

IHitler v i e w e d t h e d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e o f t h e E a s t e r n f r o n t a s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y

m e a s u r e m u c h l i k e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e w i n t er of 1941-1942. C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

H i t l e r ' s " s t a n d f a s t " d i r e c t i v e s w o u l d n o t a l l o w a n y c o m m a n d e r t o r e l i n q u i s h

t e r r a i n v o l u n t a r i l y t o g a i n o p e r a t i o n a l a d va n ta g es . T h e s t r a t e g y d e m a n d e d

u n i t s f i g h t t o t h e d e a t h a g a i ns t n u m e ri c a l l y s u p e ri o r f o r c e s in a b a t t l e o f

a t t r it i o n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , H i t l e r c o n s t a n t l y m e d d l e d i n o p e r a t i o n a l a f f a i r s t o

t h e p o i n t t h at h e r o u t i n e l y d i r e c t e d t h e m o v e s o f o p e r a t i o n a l l y c r i t i c a l

f o r m d t i o n s i n p o i n t l e s s t a ct i ca l c o u nt e ra t ts c ki . T h e l ac k o f ~ t r a t e g i c

f l e x ib i l i t y a n d f o r e s i gh t m a d e t h e e f f o r t t o b a l a nc e t h e m e a n s a v a i l a b l e wi t h

t h e i n h e re n t r i s k s a l m o s t i n po i si b lo . T h e s t r a t s g i c e n d s H i t l e r d e f i n e d f o r

M a n s t e i n w e r e a ll b u t u n a t t a i n a b l e . W h l l e M r n s t e l n d i d

not

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o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t o a g a i n t a k e t h e s t r a t e g l c o f f e n s i v e w a s p O 6 6 i b l e , h e

f e l t t h a t he must c o n d u c t a c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e

to

a c h l e v e H l t l e r ' s a i m s nf

r e t a i n i n g t e r r a i n a n d p r e s e r v i n g t h e f o rc e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , M a n s t e i n

s t e a d f a s t l y p r o v id e d a d v i c e a nd a l t e r n a t i v e s e v e n t u a l l y s w a y i n g s t r a t e g i c

a u t h o r i t i e s t o c o n c e d e t o h i s p la n . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t a b r o a d t r a n s i t i o n t o

t h e o f f e n s i v e w a s n o t p o s s i b l e i f t h e en d w a s to d e f e a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n, h e

t a i l o r e d h i s l i m i t e d m e a n s t o m e e t t h e i m m e d i a t e s t r a t e g i c s n d r b y s u p e r i o r

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n i n a w a y t h at a s s u m e d g r e a t

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o f t h e c a m p a i g n .

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h a s b e en n o t e d, t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n s i v e m u st b e

t h e u l t i m a t e i n t e nt o f a d e f e n s i v e c a m p a i g n i f d e c i s i v e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s a r e

t o b e a t t a in e d . I n o r d e r f o r t h i s p o w e r f u l t r a n s i t i o n t o o c c u r , t h e a n a l y s i s

o f t h e k ey e l e m e n t s of o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n m u s t p r o d u c e a c a m p a i g n p l a n w h i c h

h a 5 a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e d e f e n s i v e t o l h e o f f e n s i v e a s i t s f o c u s . T h u s ,

O p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n is t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n t h a e n d s a n d

t h e

m e a n s t ha t p r o d u c e

t h e d e c i s i v e t r a n s i t i o n . C e n t ra l t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n

is

a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t s o f c e n t e r

of

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p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p o i n t i a n d l i n e 6 o f o p e r a t i o n / s u p p o r t .

T h e mo s t c r i t i c a l f o c u s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s l g n is t h e c o n c e pt u a l u s e o f

t h e c e n t er o f g r a v it y . M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n , w h i c h r e v o l v e d a r o u n d

t h e c o n c e p t

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o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t l o n . F o r e m a m p l e , h i s a t t a c k o n t h e S o v l e t 3 r d T a n k P r a y

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i n t h e n o r t h and Popov M o b i l e Grou p i n t h e s o u t h f oc u s e d o n t h e S o v i e t c e n t e r

o f g r a v i t y . P op ov M o b i l a G ro up was t h e m os t d a n ge r ou s S o v i o t f o r c e s i n c e

i t s l i n e o f o p e r a t i o n s to o k ad v an t ag e o f a gap i n t h e German d e f e n s i v e l i n e

a n d h a d t h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e t o t r a v e l t o i t s o b j e c t i v e o n t h e Sea o f A Z O V .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t s d e s t r u c t i o n p r o v i d e d v i c t o r y . M a n s t e i n ' s own c e n t e r o f

g r a v i t y was 1 s t Army and 4 th P _ajle.r-A rm y a nd w i t h i n t h e s e t h e p o w e r f u l

f o r m a t i o n s o f SS aj.z.p~ C o r p s , 4 8 t h ,.nm_er. C o r p s a n d 4 0 t h

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p r o t e c t e d t h ro u g h l o c a t i o n an d g i v i n g them l o g i s t i c s p r i o r i t y . Th us ,

M a n s te i n a t t a c k e d h i s e ne my 's c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y w h i l e p r o t e c t i n g h i s own.

T h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e o p po s in g c e n t o r s o f g r a v i t y p r o v i d e d f o c u s f o r h i 5

e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n .

A s e c o n d c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n M a n s t e in ' s s u c c e6 6 was h i s a b i l i t y t o e n t en d h i 5

d e f e n s i v e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t .

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d i d t h i s t h r o u g h t h e d e l a y o f o f f e n s i v e

a c t i o n u n t i l h e

mas

a b l e t o g e n e r a t e and s u e t a i n f o r c e s , t h e b a s i c re a s on

b e h i n d s h o r t e n i n q t h e l i n e s o f d e f e n s i v e o p e r a t io n s . M a n s t e i n ' s s t u b b o r n

d e f e n s i v e e l e m en t s c om bi ne d w i t h h i s p r u d e nt c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a t t h e t a c t i c a l

l e v e l w ur e down t h e v u l n o r a b l o S o v i e t a t t a c k s . M a n s te i n f e l l ba ck on his own

l i n e s o f c o m n u n i c a t io n 6 , n h o r t e n i n g th em a nd g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h . W a t c h in g t h o

t i d e o f b a t t l e c l o s e l y , h e c a l c u l a t e d enemy d e t e r i o r a t i o n a nd h i s own

s u c t a in m e n t t o d e t e rm i n e t h e o pt im um moment t o t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e . He was

a b l e t o c r e a t e O p e ra t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t h ro u g h f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n f o r t h e

c o u n t e r s t r o k e t h e r e b y d e l a y i n g h i s own c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , h e

p r i o r i t i z e d s us t a in m e n t re s o u r c e s t o

h i s

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e s t o i n s u r e

t h a t when h e d i d t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n s e h e d i d n o t p a ss h i s o f f e n s i v e

c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . As a r e s u l t , M a n st e i n p r o t e c t e d h i s f o r c e s a nd s lo we d h i s

own c u l m i n a t i o n w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e h a s t e n i n g t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e

S o v i e t f o r c e s .

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o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n w h i ch a id e d M a n s t e i n ' s t r a n s i t i o n

w a s t h e c o r r e c t s e l e c t i o n o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s . The v a s tn e s s o f t h e t h e a t e r o f

o p e r a t i o n s made t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a c r u c i a l i s s u e .

M a n s t e in ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e i i g n o f t h e d e fe n se r e co g n i z ed t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s

o f R os t ov , S t a l l n o , t h o Hius R i v e r , S l r v y a n k s and G r i e h i n o as c r i t i c a l t o

p r o t e c t i n g h i s f o r c e s i n t h o s o u th . If M a n s t e i n

lost

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s o u t h e r n e l e m e n t s w o u l d be c u t o f f . K r a n s no g r a d, D n e p ro p o tr o y s k a nd



Z apO ro zh ye f or me d t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s n ee de d t o p r o t e c t h i s l i n e s o f s u p p l y

a l o n g t h e D n e i pe r R i v e r and t o p r o t e c t t h e a s s s r b l y a r e a s o f h i s

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e s . R ug ge d GDrRIdn d e f e n s e o f t h e s e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s w i t h

i n f a n t r y

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o r c e s t h e n e c e r r a r y p i v o t p o i n t s f o r

ma n e u ve r . By s u c c e s s f u l l y d e fe n d in g t h o s e d e c i s l v e p o l n t s , H r n s t e i n was a b l e

t o c ho s e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i n e t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h s c o u n te r o f f e n s i v e .

I h e f i n a l e le m e n t o f M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s ig n was h i s u s e o f l i n e s

o f o p e r a t i o n and s u p p o r t . German l i n e r o f o p e r a t i o n r a n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e

S o v i e t l i n e s o f a t t a c k . S i n c e t h e S o v i e t s d i d n o t a d e q u at e l y p r o t e c t t h e i r

f l a n k s , due t o an i n c o r r e c t i n t e l l i g e n c e a ~ s e s s m e n t , t h e Germ ans w er e a b l e t o

t a k e a dv a n ta ge o f e n t e r i o r l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n t o c o n du c t c o n c e n t r i c a t t a c k s .

C r i t i c a l t o t h e s e l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n s was r e t e n t i o n o f t h e i d e n t i f i e d

d e c i s i v e p o i n t s d i s c us s e d ab o ve . F o r e xa mp le , i n t h e e a r l y d e f e n s i v e

o p e r a t i o n s , G e r m a n l i n e s o f i u p p o r t t o Roitov p r r r l l e l m d t h e i r l i n e of

o p e r a t i o n s . M a n s t e in h a d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n i t i a l l y h o l d i n g o p e n t h e l i n e s

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o p e r a t i n g on i n t e r i o r l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n .

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i n t e l l i g e n c e f u n c t i o n s , d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t s , g e n e r a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s

and s u s t a i n r e n t c a p a b i l i t y m a t e r i a l l y i m p ac t co mb at p ow er .

L e a d e r s h i p i s p e r h a p s t h e m os t i m p o r t a n t e l em e n t o f o p e r a t i o n a l c om ba t

p ow er . I n t h e K h a rk o v c am pa ig n, M a n s t e i n ' s l e a d e r s h i p a nd v i s i o n w ere t h e

k e y s t o s uc ce s s. H I S a b i l i t y t o s ee t h e l o n g t e r m v i e w p e r m i t t e d him t o p l a n

2 9

ah ea d and s e t t h e c o n d i t i o n i f o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n

t o

t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .

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s t r e n g t h s an d a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e o f S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n s w er e c r u c i a l t o t h e

d e s i g n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t e g y a nd o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n t h a t c r e a t e d t h e

c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e . He u n d e r s t oo d t h a t th o ug h t h e S o v i e t s we re

t e n a c i o u s on t h e d e f e n s i v e , t h e y w er e l i a b l e t o p a n i c d u r i n g t h e u n c e r t a i n t y

a t t e n d a n t t o d ee p o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s e n a b l e d h i m

t o

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m i s t a k e s a nd w e ak n e ss e s s u c h a s P o p o v ' s p o o r l y s u p p o r t e d a nd d i f f u s e d d e ep

s t r i k e and 6 t h A rm y ' s p o o r l y c on d u c t ed m o b i l e o p e r a t i o n .

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Germ an l e a d e r s a nd f o r m a t l o n s . He r e l i e d on t h e G erman p h i l o s o p h y o f

s .u ft ia .gs ta kt ik a nd d i d n o t r e s t r i c t h i s o p e r a t i o n a l and t a c t i c a l co mm and ers

i n t h e m oves o f t h e i r a rm o re d f o r m a t i o n s . I n s t e a d , h e g a ve th em l o n g r a n g e

t a s k s . G erman s o l d i e r . a nd German l e a d e r s h i p w er e s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f

t h e i r enemy, a nd M a n s t e i n ' s l e a d e r s h i p c r e a t e d

an

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p l a y e d o n e ns my n e a k n e m i a nd a c c e n t u a t e d G erm an S t re n g th s .. F i n a l l y ,

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capabilities

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o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n ,



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a d v a n t a g e wa5 t h e Germ an s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e i r enemy

i n

t h e m a ne u ve r p r o w e s s

o f a r mo r ed f o r m a t i o n s . T h ro u g ho u t t h e b a t t l e s o f Novem ber 42 t o M ar ch

4 3 ,

German a b i l i t y t o s y n c h ro n iz e m a ne uver t o s u p p o r t s t a t i c s t r o n g p o i n t s s p e l l e d

s uc ce ss . Of p a r t i c u l a r n o t e w er e t h e C h i r R i v e r b a t t l e s o f 4 8 t h P an ze r

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n o t a b l y 1 7 th Pqnzec. D i v , h e l d o p e n t h e l l n e s o f c om m u n ic a t i o n s o f A G

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d e f e a t i n g t h e a t t a c k s o f t h e S o v i e t S t h G u a rd s Tank Army. A n o t h e r e x am p le o f

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t h e i r d e f e a t o f t h e 6 t h Arm y, 1 s t G ua rd s Tank Arm yi v

and t h e 3 r d Tank Army a f t e r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . F l e x i b i l i t y

o f

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and a g i l i t y p e r m i t t e d German f o r m a t i o n r r t o g a i n m ane uv er s u c c es s f a r o u t o f

p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r s i z e a n d po we r.

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p ow er , f i r e p o w e r . German f i r e p o w e r was e s s e n t i a l t o o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n

b e c a u s e

i t

made t h e d e f e n s e w or k a nd p r o v i d e d t h e s t r e n g t h f o r t h e

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . Qerman o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c o n t i n u a l l y p l a c e d s u p e r i o r means

a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s . l l t h

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f i r e p o w e r o f t h s t a c t i c a l de fenm e.

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t h e S o v i e t A rm or ed C o r p i a t t a c k e d , t h e y

l e f t t h e i r f l a n k s p o o r l y p r o t e c t e d . The G erm ans a l l o w e d t h e i r enemy t o

p e n e t r a t e t o h i t t h e s t r o n g p o i n t o f 6 t h P.abze~D i v . S l m u l ta n eo u m ly , t h e l l t h

P a ~ z e r .

D i v s t r u c k t h e e n te n de d S o v i e t f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e r e a r . U s i ng t a nk s ,

a i r c r a f t , a n d i n f a n t r y i n t h e d e fe n ce , t h e Germans m assed t h o i r f i r e p o w e r t o

d e s t r o y t h e S o v i e t G u a rd s Ar mo re d C o rp s . 3'

D u r i n g t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e ,

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t h e p o w e r fu l a rm o r o f SS P anZ.e[,.Corps t h e Ge rm an s h a d s u p e r i o r i t y i n m o b i l e

f i r e p o w e r .

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h i s u s e o f a i r p o w e r . The r e s p on s i v e n e s s a nd l e t h a l i t y o f German a i r f l e e t s

p r o v i d e d m o b i l e f i r e p o w e r t o s u p p o r t t h e P_@~.mpr f o r m a t i o n s when t h e a r t i l l e r y

c o u l d n o t ke ep up w i t h t h e s pe ed and d e p t h o f t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . W i t h h i s

c o n c e n t r a t e d a i r p ow er r a n g i n g f a r a he ad a nd i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h m assed

a r t i l l e r y , German P_mz.~s. f o r m a t i o n s .v er wh el me d t h e d i s p e r s e d S o v i e t

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“Ilitein‘S success. Th e critical iss ue wa s that Manst ein stabi lized hi5

f r o n t t o p r o t e c t h i s c o u n t e r s t r o k e f o r c e s .

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f o r t i f i e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

d e c i s i v e p o i n t s w i t h i n f a n t r y a n d a r ti l l er y . T h e n h e u s e d s t r o n g p o i n t s a5

p i v o t 5 f o r m o b l l e a r m o r c o u n t e r a t t a c k s . A r m o r e d f o r m a t i o n s d i d n o t h a v e t o

w o r r y a b o u t t h e i r f l a n k i

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t h e s o u t h , p r o t e c t e d t h e d e c i s i v e p o in t s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r b e t t e r m a n e u v e r

a g i l i t y a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p r o t e c t t h e i r f o r c e s a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s ,

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t h e i r a r m o r f o r m a t i on s . F u r t h e r m o r e , M a n s t e i n w a s a b l e t o c o n s e r v e t h e

s t r e n g t h o f h i s e x h a u s t e d i n f a n t r y f o r m a t io n s . G e r m a n i n f a n t r y c o u l d h o l d

o u t i n r e l a t l v e c o m f o r t w h e n c o m p a r e d to

t h e i r S o v i e t c o u n t e r p a r t s w h o w e r e

w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e w a r m t h o f t h e v i l l a g e s t h a t f o r m e d t h e d e c i s i v e

points.

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a

k e y f u n c t i o n t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o G e r m a n s u c c e s s .

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n e a r p e rf e ct . M o n i t o r i n g S o v i e t r a d i o t r a f f i c a l l o w e d t h e G e r m a n s t o h a l t

t h e S o v i e t d r i v e s b y m a m s i n g a t t h e c r i t i c a 1 t i m e a n d p l a c e w h i l e t a k i n g

e c o n o m y o f f o r c e m e a i u r e s i n o t h e r a r e as . L a t e r , t h i s s a m e s o u r c e o f

i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d c r i t i c a l i n f o r n a t i o n ali t o t h e l o c a t i o n of S o v i e t a r m o r

b r i g a d es . O n c e t h e y f i x e d t h e S o v i e t b r i g a d e s , t h e G e r m a n s m a s s e d s t r o n g e r

c o m b a t p o w e r a g a i n i t t h e m a n d d e 6 t r o y e d t h e m p i ec e m e a l .

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G e r m a n s t r e n g t h w a s t h e u s e o f d e c e p t i o n a s a k e y c o m b a t p ow e r

m u l t i p l i e r t h at a l l o w e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n t o w o rk . T h e i r d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t s

s o u g h t t o p o r tr a y w e s k n e i s t o t h e S o v i e t s a l o ng t h e c h o s e n S o v i e t l i n e o f

o p e r a t i o n s w h i l e s i n u l t a n eo u s l y p r o t e c t in g t h e G e r m a n c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e

f o r c e s . N a n i t e i n k n e w t h a t t h e S o v i e t s c o u l d b e d e l u d e d

b y

r e i n f o r c i n g a n d

m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e v p e c t a t i o n s o f 5 u c c e s s . T h e S o v i e t s d i d

n o t b e l i e v e t h e G e r m r n i c o u l d e v e r s e t u p a d e f e n s i v e l i n e o n t h e M i u s

River .32 L i k e w i se , e v e r y p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g G e r m a n a r m o r

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e S o vi e t s a s m e r e l y ar m o r c o v e ri n g f o r c e s

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retreat.

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F i n a l l y , M r n m t e i n ’ m p r i o r i t i z a t i o n o f n u a t a i n n c n t r e s o u r c e s to



h i s c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v s f o r c e s o f 1 s t and 4 t h P z . e m A rm ie s n sd u h i s o t h e r

i o r c e s w e ak er . T he se w e ak er f o r c e s f o u g h t d e s p e r a t e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e

S o v i e t p , g i v i n g g ro un d r e l u c t a n t l y , b u t f a l l i n g b ac k n o n e t h e le i s . Ths

c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t o f t h e s e a c t i o n s r e i n f o r c e d t h e S o v i e t a s se ss m en t o f t ierm an

UR ilkne6E and t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e o f f e n s i v e p l a n u po n w h l c h t h e y h ad

embarked.

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o f

c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g G erman s t r e n g t h r i n t h e u s8

o f t h e i r co mb at po wer i s t h e I m p ac t o f f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n o f r e s e r v s s and

s u s t a i n m e n t o p e r a t i o n s . Tho e f f o r t t o g e n e r a t e a nd s u s t a i n c om ba t p ow er I r

t h e l i n c h p i n o f t h e ca mpa ign p l a n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . A l a c k o f

c r e d i b l e c a p a b i l i t i e s i n t h i s a re a w i l l l e a v e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c om mander w i t h

n o f o r c e t h a t h e may u s e f o r d e c i i i v u r e s u l t s when t h e enemy bec om es

a p p r o p r i a t e l y w e a k e n e d .

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o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n to t h e o f f e n s e was t h e g u n u r r t i o n o f arm or r e s e r v e s

and t h e i r s u s t a i n r e n t d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f en ro . W a n s t e i n 's a b i l i t y t o

a n t i c i p a t e and i m p ro v i s e t o g e ne ra t e f o r c e s was c r i t l c a l t o h i s o p e r a t i o n a l

t r a n s i t i o n . Hu h ad d e t e rm i n e d hm w o ul d n ee d a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e b t o w i n t h e

o p e r a t i o n a l m o b i le d e f en s e and t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n r e . He worked

d i l i g e n t l y f o r t h e r e l e a s e o f f o r c e s f ro m A G

A

and A Q C e n t r a l t o f u l f i l l h i s

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s ig n , b u t h i f a i l u d , Though H l t l u r r u l e a r e d t h e p o w u r f u l S S

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I n a d e c i s i v e mann sr. L i k s w i i e , h i s r u t h l m s i m t r i p p i n g o f a rm or and

a r t i l l e r y f r om h i s f o rw a r d d e fe n d i ng f o r c e s and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i s

f i r e p ow e r a s se t s g u ne r a t ed t h e c r i t i c a l r e se r v es f o r the o p e r a t i o n a l

t r a n s i t i o n . Once t h e s e f o r c e s w e re s t a g e d, t h e b u l k o f German s u p p l l s s

w ere s e n t t o t h e s e f o r m a t io n s . M a n s ts i n, t h e r e f o r e , p r i o r i t i z e d f i re p o w e r

and s u s ta i nm e n t t o h i s c o u n t e r s t r o k e f o r c e s a t t h e enpensu o f h i s f o r w a r d

d e f e n d i n g e l e m s n t s .

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t h e p r e c e d in g a n a l y s i s g i v e s f o c u s t o t h e e m s u n t i d l q u e s t i o n s

o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . F i r s t , M a ns te in u n de rs t oo d what m i l i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s had

t o b e p ro du ce d i n t h e s ou t he r n w in g t o s c h is v u H i t l e r ' r i r m e d i a t e s t r a t e g i c

g o a l s . T h o u g h

H i t l e r

and t h e G erm an G e n e r a l s t a f f w ur e o u t o f t o u c h w i t h t h e

r e a l i t y o f t h e E a s t e r n F r o n t , N a n st e in p e r se v e r ed and f i n a l l y p er su ad ed h i 6

s t r a t e g i c a u t h o r i t i e s t o h a r m o ni z e t h e e nd s, wa ys , m eans an d r i s k . S ec on d,

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M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c o r r e c t l y a s s e s s ed t h e f o u r e s s e n t i a l

t h e o r e t i c a l e l e m e n t s o f c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p o i n t s

a n d l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t . M a n s t e in ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c o n v e r t e d a

l a r g e m c a l e w i t h d r a w a l i n t o a n e n v e l o p m e n t t h a t c r u s h e d

3

S o v i e t a r m i e s .

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e v e r y r e m p e c t b u t n u m b e r s . C e n t r a l t o M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l c o m b a t

p o w e r w e r e t h e e l e m e n t s o f l e a d e r s h i p a n d m a n e u v e r c o u p l e d w i t h h i s a b i l i t y

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r e q u i r e d s e q u e n c e o f a c ti o ns . M a n s t e i n ' s o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n b a l a n c e d e n d s ,

m e a n s a n d risk in 6 u c h a w ay t h a t h e u s e d o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l c o m b a t p o w e r t o

a c c o m p l is h t h e s t r a t e g ic e n d s t h r o u g h a r u c c e i s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t o

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is

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e nd s. B u t , t o u n d e r s t an d t h e p r o b l e m s t h e I s r a e l i s f a c e d i n i m p l e m e n ti n g

t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n s , w e mu s t t a k e

a

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o p e r a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n f a c i n g t h e an t a g o n i st s .

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m a t c h f o r t h e I D F I n g r o u n d m a n e u ve r b a t t l e m o r t r a d i t io n a l a i r c o m b a t ; t h e y

k n e w t o o t h a t s u c c e s 6

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m a s s i v e a t t a c k B o n m u l t i p l e f r o n t s w i t h o n l y a s m al l s t a n d i n g ar m y. T h e A r a b

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t e r r a i n t h a t w o u l d b e u s e f u l f o r p o l i t i c a l b a r g a i n i n g .

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u n f a v o r a b l e p o l i t i c a l r n d e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n . As a r e s u l t of t h e 1 9 6 7 wr r ,

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a s p o s s i b l e . As a r e s u l t , t h e A r a b s i n c r e a s e d t h e p ot e n t ia l o f t h e i r l a r g e

s t a n d i n g a r m i e s t h r o u g h a e u c c e i s f u l l o n g r a n g e d e c e p t i o n p l an . A s e r i e s o f

f u l l d r e s s r e h e a r s a l s a n d e x t e n s i v e m a n e u v e r s ware c o n d u c t e d f r o m

December

1972

u n t i l J u n P 1973. I s r a el e n p e n d e d p r e c i o u r e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y



r e 5 o u r c e 5 i n r e a c t i o n t o t h e s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n r a n d e v e n t u a l l y a p o l i t i ca l

d e c i s i o n w a s m a d e t o r e d u c e t h e l e ve l o f v i g i l a n c e a n d r e s p o n s e . I n t h i s

w a y , t h e A r a b s s e t t h e s t a g e f o r s t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l s u r p r i s e.

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a n d c o o r d i n a t e d A r a b a t t a c k .

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a d v is e d e f f o r t s , t o s a v e t h e d o o me d s t r o n gp o i n ts o n t h e c a n al , t h e IDF

l a u n c h e d a s e r i e s of u n c o o r d i n a t e d c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a g a i n s t t h e E g y p t i a n

b r i d g e he a d s . ( S e e H a p 9, p a g e 641 As a r e s u l t , E g y p t e n j o y e d t r e m e n d o u s

i n i t i a l s u c c e s s a n d a s u p e r i o r i t y o f f o r ce . W i t h i n 24 h o u r s o f t h e i n i t i al

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p r e s s e d a n d t h e i r G o l a n h e a d q u a r t e r s w a s q u i c k l y s u r r o u n de d . B y E O c t t h e

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t h r u s t 5 p r e s e n t e d t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t e v e r t o t h e h e a r t l a n d o f I s ra e l.

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a n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r i o r l i n e s t o s h i f t its s t r a t e g i c c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y

to

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He k n e w t h a t a n a t t a c k w o u l d f a c e t h e I s r a e l i A ir F o r c e ,

s i n c e t h e SAM u m b r e l l a w a s n ot y e t r e a d y t o m o v e f o r N a r d , a nd E g y p t i a n f o r c e s

a n d l e a d e r s h i p w e r e n o t y e t r e a d y f o r s u c h a b o l d m o v e . S h a z l y a n d his

c o m m a n d e r s f o u g h t t o s t i c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n , b ut t h e p o l i t i c i a n s w o u l d

n o t t i e s w a y e d a n d o r d e r e d t h e a t t a c k f o r

14

O c t o b e r i n a n s w e r t o S y r i a n

p l e a s . (See M a p 9 8 , p a g e

721

c 2 1 1



T he w o r s t c a s e s c e n a r i o e n v i s i o n e d b y t h e ID F was a n E g y p t i a n a r m or e d

4 1

t h r u s t i n t o S i n a i f ro m t wo d i r e c t i o n s w i t h 750 t a n k s on e ach a x i s .

F o r t u n a t e l y , h o we v er , t h e E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n was f a u l t y . The p l a n was

p r ep a re d b y t h e M i n i s t e r o f D ef e ns e w i t h p r e s i d e n t i a l i n p u t f o r

a

p u r e l y

p o l i t i c a l g e s t u r e w i t h a s ec on da ry m i l i t a r y e f f e c t o f r e l i e v i n g p r e s s u r e on

S y r ia . E g y p t i a n p o l i t i c i a n s d i s r u p t e d t h e e n t i r e s t r a t e g i c an d o p e r a t i o n a l

d e s ig n o f t h e c am pa ig n p l a n a g a i n s t t h e b e t t e r ju dg me nt o f E g y p t i a n m i l i t a r y

T h e E g y p t i a n A r m y d i d n o t h av e t h e r e s o u r c e s t o a t t a c k an d

m a i n t a i n t h e b r i dg e h e ad w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a i r d im e ns io n

o v e r t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . 4 3 T h e r e f o r e , t o g e n e r a t e t h e a rm o r n ee de d f o r t h e

a t t a c k , t h e E g y p t i a n s r e d uc e d t h e w e st bani o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t o

100

t a n k s . 4 4 T he E g y p t i a n s a t t a c k e d o n a t o t a l o f s i x a xe s s p re a d o v e r 100 m i l e s

o f f r o n t , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a nd d i s s i p a t i n g c o mb at

s t r e n g t h .

45

T h i s

l a c k

o f

f i r e p o w e r a l l o w e d t h e IDF t o u s e

t a c t i c a l

i n t e r i o r

l i n e s a nd a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n t o d e s t r o y eac h a t t a c k i n t u r n .

B ase d o n s t r a t e g i c i n t e l l i g e n c e p r o v i d e d b y t h e A m er ic an s , t h e ID F knew

t h e a b o r t i v e E g y p t i a n a t t a c k s o f

I4

O c t o b e r h a d c l e a n e d t h e w e s t b a nk o f

a r m or e d o p e r a t i o n a l T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e

4

t h e w ea ke ne d E g y p t i a n

p o s i t i o n , t h e ID F p r e p a r e d t o la u n c h t h e l o n g a w a i te d and t h o r o u g h l y p la n n ed

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e a c r os s t h e c a n a l . A p p l y i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f ma65, t h e

I s r a e l i s p l a c e d s i x a r r o r e d b r i g a d e s a nd t wo i n f a n t r y b r i g a d e s a t t h e

c r o s s i n g c i t e s 4 7 as a s t r i k e f o r c e t o t r a p a nd d e s t r o y t h e enemy c e n t e r o f

g r a v i t y , w h i ch was e i t h e r o f t h e t w o E g y p t i a n a r m i e s now o n t h e e a s t b a n k.

' T a k i n g a d v a n t a g s

o f t h e e ne my l a c k o f E g y p t i a n i n i t i a t i v e on t h e e a s t ba nk ,

t h e I s r a e l i s u se d o n l y t wo a rm or ed b r i g a d e s t o p i n t h e e n t i r e t w o arm y

b r i d ge h e a d i n

a r i s k y b u t e f f e c t i v e economy o f f o r c e m eas u re . P i t t i n g

s t r e n g t h a g a i n s t w eak ne ss a t a d e c i s i v e p o i n t wi th an i n d i r e c t d pp rO dC h, t h e

I s r a e l i s m assed e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e i r a v a i l a b l e c om ba t p ow er o n o ne a x i s .

( S e e Map 10, p a g e

7 3 )

On

I 6

O ct ob er I s r a e l i t a n k s su cc ee de d i n c r o s a i n g t h e c a n a l a t D e v e r s o i r ,

b e tw e e n t h e E g y p t i a n 2 nd a nd 3 r d Arm y. T he p r e - w a r E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n

t o c o u n t e r s u ch

a

c o n t i n g e n c y

w a r

a c o n c e n t r a t e d a r m o re d c o u n t e r a t t a c k

a t

t h e p o i n t o f p e n e t r a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e f o r c e s d e s i g n a t e d an d t r a i n e d

f o r t h i s b ra n ch o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n w er e d e s t r o y ed i n t h e

1 4

O c t o b e r

F a i l i n g t o g ra s p t h e m a gn i t ud e and d an ge r o f t h e I s r a e l i s t r i k e ,

t h e E g y p t i a n s d i r e c t e d t h e 2nd Army t o d e s t r o y t h e I s r a e l i b r i d g e he a d on t h e

e a s t s i d e o f t h e c a n a l b y a t t a c k i n g fr o m t h e n o r t h . The 2 5 t h A r m Ede, 4 t h e

t

2 2 1



E g y p t i a n 3 r d Army b e lo w D e v e r r o l r , a t t a c k e d t h e I m r a s l i b r i d g e h e a d f ro m t h e

5 0 ~ 1 t h . ~ ~he p o o r l y c o o r d in a t e d a t t a c k s r e s u l t e d I n a c o n fu s e d , h a l f - h e a r t e d

e f f o r t . The 2nd E g y p t i a n Army a t t a c k e d w i t h l a r g e , b u t

hot.

f o r c e s .

H ow eve r, v a l i a n t d e f e n s i v e e f f o r t s b y ID F p a r a t r o o p e r s c he ck ed t h e E g y p t l a n

a dv an ce . The p o w e r f u l I s r a e l i e n p l o i t a t i o n f o r c e ( Ma ge n' s D i v i s i o n ) r e a c t e d

r a p i d l y m o vi ng f ro m i t s a s % e n b ly a r e a s t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n d e f e n s l v e p o s i t i o n s

f r o m w h ic h t h e y a mb us hed t h e E g y p t i a n 2 5 t h Armor B r i g a d e . T h e c o n c e n t r a t e d

f i r e

o f

3 t a n k b a t t a l i o n s a n n i h i l a t e d t h e E g y p t l a n brig ad^.^' T h e E g y p t i a n

c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a g a i n s t t h e I s r a e l i b r i d g e h e a d f a i l e d a nd t h e p r e - w a r E g y p t i a n

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n c r u m b l e d a s I s r a e l 1 t a n k s r u m b le d t o t h e we st ba n k o f t h e

Su e z C a n a l .

( S e e

Map I O A / l O B , p a g e 7 4 - 7 5 )

By 18 O c t o b e r , I s r a e l i a rm or h a d d e v a s t a t e d enemy r e a r s e r v i c e s on t h e

w e st b a nk , d e m t r o y l n g c o n vo y s , h e a d q u a r t e r s , g u a r d u n l t r , an d t h e d e a d l y

S A M

b a t t e r i e s . W i t h E g y p t i a n a i r d e f e ns e c o v e r d e s t r o y e d a nd m an eu ver

r e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e b a t t l e on t h e e a s t b an k, t h e I s r a e l i 6 p u rs u ed t h e k i n d o f

war a t w h i ch t h e y e n e e l le d . A rm or t h r u s t s I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c l o s e a i r

s u p p o r t b a g g e d e i g h t th ou sa nd E g y p t i a n p r i ~ o n e r s . ~ 'y n i g h t f a l l t h e I s r a e l i s

s p l i t i n t o tw o d i v i s i o n s on t h e we s t b an k, o n e u n de r M a j . B en . S h a r o n h e a d i n g

n o r t h a nd on e u n d e r

M a j .

Gen. A dan m o v i n g s o u t h a nd w e s t t r a p p i n g t h e

E g y p t i a n 3 r d Arm y on t h e e a s t b a n k.

On 19 O c to b er , when t h e S o v i e t U n io n b e g a n t h e C o nc e r t e d e f f o r t t o h a l t

t h e w ar , t h e E g y p t i a n a rm y and S y r i a n f o r c e s w er e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o l l a p s i n g .

On

2 2

O c t o b e r t h e

U N

d e c l a r e d

a

c e as e f i r e . By 24 O c t o be r t h e E g y p t i a n 3 r d

Army c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o r e i n f o r c e d d i v i s i o n s e q u a l l i n g 45,000 men and 250

t a n k s was c o m p l e t e l y c u t o f f , w i t h o u t f o o d

o r

w a t e r , d o m i n a t e d b y enem y a r m o r

an d o u t o f r a n g e o f a i r d e f e n s e c o v e r a g e . The E g y p t i a n 2 nd A r m y ' s l i n e s o f

c o m m un ic a ti o n s w er e p r o t e c t e d f ro m S h a r o n ' s r e v i t a l i z e d a rm or d i v i s l o n b y

o n l y a t h i n E g y p t i a n t a n k s c r e e n . T hu s, t h e ID F h a d o v er c om e t re m e n do u s o d ds

and c o m p le t e s u r p r i s e t o a c h i e v e a s t u n n i n g m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y w h i ch was cu r b e d

o n l y b y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s u p e rp ow er s.

4 n a l u s i . s

. .the_ 9 7 3 ._nr.ab: srae_ LM,r

The a n a l y s i s o f t h e 1973 A r a b - I s r a e l i War p r e s e n t s an i n t e r e s t i n g

c o n t r a s t t o t h e G e rm a n -S o vi et E a t l t e r n F r o n t c am p a ig n s. W h i l e t h e Germ ans a nd

t h e S o v i e t s f o u g h t an a b s o l u t e w a r w i t h t h e u n l i m i t e d a im s o f a n n i h i l a t i o n ,

n e i t h e r t h e E g y p t i a n s n o r t h e I s r a e l i s c o u l d f i g h t su ch an e x t en d e d b a t t l e .

B o t h s i d e s f o u g h t t h e '73 War f o r l i m l t e d e nd s,

wi th

l i m l t e d means u nd e r t h e

1 2 3 1



u a t c h f u l eye of t h e s u p e r p o we r s , n a m e l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n .

In

s e a r c h i ng f o r t h e a n e w e r s t o t h e q u e s t io n s p or e d b y t h e s tu d y i t

m u st b e k e p t i n m i n d t h at a n y o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n h a d t o t a k e t h e p o s s i b l e

r e r p o n i e s o f t h e n u p e r p o w e r s i n t o m i nd . In a l m o s t e v e r y r e a l m , t h e s e o u t s i d e

i n f l u e n c e s h el d g r e a t s w a y , e i p e c i a l l y

i n

t h e a r e a s o f k u s t a i n m e n t , f o r c e

g e n e r a t i o n a n d i n t e l l i ge n c e . T h e a n t a g o n i s t s w e r e , t h e r e f o r e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

a l l i e d w i t h o n e m u p e r p o w e r a n d u n d e r p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e o t h e r .

O n c e a g a i n , t h e a n a l y s i s w i ll c e n t e r o n a n s w e r i n g t h r e e b r o ad q u es t io n s

1 .

W h at m i l i t a r y c o n d i t i o n m u st b e p r o du c e d i n t h e t h e a t e r

of

war or

o

e r a t i o n r t o a c h i e v e t h e s t ra t e g i c g o a l ?

( t h e l i n k a g e of s t r a t e g i c e n d s a n d m i l i t a r y m e a n s 1

2.

W h a t s e q u e n c e o f a c t i o n s is m o s t like ] t o p r o d u c e t h a t

c o n d i t i o n ?

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o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n h a t r e s u l t s f r o m b a l a n c i n g

e n d s , w a y c , m e a n 8 a n d r i s k )

3. H o w e h o u l d t h e r ~ s o u r c e s f t h e f o r c e b e a p pl i e d t o a c c o m l i s h

t h a t s e q u e n c e

of a c t i o n s ? ( t h e , o e r a t i o n a l l e v e l c o m

1

at p o w e r

e l e m e n t s t h a t e n a b l e o p e r a t i o n a l d es ign

E W . 1 .Ways,. M e a n s

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F o r e m o s t , I s r a e l i p o l i t i c al e n d s d e m a n d e d t ha t 110 w a r t a k e p l a c e b u t t h a t

i f

i t d i d , I s ra e l i f o r c e s m u s t g a i n t h e i n i t i a t i v e w i t h o u t r i sk s . I s r a el i

s t r a t e g i c e n d m d e m a n d e d a s h o r t , a g g r e r s i v e , a nd d e c i s i v e w ar t o p r e v e n t

I s r a e l i e c o n o m i c i l l s f r o m b e c o m i ng t o o g r e at . E c o n o m i c a l l y , I s ra e l c o u l d n o t

m a i n t a i n a s t a n d i n g a r m y e q ua l t o t h e t h e c o m b i n e d s t r e n g t h o f t h e A r ab s .

I n s t e a d , t h e y b a s e d t h e i r d e f e n s e o n a w e l l - t r a in e d , h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d ,

e x p a n d a b l e ar m y a v a i l a b l e

in

72 h o ur 6 . I s r a e l i d e f e n s e p o l i c y c e n t e r e d o n

d e t e r r i n g w a r b u t t h e i r d e f e n s e p l a n a l s o h a d t h e e l e m e n t of p r e v e n t i n g t h e

A r a b s f r o m c a p t u r i n g t e r r i t o r y w h ic h t h e y c o u l d u s e a s a p o l i t i c al b a r g a i n i n g

c hi p. 52 O p e r a t i on a l d e s i g n , t h e r e f o r e , f o c u s e d o n a b s o r b i n g t.he i n i t i a l W a b

a t t a c k w h i l e r a p i d l y t r a n s i t i o n i n g to t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .

I t

w a s e s s e n t i al

t h a t t h e I D F c a p t u r e A ra b t e r r i t o r y t o

u s e

a s a b a r g a i n i n g t o o l i n a n y

n e g o t i a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g a c e a s e f i r e .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , k e y i n g r e d i e n t s i n s u c h c a mp a i g n p l a n s W e r e s u p e r i o r

i n t e l l i g e n c e , e a r l y m o b i l i z a t i o n a n d p r e e m p t i v e a i r s t r i k e s . I r o n i c a l l y ,

I a r a e l ' s v i c t o r i e s, e s p e c i a l ly t h e ' b 7 W a r , h a m p e r e d s u c h a c ti o n s . T h e s e h ad

p l a c e d t h e m i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a g g r e s s o r in t h e w o r l d c o m m u n i t y ' s v i e w

w h i l e A r a b a w e r e s e e n a 6 b o t h h a p l e s s a nd h e l p l e s s a g a i n s t t h e ID F. H o w e v e r ,

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t h e s e w a y s for f e a r of p o l i t i c al r e p e r c u s s i o n s w i th

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o n l y a l l y , t h e US.

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a r e s u l t , t h e d e f e n s e s t r a t e g y o f I s r a el c o n t a i n e d m a n y

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s .

I241



lo o v e r c o m e t h e s e p o l i t i c a l r e s t r a i n t s , t h e I s r a e l i s c h o s e t o u s e a

s t a t i c l i n ea r d e f e n s i v e l i n e a l o ng t h e S u e z C a na l . T h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l Ba r - Le v

i ne p r e s e n t e d t h e I D F w i t h a n o p e r a t i o n a l d i c ho t o my . 5 3 T h e q u i e s c e n t ,

d e f e n s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e l i n e p o r t e n d e d a t t r i t i o n w a r f a r e , t h e o p p o s i t e o f

S u C C e s s f u l I D F d o c t r i n e . T h i s C r e a t e d d i s s e n s i o n o v e r w h e t h e r t o a d h e r e t o

h i s t o r i c a l I D F w a r f i g h t i n g d o c t r i n e an d i m m e d i a t el y s t r i k e d e e p o r f i gh t t o

h o l d t h e S ue r . F a i l u r e to a c t i v a t e t h e al e r t p l a n i n t e n d e d to p r o t e c t the

s m al l s t r o n g p o r n t r o f t h e B a r- L ev l i n e r e s u l t e d f r o m u n d u e p o l i t i c a l -

d i p l o m a t i c i n f l u e n c e . P o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e k e p t t h e I DF f r o m t a k i n g p r c d e n t

s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s f o r f e a r t h e i n t e r n a t l o n a l c o m m u n i t y , a n d e r p e c i a l l y t h e

U S ,

w o u ld r e g a r d t h i s a c t t o n a s t h e h a rb i n g e r o f I s r ae l i p r e e m p t i v e s t r i k e s.

I s r ae l i o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n d i d n o t a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e t h e r i s k o f

o p p o s i n g A r a b a c t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , e n d 6 a n d m e a n s w e r e n o t b a l an c e d . T h e

i n a b il i t y t o r e c o n c i l e t h e r is k s w i t h t h e m e a n s an d e n d s a l m o st p r ec i p i ta t e d

d i s as t e r. F o r t u n a t e l y , A r a b m i s t a k e s , m o s t l y E g y p t i a n , a l l o w e d t h e I D F t o

r e c o v e r a n d , a f t e r s h o r t bu t v i c i o u p a t t r i t i o n b a t t l e m , r e t u r n t o a n

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n b a s e d o n t h e i r d o c t r i n e of m a n e u v e r .

oePr,ti. Y a ..OERlls

I s r a e l i a c t i o n s on t h e S o u t h e r n F r o n t d u r l n g t h e

1973

A r a b - I s r a e l i W a r

p r o v i d e s a s e c o n d e x a m p l e of t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r o u n d o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d

f l e n i b i l i t y in a c h i e v i n g s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . I n i t i a l I s r a e l i

m i s t a k e s w e r e b a s e d o n

a

f l a w e d e n d s - w a y s - m e a n s- r i i k e q u a t i o n a n d p o o r

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s ig n . R e a l i z i n g

t h e i r e r r o r s , t h e I s r a e l i s e f f e c t i v e l y e m p l o y ed a l l f o u r e l e m e n t s o f

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c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d , t h u s , d i d n o t e m c e e d t h e i r c u l m i n a t i n g p o in t . I s r a el

c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d n a m se d a g a i n s t t h en . F i n a l l y ,

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p r o p e r

a n d a d e q u a t e . A m o r e

d e t a i l e d l o o k a t t h e s e i s s u e s w il l i l l u s t r a t e h o w t h e a e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a s s i s t e d t h e I s r a e l i o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t l o n .

Th e Israeli focus.

on

t h e E g y p ti a n c e n t er o f g r a v i t y w a s e 6 i e nt i a l t o

t he ir . s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n s . T o b e s u c c e s s f u l , t h e I s r a e l i s f i r s t h a d t o

i d e n t i t y t h e E g y p t i a n c e n t e r o f g r av i ty . T h e m a j o r g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t s w e r e

t h e t w o a r m i e s o n t h e e a s t b a n k , 2 n d E g y p t i a n A r m y i n t h e n o r t h a n d 3 r d

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d e f e a t e d o r t r a p p e d , t h i s w o u ld l e a d t o a n I s r ae l i v i ct o r y . H o w e v e r , m a k i n g

t h e s e a r m i e s v u l n e r a b l e w a s n o e a s y t a sk . D e f e a t i n g t h e m d e m a n d e d th a t t h e

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a n t i t a n k w e a po n s . T o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , t h e ID F a t t a c k f i r s t h a d t o d e f e a t t h e

a i r d e f e n s e u m b r el l a ,

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g r o u n d a t t a c k c o u l d e n c i r c l e a n d c u t o f f t h e e n e m y a r m i e s i n d i re c t l y.

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c o n c e n t r a t e d o n c r o s s i n g t h e c an a l w i t h s u p e r i o r c o m b a t

p o w e r t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e E g y p t i a n c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y i nd i r e ct l y . T h i s d e m a n d e d

t h e c r e a t i o n of a n I s r a e l i f o r c e of s o m e s t r e n g t h .

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c r i t i c a l to s u c ce s s . T h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e b e c a m e I s r a e l ' s C e n t er o f

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t o t h e b a s e H e r e t h e m o b i l i z e d a r m or a n d i n f a n t r y r e s e r v e b r i g a d e s r u s h i n g t o

t h e S i na i . O n c e t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e w a s r e a d y , t h e I s r a e l i s h e l d t h e

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f o r m i d a b l e e n e m y d e f e n s i v e p o s i t io n s . T h i s p a u s e i n a g g r e s s i v e o p e r a t i o n s

a l l o w e d t h e I s r a e l i s t o r e a d y t h r e e f r e s h d i v i s i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .

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i n s u r e t h e y d i d n o t r e a c h t h e i r d e f e n s i v e c u l m i n a t i n g p o in t . T h e t o t a l

s u r p r i s e g a i n s d by t h e A r a b 6 d i r e ct l y a f f e c t e d t h e I s r a el i a c t i o n s t h r o u g h ou t

t h e w ar . H a v i n g l o st t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n t h e S l n a i , t h e ID F r e s p o n d e d p o o r l y ,

a t t a c k i n g E g y p t i a n i n f a n t r y w i t h l i t t l e c o m b i n e d a r m s i n t eg r a ti o n . D u r in g t h e

f i r s t f o u r d r y s o f w a r, t h e s h o r t a g e

of r e s e r v e

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t h e m o r e i m m e d i a t e t h r e a t

i n

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l o s s e s

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p o in t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e l i r a e l i s a d o p t e d e c o n o m y o f f o r c e m e a s u r e s f r o m 9

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o f a t t r i t i o n a n d b u i l t u p t h e i r f o r c e s t h r o u g h m o b i l i z a t i o n . E x t e n s i v e t a n k

r e c o v e r y e f f o r t m a n d r a p i d i n t c g r a t l o n o f r e s e r v e s a l l o w e d t h e I r r a e l i s

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c o n d u c t e d a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n si t i o n t o t h e o f f e n s i v e l e s s t h a n o n e w e e k a f t er

t h e i r i n i t i a l d i s a s t e r s .



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s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l d e s ig n . T h e I D F h a d i d e n t i f ie d t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s

f o r t h e b a t t l e o f Si n a i a s t h e G i d i an d H i t l a p a s s e s a n d a c r o s s i n g s i t e o n

t h e S u e z C a na l . I s r a e l i p l a c e m e n t o f a r m o r force. p r o t e c t e d t h e d e c i s i v e

p a i n t s o f t h e S i n a i p a s se s . T h e s e I s r ae l i a r m or f o r m a t i o n s d e f e a t e d t h e

E g y p t i a n a t t a c k s w h i c h a t t e m p t ed t o s e i z e t h e p a s s e s o n 14 O c t o b e r . T h e

d e c i s i v e p o i n t f o r t h e c a n a l c r o s s i n g h a d b e e n t h e s u b j e c t

o f

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I s r a e l i s p r e p a r ed r o a d s , b r i d g e s a n d s t a g i n g a r ea s . T h e s e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

i m p r o v e m e n t s h e l p e d t h e I DF m a n m u v e r t o h o l d t h e E g y p t i a n a t t a c k s a n d

p r o v i d ed t h e l a u n c h p o i n t s f o r t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e a c r o s m t h e ca n a l.

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h a j .

G u n. S h a r o n ' s r e c o n n a i s s a n c e b a t t a l i o n d i s c o v e r e d t h e

s e a m b e t w e e n t h e t w o E g y p t i a n a r m ie s . T h i s i n f o r n a t i o n , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e

l on g s t a n d i n g I DF p l a n t o c r o r s t h e c a n a l , s e t t l e d t h e i r s u e o f w h i c h

c r o e s i n g p o i n t t o u se . O n i b O c t o b e r t h e I D F c r o s s e d t h e c a n a l a t t h e

d e c i s i v e p o i nt o f D e r v e r s o i r , i n w h a t w a s t h e m o s t c r u c i a l p h a s e o f t h e i r

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n .

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o p er a t. i on , t h e l a s t e l e m e n t o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i gn . T h e I D F u s e d t h e

s t r a t e g y o f t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n a n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r i o r l i n e s t o s h i f t its

s t r a t e g i c c e n t e r o f g r a vi t y . S t r a t e g i c a l l y , t h e A r a b s o p e r a t e d o n e n t e r i o r

l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n s a nd t h e IDF o n i n t e r i o r l i ne s . F u n d a m e n t a l l y , t h i s

r e q u i r e s t h o s e o n e x t u r i o r l i n e s t o m a i n t a i n p r e s r u r s on a n e n e m y w i t h a

c e n t r a l p o s i t i on . H o w e v e r , A r a b f a i l u r e t o d o t h i s a l l o w e d t h e I DF t o s h i f t

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t h m o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l ,

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a s i n g l e l i n e of o p e r a t i o n s f o r t h e Su e z c r o ss i n g. O n c e a c r o s s

t h e c a n a l , t h e s e d i v i s i o n s s p l i t i n d i v e r g e n t a t t a c k s

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l i n e 5 o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r o w n i n t ac t . A d d i t i o n a l l y ,

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t h e f o r c e g e n e r a t i on a n d s u s t a i n m en t e f f o r t

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l e a d e r s h i p e l e m e n t of o p e r a t i o n a l c o m b a t p o w e r t o a l l o w t h e m t o r a p i d l y

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e d e f e n s e t o t h e o f fe n s e. I D F o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n d e m a n d e d

e x c e l l e n t l e a d e r s h i p at a l l l e v e l s e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e t a c t i c a l l e ve l o n t h e

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t h e ai r. T h e i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l skills o f t h e s e l e a d e r s w e r e

c r i t i c a l t o o v e r c o m i ng s e r i o u s f o r c e s t r u c t u r e p r o b l e m s t h a t h ad g r o w n f r o m

o f f e n s i v e c o n c e p t s e m p h a s i z i n g t h e t a n k a nd t h e a i r pl a n e. L e a d e r s hi p at t h e

f r o n t m a d e t h e t o u g h d e c i s i o n s , se t t h e e x a m p l e a n d s u f f e r e d t r e m s n d o u s l y

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o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r b a s e d h i s p l a n o n h i s k n o w l e d g e o f a n d c o n f i d e n c e i n

t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s s u b o r d i n a t e c o m m a n de r s .

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n e x t e l e m e n t o f c o m b a t po w e r , n a m e l y m a ne u v er . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e

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s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o m a n e u v e r i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e w a r

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s o u g h t s o l u t i o n s t o t h e i r s h o r t c o mi n g s . P r i m a r i l y t h e I DF w a s n ot f o r c e

s t r u c t u r e d f o r a c o m b i n e d a r m s e f fo r t . T h e I s r a e li c o m m a n d e n v i s i o n e d a f l u i d

t a n k b a t t l e w i t h c l o s e a i r s u p p o r t

on

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t a n k m f o r w a r d w i t h o u t t r a n s p o r t e r s u p p o r t , w i t h l i t t l e a m m u n i t i o n , a n d

i n a d e q u a t e c r e w s . A r t i l l e ry , a c r i t i c a l p a rt o f t h e c o m b i n e d a r m s t e a m ,

r e c e i v e d l i t t l e p r i o r i t y i n m o v i n g f o r w a r d . T h o u g h t h e I D F p r e s s e d f o r a

f r e e - w h e e l i n g t a n k b a t t l e in t h e S i n a i d e s e r t , t h e m a n e u v er b a t t l e d i d n o t

d e ve l o p. I n s t e a d, e f f e c t i v e E g y p t i a n i n f a n t r y , in a t a c t i c a l d e f e n s e a n d

e q u i p p e d w i t h a n t i t a n k g u n s an d missiles, o p p o s e d I s r a e l i a rm o r . S o o n , t h e

IDF d i s c o v e r e d t h e e n t i r e S u e z f r o n t w a s o n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f e n s e .

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d i s l o d g e t h e e n e m y i n f an t ry . 5 1 C o m m a n d e r s h a s ti l y t h r e w I D F r e s e r v e u n i t s

t 2 8 1



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d i r e c t i o n w a s l o s t .

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r e p o r t e r , i n d i c a t es t h e t r e m e n d o us p r o b l e m s t h e lsrrelis i r c e d i n c o m b i n e d

a r m s m a n e u v e r a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e wa r:

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a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t o f ? h e a r m o r e d t e am . T h e f a c t

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i n

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e x p e r t m a n e u v e r o p e r a t i o n s . S o m e e n a m p l e s o f t h e i r r e v i t a l i z e d m a n e u v e r

p r o w e s s b e a r d i s c u s s i o n . T h e e c o n o m y

of

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t h e e a s t s i d e o f t h e c a n al c o n t i n u a l l y p e r p l e x e d t h e

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f o r c e s s i n c e t h e y w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y p a r a l y z e d by i n c e s s a n t I s r ae l i m a n eu v e r .

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c r o s s i n g w r e c ke d t h e E g y p t i a n d e f e n s e s o n t h e w e s t b a n k o f t h e c a na l . T h e

r a p i d r e a c t i o n

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in

t h e a m b u s h o f t h e E g y p t i d n 2 5 t h A r m or

B r i g a d e d e m o n s t r a t e d a g i l i t y a nd t e a m wo r k . T h e l i r a e l i s e v e n t u a l l y r e c o v e r e d

u s i n g c o m b i n e d a r m s t o g r e a t e f f e c t . T h e t a c t i c s o f t h e ' ar mo re d a n v i l ",

w h e r e b y a r m or e d i n f a n t r y a nd a r t i l l e r y s l o w e d a n d c h e c k e d t h e a t t a c k e r e

w h i l e m o b i le , h a r d h i t t i n g c o u n t e r a t t a c k i n g a r m or f o r c e s s t r u c k t h e e n e m y

f l a n k s , d e s t r o y e d t h e E g y p t i a n a t t a c k s o f 1 4 O c t ob e r a n d t h e E g y p ti a n e f f o r t s

a g a i n s t t h e I D F cr os c ci n y s i t e on t h e c a n a l .

I s r a el i u s e of f i r e p o w e r p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e o f t h e a b s o l u t e n ec e s s i t y t o

h a v e f i r e s u p e r i o r i t y i n o r d e r t o s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n si t i o n. O n t h e s o u t h e r n

f r o n t , t h e I s r a e l i s c o u l d

o n l y

t r a n s i t i o n a f t e r t h e y a c h i e v e d f i r e p o w e r

d o m i n a n c e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , I s r a el i f i r e p o w e r c a p a b i l i t y w a s i n i t i a l l y

i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e w a r t h e A r a b s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e IDF. A s a r e s u l t o f t h e

1 9 6 7 w a r , t h e I DF h ad v e s t e d m u c h o f its f i r e p o w e r i n its a i r f o r c e a 5 a n

i n t e g r a l p a rt o f a t a n k - a i r p l a n e t e a m t h a t h a d b e e n

so

e f f e c t i v e i n

o p e n ,

m a n e u v e r w a r. T h i s t e a m d i d n o t w o r k a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g m a z e o f

a n t i t a n k m i 5 s i l e s a n d a n t i a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e

IDF

b y t h e

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of i n s u f f i c i e n t a r t i l l e r y t o s u p p r e s s t h e e n e m y a n t i t a n k n e s ts . U n a b l e t o

s t o p t h e s e

missile

a t t a c k s o n t h e t a n k s , t h e I D F a 1 5 0 f o u n d i t s el f w i t h

i n s u f f i c i e n t i n f a n t r y f i r e p o w e r t o g o i n a n d r o o t o u t t h e e n e m y i n f a n t r y m e n .

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IDF

b a t t e r ed i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e a n t i t a n k

n e s t s p r e c i s e ly a 5 t h e E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o na l d e s ig n h a d e n v i s i o n ed .

57

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m o st t e l l i n g a d v a n t a g e t h e I s r a e l i s e n j o y e d w a s t h e i r e x p e r t a i r - g r ou n d

i n t e g r at i o n . T h e a i r c r a f t p r o v i d e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f i r e s r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t

t h e o p e r a t i o n a l g r o u n d p la n. B o t h t h e a i r a n d g r o u n d e f f o r t w e r e

c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d c r i t i c a l to t h e m a n e u v e r s u c c e s s of t h e I s r a e l i m ai n a t t a c k

o n t h e w e st b a n k of t h e c s n a l. I t w a s n o t u n ti l t h e I D F s t o p p e d t h e d i r e c t

a t t a c k s o n t h e t w o E g y p t i a n a r m i e s a n d m a ss e d t h ei r a v a i l a b l e f i r e p o w e r at

t h e d e c i s i v e p o i nt

of

D e r v e r i o i r t h a t t h e y w e r e a b l e t o b r i n g t h e i r a i r p o w er

b a c k i n t o t h e f i g h t . W h e n t h e y r e g a i n e d t h e u s e o f t h i s k e y e l e m e n t o f

f i r e p o w er , t h e y o v e r c a m e t h e E g yp t i a n d e f e n s e s a nd s u c c e e d e d i n t h e i r

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n .

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c r i t i c a l i t y . I n i t i a l IDF a c t i o n s d i d l i t t l e t o p r o t e c t t h e i r f o r c e . L a c k i n g

r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r e n e m i e s , t h e y a t t a c k e d w i t h o u t a n a d e q u a t e c o m b i n e d a r m s

t e am . U n c o o r d i n a t e d a t t a c k s le d t o c o n f u s i o n , m i s s e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d

s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s e s i n m e n a n d e q u i p m e nt . O n c e t h e c o m m a n d r e a l i z e d t h e i r

m i s t a k e s , t h e y s t o p p e d t h e ir a t t a c k s a nd w a i te d o n t h e d e f e n s i v e n e a r t h e

c r i t i c a l S i na i p as se s. U s i ng e c o n o m y o f f o r c e m e a ~ u r e s , h e I D F e f f e c t i v e l y

s c r e e n e d t h e E g y p t i a n s.

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a c c e p t i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g t h e r e s e r v e f o rm a ti o n s. A f t e r t h e y w e r e s t r o n g

e n o u g h f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n , t h e I DF c o n c e n t r a t s d t h e i r f i r e p o w e r

a n d a t t a c k e d o n

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s i n g l e a n i s w h i c h e n a b l e d t he m t o b e t t e r p r o t e c t t h e i r

f o r c e s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e E g y p t i a n a i r d e f e n s e b e lt w a s

v i ta l i n a l l o w l n g I s r a e l i a i r p o w e r t o c o v e r t h e m ov e m e n t o f g r o u n d f o r c e s .

L a s t l y , i n t e l l i q e n c e a n d d e c e p t i o n p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n t h e u u e o f

o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l c o m b a t p o w e r i n t h i s wa r. T h e l a s t t w o e l e m e n t s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l c o m b a t p o w e r , I s r a e l i d e f e n s e p l a n s a n d d e c i s i o n s d e p e n d e d o n

a c c u r a t e i n t e l l i ge n c e . A m a z i n gl y , I s r a e l i p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r e n e m y p l a c e d

t h e m a t r i s k. F a i l u r e t o d i s c e r n t ha t t h e A r a b s c o u l d p o s t u r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r

l i m i t e d a i l i t a r y n o l u t i o n m t o p o l i t i ca l e n d s w a s

a

s t r a t e g i c f a i l u re . F a i l u r e

t o a c c o u nt f o r c h a n g e s in E g y p t i a n force s t r u c t u r e, n o t a b l y t h e a d d i t i o n a l

m o d e r n a n t i t a n k a n d a n t i a i r c r a f t s y m t s m s , a n d h o w t h e s e c h a n g e s d e t e r m i ne d

E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n , n e a r l y r e s u l t e d i n c a l a m i t y . T h e I DF b e l i e v e d



t h e A r a b s c o u l d n o t a t t a c k w i t h o u t m a r k e d l y i m p r o v e d a i r f o r c e s a n d i n c r e a s e d

m a n e u v e r c a p a b i l i t i e s

i n

a r m o r e d w a r f a r e .

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t h e I s r a e l is c h a g rl n , t h e

E g y p t i a n s h a d m a d e g r e a t s t r i d e s

in

o v e r c o m i n g t h e s e w e a k n e s s e s a n d w e r e

m i l i t a r i l y c a p a b l e o f g a i n i n g l i m i t e d s t r a t e g i c e nd m. T h e l a c k o f

i n t e l l i g e n c e a n a l y s i s a l l ow e d t h e I D F t o b e s u r pr i s e d.

T h e A r ab p l a n e n v i s i o n e d a s ~ c c e s i f u 1 r o s s i n g , c a p t u r e o f t h e B ar -L ev

l i n e a n d o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e e a s t b a n k . T h u o , a k e y to t h e h r a b p l a n w a o

d e c e p t i o n w h i c h g a i n e d f o r t h m m a n i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l e d g e o v e r t h e

I D F .

I n t e l l i g e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n w a s c r u c i a l to a n t i c i p a t e d I s r a e li d e f e n c i v e

r e a c t i o ns d e s ig n e d t o r e d u c e t h a risks o f t h e n m u s e c u r i t y i i t u a t i o n t h a t

f a c e d I s r a e l .

(Is

p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , I s ra e l w a s n ot a b l e t o c on d u c t

p r e e m p t i v e s t r i k e s f o r f e a r t h e y w o u l d b e l a b s l e d t h e a g g r es s o r.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e I D F S o u t h e r n C o m m a n d

established

a s e r i e s o f e l a b o r a t e

a l e rt s t a g e s f o r t h e S i na i . U n f o r t u n a t e l y

for

t h e I w a e l i s , a t t h e c ri t ic a l

t i m e , t h e I s ra e li c a b i n e t w o u ld n o t a u t h o r i z e t h e i n i t i a t i o n of t h e s e p r u d e n t

a l e r t m e a s u r e s a n d a g g r e s s i v e a c t io n s .

As

r e p o r t e d b y I s r a e l i w a r

c o r r e s p o n d e n t Z e ' e v S c h i f f i

" In t h e f a ce o f t h i s [ de ci si on l, an o r de r w a ~ s s u e d

b

t h e Q e n e r a l

S t a f f t h a t a r m o r e d f o r c e s w e r e

not

t o m o v e t o w a rd t i e c a n a l , f o r

f e a r t h a t a c h a n g e i n t h e d i s p o s i t i o n of

a r m o r

w o u l d i n c i t e t h e

A r a b s t o a c t . I s r a e l i t a n k s , a u a r e s u l t , w e r e n o t i n p o s i t i o n at

t h e c a na l w h e n t h e

f i

h t i n g b e g a n , a n d t h e m a i n a r n o r e d u n i t s w e r e

t o t h e r e a r , i n c e n t r a l ina i." JE

F o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e IDF, t h e l e a d e r s h i p r e c o v e r e d a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d

d e c e p t i o n p l a y e d a k e y r o l e i n t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . I n t e l l i g e n c e s o u r c e s

q u i c k l y g a t h e r e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e n e w w e a p o n s a n d t a c t i c s t h e E g y p t i a n s

w e r e u s in g . T h i s d a t a, c o up l e d w i t h c o m b a t e x p e r i e n c e , e n a b l e d t h e t a c t i c a l

a n d o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r B t o d e v i s e m e t h o d s t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e a n t i t a n k

m i 6 5 1

l es . S u c c e s s f u l i n t e l l i g e n c e a l s o p r o vi d e d t h e a i r f o r c e w i t h

i n f o r m a t i o n o n E g y p t i a n a n t i a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s a nd c o m n a n d l c o n t r o l s y s t en c .

U s i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e

f r o m

A m e r i c a n s o u r c e s , I s ra e li a n a l y s t s r e p o r t e d t h e

a b s e n c e o f c r e d i b l e E g y p t i a n a rm o r r e s e r v e s o n t h e w m i t ba n k , t h e c o r n e r s t o n e

r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t h a t c a r r l e d t h e I D F a c r o s s t h e

c a n al . H o w e v e r , t h e c r i t i c a l h a n d m a i d e n of i n t e l l i g e n c e w a r d e c e p t i o n .

U s i n g M a j. G e n . S h a r o n ' s i n t e l l i g e n c e i n f o r n a t i o n c o n c e r n l n g t h e w e a k l y

d e f e n d e d b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e E g y p t i a n 2 nd a n d 3 r d ( Ir ni er , t h e

IDF

S o u t h e r n

C o m m a n d q u i t k l y s e l e c t e d D e r v e r s o i r a s t h e c r o s s i n g s i te . T h e I D F

c o n c e a l e d

i t 5 i n t e n t i o n t o c r o s s t h e c a n a l at D e r v e r s o i r , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e



E g y p t i a n s w e re l u l l e d t o s l e e p and f a i l e d t o p r o t e c t t h i s d e c i s i v e p o i n t .

Th e m ost s p e c t a c u l a r d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t was t h e u se o f t h e eco nom y o f f o r c e

b r i g a d e s a g a i n s t e a ch E g y p t i a n b r i d g e h e a d . E dc h l e r a e l i b r i g a d e commander

k e p t o n e o f h i s t h r e e a v a i l a b l e b a t t a l i o n s c o n s t a n t l y m ov in g b e f o r e t h e e a s t

b an k E g y p t i a n p o s i t i o n s . The o t h e r t w o b a t t a l i o n s r e s t e d , r e c o v e r e d a nd

r e p a i r e d t dn k s , and o t h e r w i s e p r e p a r e d t o go i n t o a c t i o n a t a m om en t' s

n o t i c e . T hese d e c e p t i o n e f f o r t s c o m p l e t e l y f o o l e d t h e E g y p t i a n d i v i s i o n

c om ma nd er s on t h e e a s t b a n k . When t h e E g y p t i a n o p e r a t i o n a l c om m an de rs

a t t e m p t e d t o w i th d r a w b a d l y ne ed ed p o r t a b l e a n t i t a n k w e ap ons t o t h e w es t b an k

t o c o u n te r t h e I s r a e l i c a n a l c r o s s i n g , t h e E g y p t i a n t a c t i c a l com m anders on

t h e e a s t b an k v e h e m e n t ly p r o t e s t e d . T he se d i v i s i o n c om ma nd ers r e f u s e d t o

t r a n s f e r t h e i r a n t i t a n k weapons f o r f e a r o f

a

m ajo r I s r a e l i a t t a c k on t h e i r

p o s i t i o n s .

5 9

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g e n e r a t i o n and s u r t a in m e n t e f f o r t s may be t h e mos t c r i t i c a l

c a p a b i l i t i e s t h e o p e r a t i o n a l commander h a s i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

t i m e f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e d e f e n s i v e t o t h e o f f e n s i v e . The

l a c k o f f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n and s u s t a i n r e n t m eans may b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a war

t h a t h as l i m i t e d s t r a t e g i c e n ds an d i s c o n t r o l l e d b y s up er p ow er i n f l u e n c e .

The I D F ' s s m a l l s t a n d i n g f o r c e s a nd t h e r e q u i r e m e n t

t o r e l y

on l i m i t e d

r e ~ e r v e s i n i t i a l l y d e l ay ed l r r a e l i f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n e f f o r t . 6 . A d d i t i o n a l l y ,

I s r a e l l a ck e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l b a s e t o p r o v i d e e n d l e s s r e s o u rc e s f o r modern

w a r . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

a s

a r e s u l t o f t h e 1970 c e a s e f i r e a g re e me n ts e n d i n g t h e

War o f A t t r i t i o n , I s r a e l h ad l i m i t e d s t o c k s o f m a t e r i a l a nd de pe nd ed l a r g e l y

on

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a s s i s t a n c e .

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w i t h o u t US h e l p t h e i r s t r a t e g i c c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t w ou ld ha ve a r r i v e d w i t h i n

d a y s . A m t h e i o l e I D F i u p p l i e r , t h e US f a c e d

a

7000 m i l e r e s u p p l y f l i g h t

l i n e w i t h t i m e w o rk in g a g a i n s t t h e I s r a e l i s . F o r t u n a t e l y , I D F f o r c e

g e n e r a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y ma1 en ha nc ed b y t h e i r r e m a r k a b l e a b i l i t y t o c on d u c t

b a t t l e f i e l d r e c o v e r y o f t h e i r e q u i pm e nt a s

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a l l o w e d t h e econom y o f f o r c e m i s s i o n t o s u r v i v e w h i l e t h e

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d e f e n s i v e c u l m in a t i n g p o i n t dn d a l l o w t r a n i i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n s e on i t s own

t e r m s .

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l i m i

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o f

8 9 O c t o b e r , t h e ID F w e nt o v e r t o t h e d s f s n s i v e i n t h e S i n a l a nd s h i f t e d

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I s r a e l i s w e r e e v e n t u a l l y s u c c e ss f u l i n b a l a n c i n g s n d s , n r y i , m s a n s a n d

risk

t o p r o d u c e t h e m i l i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s t h a t l sd t o t h e i r s t r a t e g i c s u c c e ss .

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of

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a c h i e v e d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l e n d st a te . F i n a l l y , t h e y g e n s r a t e d o p e r s t i o n a l l e ve l

c o m b a t p o w e r r e s o u r c e s a n d u s s d t h e m to s e t t h s c o n d i t io n s f o r S U C C ~ S B .

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.

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u l t i m a t e l y p u r s u e a p o s i t i v e a i m t h r o u g h a c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e .

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c l e a r l y t h at a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n m u s t t a k e p l a c e . W h a t is m i s s i n g i n

b a t h t h e o r y a n d d o c t r i n e i6 a d i s c u s s i o n o f h o w t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r

p o s t u r e s h i s f o r c e t o c o n d u c t t h i s t r a n s i ti o n . T h i s s t u d y p r o v i d e s a s t a r t

p o i n t f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r b y i d s n t i f y i n g

soms

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t h a t malie o p s r r t i o n r l t r a n s i t i o n a s u c c e s s .

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t r a n s i t i o n t h at t h e c o m m a n d e r ma y uas t o t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e o f f e n se . F i r s t , it

i s i m p e r a t i v e t h at e n d s , w a ys , m e a n s a n d r i s k b e i n h a r m o ny . S e c o n d , t h e

c a m p a i g n p l a n mu s t b e b a s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p l y i n g t h s k e y e l s m e n t s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l d e si g n. F i n a l l y , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r m u s t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t ,

t 3 3 1



m a t u r e a n d s k i l l e d o p e r a t i o n a l l ev e l c o m b a t p o w e r f o r t h e s c a l e of

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p r o v i d e some c o n c l u s i o n s a s t o t h e i m pa c t o f f a i l u r e a n d s u c c e s s

i n

t h e s e

t h r e e a r e a s t h a t m a y b e n e f i t f u t u r e c a m p a i g n p l a n n e r s a n d o p e r a t i o n a l

c o m m a n d e r

5.

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t h e s t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l l e a d e rs h i p . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n

m u st b e u n d e r s t o o d a n d a p p r o v ed b y s t r a t e g i c a u t h o r i t i e s , u n d e r s t o o d a n d

e x e c u t e d b y o p e r a t i o n a l l e ve l s t a f f s a n d p r o p e r ly e x e c u t e d b y t h e t a c t i c al

l e a d e r s . ( S e e A p p e n d i x I p a g e

4 1 )

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f o u r t h e o r e t i c a l e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n . T h e c o n c e p t of c e n t e r o f

g r a v i t y is a n e s s e n t i a l p l a n n i n g t o o l a n d t h e c o m m a n d e r s h o u l d f o c u s

o n

a n

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a n d b u i l d i n g u p h i 6 o u n c e n t e r of g r a v i ty . T h e i de a o f t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t

is a l s o i m p o r t a n t s i n c e t h s c o m m a n d e r ' s t a s k

is

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e n em y 's c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . C o n c u r r e n t l y , t h e c o m m a n d e r

must

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his

o w n c u l m i n a t i n g

p oi nt . L a s t l y , t h e c o n c e p t s o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e s o f

o p e r a t io n l s u p p or t g i v e f o r m t o t h e c o n f i n e r o f t h e c a m p a i g n ' s t h e a t e r of

o p e r a t i o n s . D e c i s i v e p o i n t 6 a r e d e t e r m i n e d b a se d o n t i m e , s p a c e , m a s s a n d

m o m e n t u m a n a l y si s . L i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t a r e t h e o u t c o m e s of t h e

s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n

of

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p ro v i d e d b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g c e n t e r o f

g r a v i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n ts , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , e c o n o m y o f f o r c e , an d t h e

d e c i s i o n f o r a d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t a p p r o a c h .

(See

A p p e n d i n 2, p a g e 4 4 1

T h e c a n p a i g n p l a n d e v e l o p s d is d e p e n d e n t n o t o n l y o n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e

e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n b u t a l s o t h e r e l a t i v e w o r t h o f t h e c o m b a t

p o w e r a v a r l ab l e . T h e a b i l i t y o f t h e . g i v e n f o r c e s m a y b e a n a l y z e d u s i n g t h e

e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t p o w e r I T h e c a s e s tu d i e s p r o v i d e s o m e c l u e s c o n ce r n i n g t h e

r e q u i r e d c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r ' s c o m b a t

p o w r

i n e n s u r i n g

s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . T h e t a c t i c a l l ev e l e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t

p o w e r t h a t also h a v e o p s r a t i o n a l i m p a c t a re : l e a d e r sh i p , m a n e u v e r , f i r e p o w e r

a n d P r o t e c t i o n . T h e c a s e s t u d i e s a l s o i n d i c a t e t h at i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n

p l a n s , f o r c e g e n e r a t io n of o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e B a n d s u s t a i n m e n t o p e r a t i o n s

c341



h av e an i m pa c t o n o p e r a t i o n a l c o r b a t p o w er . F i n a l l y , p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e

f o r c e s and t e r r a i n f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n was e s s e n t i a l t o b o t h t h e

G e r m a n s a n d t h e l s r a e l i r .

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i n s t a n c e , q u a l i t y l e a d e r s h i p en a b le d s u cc es s and p o o r l e a d e r s h i p l e d t o

d e f e a t . Q u a l i t y l e a d e r s h i p demands c o h e s i o n and h a r r o n y of e f f o r t

a t

e v e r y

l e v e l o f war. W h i le t h i s n ay b e v i r t u a l l y i m p o ss i b l e t o a ch ie v e, t h e

o p e r a t i o n a l co nn a nd e r h as t h e d u t y t o t r y c o n s i s t e n t l y t o m eld t h e d i s p a r a t e

l e v e l s o f l e a d e r s h i p i n t o

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c o o r d i n a t e d i n s t r u m e n t o f n a t i o n a l p ow er.

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c ir cu m s t an c es . O p e r a t io n a l l e a d e r s h i p i s c o np le u , r e q u i r i n g

a

t h o r o u g h

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e nd s, w ays , n e a ns a nd r i s k , c o u p l e d w i t h a k n o w l e d g e O f

m i l i t a r y t h e o ry and v i s i o n . C e n t r a l t o l e a d e r sh i p i n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n u i t i o n

i s k no win g when t o ac c e pt and when t o d e c l i n e b a t t l e . As Q e r r a n and 1 5 r a e l i

a c t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e , e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p e mp ha size s s u p e r io r , a c t i o n

o r i e n t e d , i n d e p e n d e n t command s t y l e s . G e r r a n a nd I s r a e l i l e a d e r s t o o k r i s k s ,

u n le a s he d t h e i r s u b or d in a te m b y g i v i n g t h e r m i s s i o n t y p e o r d e r s and a l t e r e d

t h e p l a n b a se d o n s u b o r d i n a t e i n p u t . Com manders who h a v e i n n e r c o n f i d e n c e ,

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b o l d , r i s k y b a t t l e s o f d e c i s io n . J u s t a s

success

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c u m u la t iv e e f f e c t o f

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c u m u l a t iv e e f f e c t o f o b s t i n a n c e , d is sP n Sl On and l e a d e r s h i p m i s t a k e s t h a t

c a n p r o d u c e d e f e a t .

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o p e r r t r o n a l p l a n s u f f i c e s i n e v e ry d e t a i l f o r an e n t i r e c am pa ig n) c ha ng es

w i l l

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com manders w i t h t h e f l e w i b i l i t y o f m in d t o s e i z e O p p o r tU n i t i R E f o r

t r a n s i t i o n . T h e r e f o re , b ra n ch e s and s e q u e ls a r e i n t e g r a l t o o p e r a t i o n a l

d e s i g n and a r e t h e b a s i s f o r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . I n o r de r t o r a p i d l y

p u r s u e b r a n c h e s a nd s e q u e l s , t h e c o nm a nd e r

murt

h av e n an eu ve r f o r c r s t h a t a r e

q u i c k o f m in d a nd a g i l e i n n a n eu v er . B o t h t h e G e r n rn and I s r a e l i s h ad

p r e p a r e d f o r t h e r r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s , t h e Germans b y t h o ro u g h

r e c o n n a i s s a n c e an d k n o ul e d g e o f t h e a r e a

o f

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d e v e lo p m e n t , a nd b u i l d u p o f s u p p l y d e p o t s a n d t h o 1 B r a s l i s C O n 5 t r U C t i O n o f

r o a d s , b r i d g e s , a nd c r o s s i n g s i t e i m p r ov e m e n ts a l o n g t h e Suez C a na l c o u p l e d

c 3 5 1



w i t h e n t e n s i v e r e h e a r S a l 6 o f a s s a u l t c r o s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s . B o t h t h e G erm ans

and t h e l r r a e l i s h ad p r o pa r e d f o r t h o i r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s , t h e Germans

b y t h o r o u g h k no w lo d ge o f t h e a r e a o f o p e r a t i o n s , r o a d an d r a i l n e t

d ev e lo pm e nt , a nd b u i l d u p o f s u p p l y d e p o t s and t h e I s r a e l i s b y t h e i r

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s , b r i d g e s and c r o s s i n g s i t e i m pr ov em e nt s a l o n g t h e Suez

C a n a l . These s k i l l s a r e e s s o n t i a l i n a l l o w i n g t h e c ommander t o r e a c t

p o s i t i v e l y t o u n c e r t a i n t y , c h an ce and f r i c t i o n . These a t t r i b u t e s e w p la i n how

i n a l l f o r c e 6 n u ch a 0 d e p l e t e d G e rn an P _ a ~ ' g r - f o r n a t i o n s and Israeli armor

b r i g a d e s w e re a r e a b l e t o h a ve a c u m u l a t i v o i m p a c t f r r b ey on d t h e i r s i z e .

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o r g a n i z a t i o n c ha ng os , a b l e t o t h i n k on t h e move, and c o m p et en t i n t h e

m an eu ve r o f b o t h co mb at f o r c e s a nd l o g i s t i c s e le m e n ts ,

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a t

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two

d i m e n s i o n s , a i r a n d g r o u n d f i r e p o w e r .

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a t t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t . M a n s te i n ' s d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i s o l a t e d e le m en ts o f

t h e a t t a c k i n g S o v i e t a r m ie s ~ 6 i O d i r e p o w e r a g a i n s t w ea kn es s a s d i d t h e ID F

e f f o r t s a g a i n s t D e v e r s o i r . C r i t i c a l t o m as sin g f i re p o w e r was t h e

s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f l a r g e f o r m a t i o n s and t h e i r s im u l ta n e ou s o r s e q u e n t i a l u s e

i n b a t t l e t o a c h io v o s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s . A ga in , 4 t h Pan-zer. A rm y 's a c t i o n s

f r o m t h o end o f F e b r u a r y t o 1 4 M a r c h s e r v e a s an e na m pl e o f m o v i ng l a r g e

f o r m a t i o n m o v o r v a s t d i s t a n c e s t o mass f i r s p o w e r . I l s d i s c u s s e d a bo ve , t h e

a b i l i t y o f t h e c om ma nder 's f o r c o r t o maneuvmr i s

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d im ens ion . German use

o f t h e l r a i r f l e e t s p ro v id o d i n t e l l i g e n c e and o p e r a t i o n a l f i r e s .

F u r t h er m o re , ID F u so o f a i r p o w or was i n 6 t r u n e n t a l i n t h e i r v i c t o r y s i n c e b o t h

e le m en ts r e q u i r e d t h e s u pp o rt o f t h e o t h e r t o be e f f e c t i v e . Fo rc e s t h a t

o p e r a t e i n t h e a i r d i m e n s io n a r o more r e s p o n s i v e and a r e t h e r e f o r e

o p e r a t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .

The f o u r t h o l e b e n t o f c om ba t p ow er

a t

t h e o p e r a t l on a l l e v e l i s p r o t e c t i o n

o f

t h e f o r c e . T h l s u i m p l e c o nc e pt is one o f t h e most d i f f i c u l t d y n d n ic s t o

c o n t r o l a t t h o o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l . P r o t e c t i o n i s o n l y p o s s i b l e when

l e a d e r s h i p , m an eu ve r, f i r e p o w e r , i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n and s u s t r i n m e n t a r e

f u n c t i o n i n g p r o p e r l y . T he re a r e t w o e s s o n t i a l i d ea s i n p r o t e c t i o n

a t

t h e

o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l 1 t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t 5 m ust b e h e l d t o make t h e d ef e ns e work

1 3 6 1



and t h e c o u n t o r o f f e n s iv e f o r c e s m ust be s a fe g ua r de d . C r i t i c a l t o t h i s s c he re

i s k no win g when t o a c ce p t b a t t l e and when t o d e c l i n s b a t t l e . B ot h t h s

Germans and t h e I s r a e l i s r e fu s e d b a t t l e t o s s t t h e s t ag e f o r s u p e r i o r i t y a t

t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t . When c h o o s i n g t o e ng a ge t h e ensm y, t h e c o n ra n d er r u s t

c o n d uc t c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n s t o a l l o w t h e enemy n o r e s p i t e . M a n s t e i n ' s

u n r e l e n t i n g p u r s u i t

o f

t h e S o v i e t s t o B s l g o r o d c r e a t i n g a c a s c a d i n g e f f e c t .

C o n t i n u i n g I D F a rm or p r e s s u r e on t h e E g y p t i a n b r i d g eh e a d s f r o n t h e f r o n t an d

i n t h e r e a r c au se d E g y p t i a n com manders t o w a i t s resources i n d s s pe r a t e

a t t a c k s . I n t h e c o nd uc t o f t h e d e f en se , t i m e l y w i t h d r a w a l i s ne sd sd t o r ed u c e

e x p o s u r e a n d

l i m i t

dam age. H o s t o f t e n t h i s r e q u i r e s d e p t h a nd t h s c o n du c t of

a

m o b i l e d efP nS R a s c o n d uc t e d b y M a n s t e i n . L o g i s t i c a l B U p p or t m us t b e

p r i o r i t i z e d t o c om m it t ed f o r c e s and a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i r e t he s e sans

r e s o u r c e s m ust b e f oc u se d o n t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e . M a n s t e in r u t h l e s s l y

a d h e r e d

t o

t h i s i d e a . The

IOF

a cc om p li sh ed t h i s t h r ou g h t h e r o b i l i z a t i o n o f

r e s e r v e s . A t t h e same t im e , d e c e p t i o n p l a n s r u s t a l1 0w t h e c o rn a nd o r t o r e s t

h i s own fo r c e s . N o re o ve r, d e c e p t i o n p l a n s r u s t i n s u r e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l

r e s e r v e s r e m a in h i d d e n.

NOH t h a t M U h a v e l o o k e d

a t

t h e f o u r e l s r e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l c om bat pow er

t h a t i m p a c t t h e c om m an de r' s p l a n s

MU

w i l l e xa m in e t h e i n p a c t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

d e c e p t i o n , f o r c e g e n e r a t i on a nd s u s t a i n n e n t o n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n e i t i o n .

E x p e r t i n t e l l i g e n c s g a t h e r in g a n a l y s i s an d d i s s e r i n r t l a n

15

E s s e n t ia l t o

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . P r op e r a n a l y s i s and u n d s r s ta n d i ng o f t h e c e n t s r o f

g r a v i t y and t h e c u lm i n a t i n g p o l n t a r e u s e f u l o n l y I f t h e C onnandR r i s

t h o r o u g h l y a wa re o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t h s a t e r . T h i s dunandm t h o r o u g h

o p e ra t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e p re p a ra t i o n o f t h e b a t t l e f i e l d

(OIPB).

The

O I P B

d i s c e r n s f o r t h e c om ra nd er t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s , p r o b a b le e n er y l i n e s o f

o p e r a t i o n s a nd s u p p o r t b as ed on t e r r a i n a nd i n t e n t i o n s . A l s o , t h e b e s t

f r i e n d l y l i n e s o f

operation

and s u p p o r t a r e d e t e r m i n e d ba s s d o n t s r r a i n and

e n e m y i n t e n t i o n s . Key e le m e nt s o f a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e u n d e r s t an d i n g t h e m in ds

o f the commanders o f t h e m a j o r enemy f o r c e s , a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

e ne ny command s t r u c t u r e and d e c i r i l o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s , a nd f i n a l l y , t h e

p r o b a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e nd s, w ay s, m eans a nd r i s k o n t h e e n e ry s i d e .

F a i l u r e t o d e te c t t h e enemy m ain e f f o r t

o r t o

d i s c e r n t h e t r u e enemy

i n t e n t i o n e a r l y w i l l menace t h e f o r ce . H i t l e r ' s ~ i s u n d e r s t r n d i n g + S o v i e t

i n t e n t i o n s and c a p a b i l i t i e s p la g ue d M a n s t e i n 's e f f o r t i t o c r e a t e a w o rk ab le

c a m pa ig n p l a n . L i k e w i s e ,

IDF

m i s c a l c u l a t i o n o f A rab i n t e n t and c a p a b i l i t i e s

t 3 7 1



a l m o s t l e d t o d e f e a t . O n l y b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g e n e m y a n d f r i e n d l y i n t e n t i o n s

w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k

o f

t h e e l e m e n t s

of

n a t i o n a l p o w e r a n d e n e m y d o c t r i n e c a n

t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r h o p s t o s u c c e e d i n o p o r a t l o n a l t r a n s i t io n .

D e c s p t i o n is c r i t ic a l t o t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n s i n c e e c on o m y

o f

f o r c e e f f o r t s

a r e e s s e n t i a l t o o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . D e c e p t i o n p l a n s m u st r e i n f o r c e a n d

m a n i p u l a t e e n e m y p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s . To a c c o m p l i s h t h a t, t h e

d e c e p t i o n m u s t b e b e l i s v a b l e t o t h e e n em y . P r o p e r d e c e p t i o n i n v o l v e s n o t

o n l y i n e x p e n s i v e m e a n s s u c h a s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d e l e c t r o n i c d e c e p t i o n , b ut

m u s t a l s o i n c l u d e t h e m o v e m e n t a n d a c t i o n s o f fo rc es . T h u s d e c e p t i o n e n t a i l s

t a k i n g r i s k s i f t h e e n e m y is t o b e li e v e t h e r u s e . M a n s t e i n m a n i p u l a t e d S o v i e t

p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s

b y

a l l o w i n g t h e p e n e tr a t i o n

t o

d e v e l o p a nd

l05e

s t ea m . V a t u t i n w a s c o m p l e t e l y f o o l e d s i n c e G e r m a n o p e r a t i o n s c o i n ci d e d w i th

h i s o w n p la n. T h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f K h e r k o v is a n e x a m p l e of a n a c c i d e n t a l

d e c e p t i o n t h a t " pr ov ed ' t h e Q e r m a n s w e r e w i t h d r a w i n g t o t h e D n e ip e r .

F o r

t h e

G e r m a n s , t h e m o s t p l a u s i b l e d s c e p t i o n w ad t h e o n e t h a t c o n f i r m e d t h e S o v i e t

b e l i e f i n t h e ir p l a n , w h i c h w a s e a s i l y d o ne .

I D F

d e c e p t i o n w a s t a c t i c a l i n

n a t u r e b u t i t s p l a u s i b i l i t y l u l l e d t h s E g y p t i a n s t o s l e e p s i n c e t h e y f a i l e d

t o s h o r e up t h e seam b e t w e e n 2 n d a n d r d Army.

T h e f i n al t w o c a p a b i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n a r e f o r c e

g e n e r a t i o n a n d s u s t ai n m s nt . T h e s e t w o c a p a b i l i t i e s h a v e b ut o n e p u r p os e i n

r e g a r d t o o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n , t h a t

i5

t o g e n e r a t e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s

f o r t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . E v e n w i t h l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s , o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s

m u s t s o m e h o w b e g e n e r a te d i f a d e c i i i v e s t r o k e

is

t o b e m a d s t h r o u g h

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a ns i t io n . M a n s t e i n a c c o m p l i s h e d t h i s b y s t r i p p i n g a r m o r f r o m

h i s s t a t i c f o r m a t i o n s a n d h u s b a n d i n g 4 t h P~nme~

Army

f o r t h e

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . l h e l s r a s l i s u s e d e c o n o m y

of

f o r c e m e a s u r e s a nd r a p i d

n a t i o n a l m o b i l i z a t i o n t o g e n e r a t e r e r e r v s s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a l t r an s it i on .

E v e r y a s s et m u s t b e u s e d s f f i c l e n t l y t o s t r i k e t h e s n e m y c e n t e r

of

gravity.

I n t h i s wa y , t h e r e was r u f f i c i e n t mas5 w h e n o p e r a t i o n 6 1 t r a n s i t t o n o c c u r r e d

s o t h at t h e f o r c s h a d de c i s i v e i np a c t. F o r c e g e n e r a t i a n a n d s u s t a i n m e n t t a k e

o n d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l le vs l. T h e a s s e ss m e n t o f t h e

c o m n a n d s ' a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a t e f o r c e s a n d k e e p t h e m s u p p l i e d w i ll g r e a t l y

i n f l u e n c e t h e a n a l ys i s of t h e e l e m e n t s o f o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a nd d i c t a t e

w h e t h e r

o r

n o t a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n

is

a c h i e v a b l e . O p e r a t i o n a l

t r a n s i t i o n is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o a f o r c e ' s l o g i s t i c a l p o w e r . (See Appendix 3

a n d 4, p a g e s

47

t o

511



F i n a l l y , w e h a v e c o m e f u l l c i r c l e a n d a r r i v e b a c k at t h e o r i g l n a l t h e s i s

o f t h i s m o n o g ra p h 1 a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e r e a r e e i s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f

o p e r d t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n t h at t h e c o m m a n d e r n a y u s e a s a g u i d e

to

d e t e r m i n e t h e

a c t i o n s t h a t m u st b e t a k e n t o u l t i m a t e l y p u r s u e t h e p o s i t i v e a i m, t h e

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . T h e s t u d y h a s e n a m i n e d t h e o r y , d o c t r i n e a n d h i s t o r i c a l

c a m p a i g n s . T h e o r y a nd d o c t r i n e d i r e c t u s t o u n d e r t a k e a n o p e r a t i o n a l

t r a n s i t i o n i n o r d e r t o b e v l c t o r i o u s . H i s t o r y p r o v i d e s u s some e x a m p l e s o f

s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a ti o n a l t r a n s i t i o n s a nd f r o m t h e s e w e h a v e g l e a n e d e s s e n ti a l

e l e m e n t s t h a t h e l p t h e c o m m a n d e r m a k e c r i t i c a l c a m p a i g n d e c i s io n s .

F i r s t , e n d s - wa y s - me a n s - ri s k m u s t b e h a r m o n i z e d 60 t h a t s t r a t e g y ,

o p e r a t i o n a l a r t , a n d t a c t i c s a r e s y n c h r o n i z e d t o w a r d s t h e u t r a t eg i c g o a l s .

S e c o n d , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r m u s t u n d e r s t a n d a nd a p p l y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a s m a n i f es t e d b y t h e i d e a s of c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ,

c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t , d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e n o f o p e r a t i o n r l s u p p o r t . T h i s

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p l i c a t i o n p r o d u c e s a w o r k a b l e , i n i t i a l c a n p a l g n p l a n t h a t

h a s a s i t s f o c u s t h e s e t t i n g of t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n

t o t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e . L a s t l y , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r m u s t m e ld

the

o p e r i t i u n a l c o m b a t p o w e r r e s o u r c e n o f l e a d e r s h i p , m a n e u v e r , f i r e p o w e r , a nd

p r a t e c t i o n i n t o a c a p a b l e f o r c e t h ro u gh t h e u s e 0 4 I n t e l l l g e n c e , t h e c r e a t i o n

a n d e x e c u t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n p l a n s, t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s , a n d

t h e s u s t a i n n e n t o f a l l f o r c e s .

T h u s , t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e d e f e n s e is t h e s t r o n g er form o f w a r is v a l i d

o n l y i f i t i n v o l v e s a n o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . T h e v i c t o r y o f t h e d e f e n s e

r e s t s i n its a b i l i ty t o t r a n s i ti o n t o t h e o f f e n s i v e o n a g r a n d s c a l e a n d

a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d s t r a t e g i c e n d s t a te .





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1

:E66entia.l E le me nt s of E n d s - - W a y s - - M e a n 6 - - R i s k ~

T h o u g h b e y o n d t h e s c o p e of t h i s m o n og r a p h , t h e r e se a r c h c o n c e r n in q t h e

t w o c a s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e n d s , w a y s , m e a n s a n d

r i s k . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p m a y b e i m p o r t a n t t o c a m p a i g n p l a n n e r s. T h e

m o n o g r a p h s t a t e s t h a t i t is i m p e r a t i v e t h a t e n d s , w a y s , m e a n s a n d r i s k s b e i n

h a r m o n y . S t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l l e a d e r s s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s

o f t h e t h e a t e r i n w h i c h t h e c a m p a i g n will b e f o u g h t a nd t h e et r a t e g i e e n d s

w h i c h a r e s o u g h t . As i n d i c a te d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r

must

s e e k

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p r o v a l f r o m s t r a t e g i c i u t h o r l t i e s a n d e n s u r e t h e c a m p a i g n

p l a n is e x e c u t e d . T h e m o d e l i n f i g u r e 1 - 1

is

a u s e f u l t o o l in u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h e r e l a t i o n s h l p s b e t w e e n e n ds - -w a y s- - me a ns - - ri s ks a n d t h e i d e a s o f

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s l g n a n d c o m b a t p o w e r .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b @t we e n t h e s t r a t e g ic e n d s d e s i r e d a nd t h e m i l i t a r y m e a n s

a v a i l a b l e is t h e d e g r e e o f

r i s k

i n v o l v ed . M a n a g i n g t h e s e r i s k s r e q u i r e s a n

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n t h a t c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r s c o m b a t p o we r . R i s k is n o r m a l l y

a s s u m e d t o s o m e d e g r e e in t h e p l a c e m e n t of f o rc e s. T h u e, c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

t h e e l e m e n t s of o p e r a t i o n a l de s i g n p r ov i d e s t h e f r a m e w o r k fo r p r o p e r

d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c r i t i c al a n d d y n a m i c c o n c e p t s of e c o no m y o f f o r c e

a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e m e an s . T h e r e f o r e , b a l a n c l n g r i s k e a s e s t h e t e n s i o n

b e t w e e n t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d e c o n o m y of f o r c e . T h e s e t w o

p r i n c i p l e s a r e t h e b a s i s u p o n w h i c h t h e c o m m a n d e r g e n e r a t e s f o r c e s f o r

o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n . T h e l i n k a g e , t h e r e f o r e , b e t w e e n e n d s a n d m e a n s is

w ay s. S i n c e r e c o n c i l i n g r i s k i s c r i t i c a l t o b a l a n c i n g t h P e q u a t i o n , t h i s

e f f o r t is t h e

key

t o h a r m o n i z i n g e n d s , w a y s , a n d m e a n s .

T h e l i n k b e t w e e n e n d s a n d m e a n s is t h e w a y

in

w h i c h t h e f o r c e i s u s e d.

T h e wa y t h e

f o r c e

is u s e d is d e s c r i b e d i n t h e c a m p a i g n pl a n. A d d i t i o n a l l y ,

t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n m a n a g e s t h e r i s k t h a t r e s u l t s w h e n e n d p a n d m e a n s a r e

c o m p a r e d. T h e c a m p a i g n p l a n is d e v e l o p e d b a s e d on t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e

e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s

of

o p e r a t i o n a l d es i g n. F o r o u r p u r p o s e s w e h a v e u s e d t h e

c o n c e p t s o f c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t s , d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e s

o f o p e r a t i o n s / s u p p o r t a s a n a l y t i c a l t o o ls .

In o u r c a s e s t u d i e s , w e s e e d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s to b a l a n c i n g t h e

e q u at i o n. M a n s t e i n u n d e r s t o od t h e m e a n 6 w e r e i n a d e q u a te t o a c h i e v e t h e e n d s

w i t h o u t t a k i n g e x o r b i t a nt r is ks . T h e r e f o r e h e w o rk e d d i l i g e n t l y t o c h a n g e

H i t l e r ' s s t r a t e g i c p o l i c y so t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e m e a n s c o u l d b e u s e d

s u c c e s s f ul l y . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e I s ra e l i e n d s w e r e r e a l i s t i c , b ut t h o m e a n s

a v a i l a b l e w e r e i n i t i a l l y e m p l o y e d p o or l y. O n c e t h e I D F a d j u s t e d t o t h e

c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e w a r i n t h e S i n a i , t h e y d e v e l o p e d a c a m p a i g n p l a n , or w a y o f

u s i n g m e a n s , t h a t a c h i e v e d t h e e n d s w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e f o r c es .

T h e f i nd l s t e p in h a r m o n i z i n g e n d s , w a y s , m e a n s a n d r i s k is I n s u r i n g t h e

c a m p a i g n p l a n i s u n d e r s t o o d at e a c h l ev el . F i r s t , t h e c a m p a i g n p l a n m u s t b e

u n d e r s t o od b y s t r a t e g i c a u t h o r i t i e s

so

t h a t a p p r o v a l i m g a i n e d f o r t h e

t 4 1 1



a c t i o n s t h e c o mm a n d e r p r o p o s e s . A s M a n r t e i n ' s e f f o r t s i l l u s t r a t e , t h i s p l a n

may

n o t b e e a s i l y r e c o n c i l e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l r e s t r a i n t s a n d r e s o u r c e

c o n s t r a i nt s . N o n e t h e l e ss , t h e c o m m a n d e r c o n t i n u e s t h e a d v i s o r y p r o c e s s u n t il

h a r m o n y i s a c h i e v e d in t h 0 a q u a t i a n. S e c o n d , h e m u st e n s u r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

h i s i n t e n t a n d e x e c u t i o n

of

t h e p l a n b y t h e op e r a t i o n al l ev e l s t a f f . L a s t l y ,

t h e p l a n m us t b e u n d e r st o o d a n d e xe c u t e d b y t h e t ac t i c a l c o m m an d e r s .

I n

t h i s

m a n n e r t h e c o m m a n d e r b e g i n s t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n o f s t r a t e g y , o p e r a t i o na l a r t

a n d t a c t i c s t o a t t a i n t h e m i l i t a r y e n d s t a t e .

It is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t

this

e f f or t o n l y b e g i n s t h e p r o c e s s o f

l i n k i n g m e a n s a n d e n d s .

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the o p e r a t i o na l l e v e l , t h e r e a r e m o r e w a y s t o

c o m b i n e f o r c e s t o g e n e r a t e c o m b a t p ow e r. U n c e r t a i nt y

is

g r e a t e r b ut t h e r e

is

m o r e t i m e t o r ea c t . H o w e v e r , a s

i t

t a k u s m o re t i m e t o m o v e f o r c e s ,

a n t i c i p a t i o n b e c o m e s c r i t i c a l T h e e n d r e s u l t

is

m o r e r i s k a n d t h e p e n a l t i e s

f o r b e i ng w r o ng c a n b e s e v er e . T h e m e a n s n e e d e d t o e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e r i s k

a n d c h a n c e a r e b e y o n d t h e c a p a c i t y o f a n y n a t io n . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

e n d s a n d m e a n s c a n n o t , t h e r e f o r e, b e p e r f e c t l y f o r e c a s t e d d u e t o c h a n c e ,

u n c e r t a i n t y , f r i c t i o n , f o g , a n d t h e m o r a l d o m a i n o f w ar . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e

c o m m a n d e r f a c e s c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g s t r a t e g i c g u i d a n c e b a s ed on t h e o u t c o m e

o f c o m b a t , T h e o p e r a t i o na l c o m m a n d e r m u s t k ee p c o n s t a n t f o c u s o n t h e d y n a m l c

o f e n d s - w s ys - m s a n s -r i s k . T h e t r u t h ,

o r ,

t h e e n d s t a t e , c h a n g e s a n d

s o

m u s t

t h e o p e r a t i o n al d e s ig n . G r e a t c a p t a i n s e f f i c i e n t ly

u5e l i m i t e d m e a n s t h r o u g h

i n n o v a t i v e o p e r a t i a na l d e i i g n t o a t t a i n s t r a t a g i c e n d s w h i l e o p er a t i n g un de r

f r a c t u r e d s t r a t e g i c l e a d e r s h i p a n d c h a n g i n g e n d s t a t e s ,





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E s s e n t i a l E l e m e n t s o f O p e r a t i o n a l D e s i g n i n Ca mp a. iq n P l a n n i n g

Ihe c a s e s t u d i e s p r o p o s e a d d i t i o n a l i d e a s c o n c e r n i ng t h e a n a l y ti c a l t o o l s

o f o p e r a t i on a l d e s i g n u s ed t o d e v e l o p c a m p a i g n p l an s . W h i l e n o t p r o v e d i n

t h e c a m p a i g n s s t u d i e d , t h e s e i d e a s d o p r o v i d e a r e a s f o r a d d i t i o na l t h o u g h t

f o r o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n n e r s .

T h e c o n c e p t o f c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y i s t h e f o c u s o f t h e c o m m a n d e r ' s

a c t i o n s . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e c o m m a n d e r a t t e m p t s t o i d e n t i f y t h e e n e m y c en t e r of

g r a v i t y t h r o u g h i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a n s a n d a t t a c k i t w h i l e p r o t e c t i n g h i 6 o w n

c e n t e r o f

g r a v i t y

from e f f e c t i v e e n e m y c o u nt e r b l o w s . T h e c a s e s t u d i e s

i n d i c at e t h e c o m ma n d er h a 6 g r ea te r s u c c e ~ s i f h e f o c u s e s

o n

a n i n d i r e c t

a p p r o a c h t o d e f e a t i n g t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y . T h e e f f o r t t o e x p o s e t h e

c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y u s u a l l y w i l l r e q u i r e s e q u e n c e d o p e r a t i o n s . M a n s t e i n ' s

a c t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t w h e n f o r c e s a r e f e w , o p e r a t i o n s m u st b e s e q u e n c ed t o

f i r s t p r o t e c t c r i t i c a l a s s e t s a n d l a t e r t o a t t a c k t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f

g r d v i t y . L i k e w i s e , t h e

IDF

h a d t o s e q u e n c e g r o u n d a n d a i r o p e r a t i u n s t o

u n c o v e r a n d d e f e a t t h e E g y p t i a n c e n t e r o f g r a vi t y. T h e o p e r a t i on a l d e f e n s i v e

d e s i g n s h o u l d f i r st p r o v i d e f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f a d e f e n s e t h at a t t r i l e s t h e

c o m b a t p o we r o f t h e e n e m y c e n t e r of g r a v i t y s e c o n d , h o l d t h e s h o u l d e r s a n d

d e c i s i v e p o i n t s t o c r e a t e f r ic t i o n a n d p r o v i d e m a n e u v e r p i v o t p o i n t s ; t h i r d ,

f a c i l i t a t e t h e g e n e r a t i o n of c o u n t e r s t r o k e f o rc e s a n d f i n a l l y , t h e p l a n m u st

c a l l f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f a n o p m r a t i on a l t r a n s i t i o n

to

t h e c o u n t e r o f fe n s i v e

to

d e 6 t r o y t h e w e a k e n e d e n e m y f o rc e s. S e q u e n c e d o p e r a t i o n s a t t h i 5 l e v el w i ll

r e q u i r e t h e m o v e m e nt of l a r g e f o r m a t i o n s o v e r v as t d i s t a n c e s, d e f e n s i v e

o p e r a t i o n s , f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n a n d s u s t a i n m e n t o p e r a t i o n s a n d f i n a l l y ,

o f f e n s i v e o p e ra t i on s .

T h e i d e a o f t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t i s a l s o i m p o r ta n t s i n c e t h e c o m m a n d e r ' s

t a s k i s to i n c r e a s e hiti r e l a t i v e c o m b a t p o w e r b y a t t r i t i n g t h e e n e m y c e n t e r

of g r a v i t y a n d h a s t e n i n g t h e e n e m y ' s c u l m i n a t i n g p oi nt . At t h e s a m e t i m e ,

t h e c o m m a n d e r mu s t g e n e r d t e f o r c e s a n d s l o w t h e a r r i v a l o f h i s o w n

c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . The t i m e t a b l e fo r o p e r a t i on a l s e q u e n c i n g i r d e t e r m i n e d so

t h a t

I U C C ~ S B

i s a c h l e v e d b e f o r e t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o in t

is

r e a c h e d . H o w e v e r ,

p e r f e c t p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e t i m e a n d p l a c e o f t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i nt i s n o t

p o s s i b l e. D e f e n s i v e l y , o p e r a t i on a l p l a n n e r s ?lust t r a d e s p a c e f o r t i m e w h i l e

f o r c i n g c u l m i n a t i o n o n t h e e n e m y b y c o m b a t a t t r i t i o n a n d f r i c t i o n . T h i s

d e m a n d s s t r e n g t h of wi ll a nd cggp..d,:..ou.il t o kn ow whe n t o a c c e p t b a t t l e an d

m o r e i m p o r t a nt l y w h e n t o d e c l i n e b a t t l e , k e y i d e a s in o p e r a t i o n a l a rt . L i k e

M a n s t e i n , t h e c o m m a n d mufit b e p r e p a r e d t o f a l l b a c k o n t o i t s o w n l o g i s t i c a l

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , d e c l i n i n g d e c i s i v e b a t t l e an d p r ot e c t i n g i t s o f f e n s i v e f o r c e s

t o f o r e s t a l l t h e c u l m i n a ti n g p o i nt . As o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e K h a r k o v a n d S i n a i

c a m p a i g n s S U g g l E t , t o p r e p a r e f o r t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e , t h e c o m m a n d e r m u st

i n s t i t u t e a k in d of o p e r a t i o na l p a u s e b y s h o r t e n i n g a n d t h i n n i n g h i s l i n e s ,

p r i o r i t i z a t i o n o f a s s e t s t o c o u n t e r s t r o k e f o r c e s a n d s e q u e n c i n g o p e r a t i on s .

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of

t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i nt i s a c c u r a t e a s s e s s m en t a n d

s u r t a i n m e n t o f o n e ' s o w n c o m b a t p o w er w h i l e r e d u c i n g t h e e n e m y ' s c o m b a t

p o w e r .

As

t h e c a s e s t u d i e s s h o w , f o r b o t h t h e G e r m a n s an d t h e I s r a e l i s , t h i s

d e m a n d s a c c u r a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e .

1 4 4 1



E s s e n t i a l t o s l o w i n g t h e a r r i v a l of t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t is t h e a b i l i t y

t o c h a n g e p l a n s a n d o p e r a t i o n a l a g i l i t y i n c o m b a t p ow er . T h i s r e q u i r e s e n p e r t

i n t e l l i g e n c e c o l l e c t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s. I n t e l l i g e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n a l l o w s t h e

c o m m a n d e r t o a n t i c i p a t e a nd r e c o g n i z e w h e n a n d w h e r e t h e c u l m i n a t in g p o i nt

w i l l o c c u r

so

t h at a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s c a n b e ta k e n. S u c c e s s i v e o p e r a t i o n s

a n d p r o p e r s e q u e n c i ng a r e i m p o r t a n t t o o p e r a t i o na l t r a n s i t i on s i n c e t h e s e

a c t i o n s h a s t e n e n e m y c u l m i n a t i n a n d m a y f o r e s t a l l t ha t o f f r i e n d l y f o r c e s .

L a s t l y , t h e c o n c e p t s o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t s a n d l i n e i o f o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t

g i v e f o r m t o t h e s a nd b o x t h a t is t h e c a m p a i g n 's t h e a t e r o f o p e r a t i o n s .

D e c i s i v e p o i n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b a a e d o n t i n e , s p a c e , m a s s a n d m o m e n t u m

a n a l y s i s . O p e r a t i o n a l skills i n t h i s a r e a a r e c l o s el y l i n ke d t o t h e a c c u r a c y

o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l le v e l i n t e l l i g e n c e p r e p a r a t i o n

o f

t h e b a t t l e f i e l d .

E s s e n t i a l l y , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t s

I s

b a s e d o n p r e c i s e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t i m e a n d s p a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e mo v e me n t o f t h e f o r c e s

t h a t m a k e u p t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y . T h l s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o v e m e n t

t i m e s d e m a n d s a c o n c o m i t a n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t i v e a g i l i t y o f f r i e n d l y a n d

e n e m y l o r m a t i o n s a n d t h e i r a t t e n d a n t v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s in m o v e m e n t. T h e

m a r k e d l y g r e a t e r a g i l i t y a n d m a n e u v e r mki116 o f b o t h t h m G e r m a n s a nd t h e

I s r a e l i s p r o v i d e d t h e m a n a d v a n t a g e i n s p e e d

o v er

t h e i r e n e m i e s . L i k e w i s e ,

t h e i r a i r p o w e r p r o v id e d g r e a t e r a g i l i t y i n O p e r a t i o n a l f i re s . T h u s , t h e y

c o u l d m o v e to d e c i s i v e p o i n t s m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n c o u l d t h e i r e n e m i e s. T h e

d e t e r m i n at i o n o f d e c i s i v e p o i n t i is t h e n p o s s i b l e a n d t h i s p r o v i d e s t h e

o p e r a t i o na l c o m m a n d e r t h e i n f o r m a t io n n e e d e d t o d e r i g n a t e t h e l i n e s of

o p e r a t i o n a n d s u p p o r t .

B a s i c d e c i s i o n s o n l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n / m u p p o r t c e n t e r o n a r e a s

o f

c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d a r e a s w h e r e e c o n o m y of f o r c e o p e r a t i o n s a r e t a ke n .

U n d e r s t a nd i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e c e n t r a l p o si t i o n a n d i n t er i o r or e n t e r i o r

l i n e s o f o p e r a t i o n a r e a l s o i m p o r t a nt w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e l o c a t i o n a n d

m o v e m e n t c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y a n d h o w t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e

c u l m i n a t i o n p o i n t i m p a c t s b o th s i de s . T h e a n a l y s i s of t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s o f

t h e e n e m y a n d f r i e n d l y c e n t e r s o f g r a v i t y a s e l s t s i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r

o r

n o t a d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t a t t a c k t a k e s p l a c e a n d a l s o w h e t h e r or n o t t h e

a t t a c k i s d i v e r g e n t o r c o n c e n tr i c . L i n e s of o p e r a t i o n l s u p p o r t a r e t h e

o u t c o m e s o f d e c i s i o n s b a s e d o n u n d e r s t a n d i ng t h e e s s e nt i a l e l e m e n t s

o f

o p e r a t i o n a l d e s i g n . ( h e c o n c e p t s o f c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t s ,

c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d e c o n o m y o f f o r c e a r e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e d e c i s i o n o n a

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3 1

E s s e n t i a l E l e m e n t s of C o m b a t P o w e r

..

O p e r a t i o n a l c o m b a t p o w e r c o n s i s t s of l e a d e r s h i p , m a n e u v e r , f i r e p o w e r ,

a n d p r n t e c t io n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e c e p t i o n o p e r a t i o n s , g e n e r a t i o n

o f

o p e r a t i o na l r e s e r v e s a nd s u st a i n m e n t c a p a b i l i t i e s i m p a c t t h e c o m m a n d e r' s

u s e o f h i s c o m b a t p ow er . T h e c a s e s t u d i e s p r o v i d e a d d i t l o na l i n f o r m a t i o n

c o n c e r n i n g s o m e a s p e c t s o f c o m b a t p o w e r e l e m e n t s s t u d i e d t h a t a r e of u s e t o

o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n n e r s .

C o m p a r e d t o t h e i r e n e m i e s , t h e G e r m a n s a n d I s r a e l i s w e r e r e s t r i c t ed in

v i r t u a l l y e v e r y w a r f i g h t i n g m e a n s , b u t t h e y w e r e s u c c e s s fu l . F i r e s u p p o r t ,

f o r c e s t r u c t u r e , s t r e n g t h , a m m u n i t i o n , f u e l r e s u p p l y a n d I n f a n t r y m o b i l i ty

w e r e v e ry l i m i t e d. L o g i s t i c a l i n f r a m t r u c t u r e i n t h e t h e a t e r o f o p e r a t i o n s

w a s p o o r . T h o u g h v u l n e r a b l e i n m a n y e l e m e n t s o f c o m b a t p o w e r , w e a k , e m al l

f o r m a t i o n s a c h i e v e d g r e a t r e s u l t s. T h e c a s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t G e r m a n a n d

I s r a e l i f o r c e s w i t h e x c e l l e n t m a n e u v e r t r a i n i n g , s o l d i e r

skill

a n d

d e d i c a t i o n , a n d t a c t i c a l - o p e r a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p w e r e a b l e t o o v e r c o m e g r e a t

o d ds . A d d i t i o n a l l y , G e r m a n a nd I s r a e l i f o r m a t i o n s h a d g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e

a g i l i t y , m o r e a d v a n c e d u n d e r s t an d i n g

of

a i r - g r o un d i n t e g r a t i o n a n d a n

a d v a n t a g e

in

t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s y n c h r o n i z e c o m b i n e d a r ms .

M a n e u v e r at t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l m u s t b e f o r d e c i s i v e r e s u l t s ,

a n d

its

t a r g e t m us t b e a d e c i s i v e p o i n t t h a t w il l m a k e t h e e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y

v u l n e r a bl e . T h e w e a k n e s s m u st b e l i n k e d t o n e u t r a l i z i n g o r d e s t r o y i n g t h e

e n e m y c e n t e r o f g r a v i ty . T a c t i c a l m a n e u v e r

ski115

a r e i n d i s p e n s ab l e t o t h i s

e f f o r t , b ut m o d e r n w a r f a r e ' s l e t h a l i t y d e m a n d s p r e c i s e u s e o f o p e r a t i o na l

m a n e u v er a n d f i r e s f o r d e c i s i v e r e s u l t s . M a n s t e i n ' s u s e o f 4 t h P z A r m y

a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t s p e a r h e a d s a nd t h e

IDF

u 5 e o f t h r e e d r m o r d i v i s i o n s

i n

an

i n d i r e ct a p p r o a c h t o i s o l a t e t h e E g y p t i a n 3 r d A r my d e n o n a t r a t e s t h e u s e o f

o p e r a t i o n a l m a n e u v e r f o r d e c i s i v e r e a u l t s .

O p e r a t i o n a l f i r e p o w e r m u s t b e p l a n n e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y o p e r a t i o n a l

l e ve l c o m m a n d e r s t o s y n c h r o n i z e t h e a c t i o n s of g r o u n d m a n e u v e r a n d f i r e p o w e r

m e an s . T h i s s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n s h o u l d p r o d u c e a d e c i s i v e r e s u l t . T h e p r i m a r y

p u r p o s e o f f i r e p o w e r is t o p r o v id e t h e m a n eu v e r f o r c e f r e e d o m of a c t i o n a n d

t o d e ny t h e s a m e t o t h e e n e my ( o r i n t h e c a s e of t h e I D F , p r o v i d i n g s e c u r e

s k i e s f o r a i r a t t a c k s t o c o m p l e m e n t g r o u n d a c t i o n s ) . D u e to t h e i n c r e a s ed

s p e e d , a g i l i t y

a n d

f i r e p o w e r of m o d e r n f o r c e s , t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l

l e ve l f i r e s w i t h m a n e u v e r ( a i r or g r o u n d ) m u s t b e c o n t r o l l e d a t t h e l ev e l

s e e k i n g a d e c i s i v e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s u l t a n d t h i s d e m a n d s s k i l l

in

c o m p l e x j o i n t

a i r - g r o u n d o p e r a t i o n s .

To c o n d u c t f o r c e g e n e r a t i o n a n d s u s t a i n m e n t f o r o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n ,

t h e c o m m a n d e r m u s t s o m e h o w c r e a t e a s i t u a t i o n a n a l o g o u s t o a n o p e r a t i o na l

p a u s e . To b e u s e f u l i n p l a n n i n g , t h e " p a u s e " m us t b e c o n d u c t e d i n a

c o n t r o l le d m a n n e r t h at a s s e s s e s r i s k s t o t h e f o r w a r d u n i t s a nd h a s a v i s i o n

ot

t h e

c o u n t e r s t r o k e . 'The p a u s e m u s t b e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e f r i e n d l y a n d e n e m y c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t . M a n s t e i n d i d t h i s b y w i t h d r a w i n g

4th

t ' z A r m y , h u s b a n d i n g S S P z C o r p s a n d 48

P z

C o r p . T h e I D F c r e a t e d a n

t471



o p e r a t i o n a l

p a u s e

b y h o l d i n g 3 a r m o r d i v i s i o n s o u t o f t h e b a t t l e f o r b d a y s .

C a r e f u l p l a n n i n g g e n e r a t e s f o r c e s a n d b u i l d s l o g i s t i c a l r o b u s t n e s s

f o r

t h e

u s e o f t h e d e c l r l v e e le m e n t , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s ,

i n

t h e

c o u n t e r o f f e n e i v e .

C a r e f u l c o m b i n a t i o n s o f

a l l

f u n c t i o n a l f o r c e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o a c h ie v e

maXlmum e f t e c t , b u t t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y t o p i e c em e a l f o r c e s . B o t h S o v i e t a nd

E g y p t i a n c om m an de rs w a s t e d armor

r e s e r v e 5 i n t h i e w ay, w h i l e H a n s t e i n a r id t h e

IDF

h us ba nd ed t h e s e r e s o u r c e 6 , o f t e n t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e f o r w a r d

d e fe n s e . R e s ou r ce s , h o w ev e r , c a n n o t a l w a y s b e f o r e c a s t e d . B o t h M a n s t e i n ' s

loss

o f

A G A

a s w e l l a s E g y p t i a n p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e

o v e r

t h e o p e r a t i o n a l

r e s e r v e s c r e a t e d t re m en do u s o p e r a t i o n a l

p r o b l e m s .

The commander must

a c c o r d i n g l y h av e t h e a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a t e an d s u s t a i n f o r c e s i n t e r n a l l y .

U n c o n t r o l l a b l e c ha ng eo i n f o r c e s a v a i l a b l e c o n s e q u e n t l y dem ands e f f i c i e n c y i n

t h e u s e o f a v a i l a b l e f o r c e s i f o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i t i o n

i s

t o o c c u r .

C401



E s s e n t i a l E l e m e n t s o

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L e a d e r s h i p

f

Ability to lhti cipate &ymd

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Obvious

t Braad h i m to link lactic5

and

Dpwatimal

kt

to Attain Stratlgic Ends

+

k t i m

aimted, Independent, Cmfident,

Capable

o f

Rapid klrimuking,

and

having Initiative

* mliilwprs

to:

-take Risk6

-unleash and trust wbwdinates

-alter plani flOKibility

o f

rind

t S u p ~ i w

Obslrvatim/kquisitim--Anilysis/kisim-~timCycle

6 Soldiersi

Jlo believe leaders are adhering to the w i a l cmtract

-cmfidmt in

ccwundws

-instilled with a fiqhtinq spirit

-aggrssriw

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N aneu

v e r

I hnwver fa a k i s i v e R w l t

f Against

a

Vulnerable

luqot

that will YHkm Enny Cmter

of

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f Ability to Rapidly bas and Cancentrate Large Units and

Mat

PDlrr at the k i s i w Polnt

f

Certain Minim

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lbbility Cmslstmt with the kpirtants of tlm h a t e r

f Greats Rolative Mility in Rolatim

to Ermy

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kimuvw

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Firss

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t Dperatimally Significant t o Create A k i s i v e R w l t

I

Fauced

m Dprctimal k m s , cwrmtly in the Air Oinmrim

I hcen t r a t im o t kan5 m me Air at the k i s i v s Point

f

Planned

and Cmtrolied by Operational Lewl Cuwndws

I

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nd

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k e p t i m Plans to Cmceal

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f

1,qistical Suppwt to b i t t o d Facer but hiwi t i r ed to h t w o f f m r i w

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t

Adequate Enqinew Aswts to Provide Survivability

. . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. ... . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _.

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E s s a a t ~ n t i a l E l e m e n t s o f C o m b a t

P o w e r .

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....... n t e l 11q p f i c ~ ~

t Supwiat

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of

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* Expwt lntellignce Cullectic, lhalyrlr and Disminatim

....... ...........................................................

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t

Brlievabls to Eney

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of

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Enny h t e r

of

Gravity

H l u l - - P I I - f w l - f i r - - T m ~ t - A o t r c t iFacn

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to Fawd Opfnse

md h t w d f m r i v e Farces

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"Opwatical Pauu' Situatlm

to

Gnwrto

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Sustain Opwatimally S ignillrant Recwves

a i l i t y to RO~K I , Rwmstitute and Refit Focn hat we Witted to

FrHard Detmu the Cu ntwoffrrive, Especially &en Opwatims

are

d

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W i n a t i m s of

Fwcn to kin

Suffit int Nass

f a k i o i w

l q r t

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of LEE

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apth

f Regulating Cmwqtim

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..................... .......

.-

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. -

......................... ...... ...... ........................

. . . . . . . . .



.

..

. ...

. ... .....

..

...

.

.

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.

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.

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. ...

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..... . .....

.

Appendilcppendilc 4:: E s i e n t i a is i e n t i a i E l e m e n t sl e m e n t s o ff O p e r a t i o n a lp e r a t i o n a l R e s e r v e se s e r v e s

T h o u g h a d e s c r i p t i o n

o f

o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s w a s n o t t h e i n t e n t of t h i s

m o n o g r a p h , t h e

c a s e

s t u d i e s p r o v i d e s o m e p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g

o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t h a t m a y b e

o f

u s e t o o p e r a t i o n a l p l an n er s .

T h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o m ma n d e r' s a b i l i t y t o a f f e c t t h e b a t t l e is d i r e c t l y

l i n k e d t o a n o p e r a t i o n a l r e se r ve . R e s e r v e s m a y h a v e t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d b y

r e d u c i n g f o r w a r d t a c t i c a l f o r t e s , t a k i n g

risks,

a n d e c o n o m y o f f o r c e

o p e r a t i o n s .

A

l a c k

o f

d e d i c a t e d o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s d e m a n d s e n t e n s i v e a n d

j u d i c i o u s e c o n o m y o f f o r c e o p e r a t i o n s t o g e n e r a t e t h e c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e f o r c e .

S u c h a c a m p a i g n p l a n d e m a n d s s t r e n g t h o f w i l l s i n c e o t h e r f o r c e s must

i n i t i a l l y a b s o r b t h e e n e m y b l ow s . W h i l e f i g h t i n g o f f t h e e n e m y a t t ac k s ,

e x t e n s i v e d e c e p t i n n m e a s u r e 6 m u st b e t a k e n t o b u t t r e s c t h e m i n ds e t o f t h e

e n e m y so t h at h e b e l i e v e s h e is g a i n i n g s u c c e s s a n d c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t o

h i d e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , r re cr ec y must b e m a i n ta i n e d a s t o

w h e n , w h e r e, a nd h o w t h e f o r c e w i ll b e u s e d . T i m i n g is c r i t ic a l t o t h e u s e

ot

t h e r e s e r v e s , t o o e a r l y a nd t o o s t r o n g r e a c t i o n s

in

t h e f o rm o f

c o u n t e r a t t a c k s d i s s i p a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l Schwer.eunk. t . f o r t h e c o u n t e r s t r o k e .

T h u s ,

w h e n t h e d e c i s i v e m o m e n t a n d p o in t o f e n e m y c u l m i n a t i o n

is

r e a c h e d , t h e

o p e r a t i o n a l c o m m a n d e r

is

l e f t w i t h no d e c i e i ve f o r c e u n l e s s h e h a s t a k e n

s t e p s t o r e c o n s t i t u t e a r e se r v e.

T h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s m u s t b e c r e d i b l e a n d c a p a b l e o f t a k i n g t h e

c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e t o a c h i e v e s t r a t e g i c e n d s . T h e s e f o r c e s m u s t b e o f

s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h t o d e s t r o y e n e my c o m m a n d a nd c o n tr o l o r n e u t r a l iz e t h e

e n e m y m a s s b y d e f e a t i n d e t a i l . R e s e r v e s must b e c o m b i n e d a r m s g r o u n d

m a n e u v e r f o r c e s s u p p o r t e d b y a i r. M o d e r n c o m b a t d e m a n d s a n e l e m e n t o f

" a i r m i n d e d n e s s " i n l e a d e r s a s t h i s is t h e m e d i u m t h a t i n c r e a s e s c o m b a t t e m p o ,

helps

g a i n t i m e , a nd p r o v i d e s s y n e r g i s t i c p o w e r t o t h o o p e r a t i o n a l m a n e uv e r

a nd f i r e s o f s m a l l e r r e s e r v e f o r c e s . T h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e s e r v e m u s t h a v e

n u b i l i t y t o m a n e uv e r d e e p t o a c h i e v e d e c i s i v e o p e ra t i o na l o b j e ct i v e s.

1 5 1 1



E s c s e n t i

a 1

E l

e m e n t 5

a

O p e r a t i o n a l R e s e r v e s

........................................

- ....................

* C o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e

F o r c e s S h o u l d 1

I Be The Bnt ad k t a r f u l F r x c l s

t

Use E#tmilw kep t im

t o

Rotact

Fcrcn

+

Bs B d

ud

Fwcc Supportd

by Air huts

t

Bs W i n d

k r

Fcrutim of &flicimt hrs

to

b e Oltislw

t

Be Self

Cantrined ad

W f

Bqprxting

f w

Anticlprted

Length of

Cgaatim

- fue l

- a m l t i m

-rwovwy

ad

repair capability

mdicrl suppat

i m u n i t r t i a r f rx @rating in

depth

f Have Air ml

B r d

Coadination

+

Be

M i l e

ad

not

w Luge

n to k r i f i t e lql ll ty

i

Be E q l o y e d

I n Seq~mced

Opwatimr to

&In

Mass

4

Have

the Wility

to

lark

Rgmlrr

m the Fly

i Hvs spesd Wvvltqn

over

th hny

in Path the Air

ad bwnd

Dimrims

t

Bypass hny RnistuKe

and

allw Follw

a d

Supprxt Fortes to Reduce

these

Points

t

Bs

Paitionad

IRY

Anticipated

ho

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.. . . . . . . . . . . .



O_B.DE.R..-42

F

B AT-T-LE-

l n f a r m r t i a n

f o r

t h e t r b l e i c o n c e r n i n g

t h e

o r d e r

o f b a t t l e f a r t h e

1st Gdr kby

4th USRifls C a r p s 4 Dlvs

b t h

Gdu

R i f l e

Carpr=3

Divr

l a d R i f l e D iv

18th Tank Carpulll60 t n k r l

3 Ink

W p l

I

Ibt

R i f l e

Bds

24th Ink Carps l l59

t n k r l

3 I nk

Bdsl

1

Ibt

Rif ls

We

25th Tnk Carpr(l60 t n k r l

3

Ink

Wllr

I

Ibt R i t l e

Bde

126th sep I nk Rqt f l ? t n k r l

I4l1t Sep In k R q t l l J t n k r l

407th Ink k r t

Rqt

3rd Hixod Avirtlm Carps

I2

ea

H-50

IR b t r y s

Totals: 110,796

I P D

SO l n k r

1.523

punrlbortr

1,311 g u n s

40th R i f l e D iv

47th

Gdr

R i f l e D iv

119th R i f l e D iv

321rt

Rifle

Div

333rd R i l l e Riv

346th Rit le Riv

1st Tank Carpsf? 183 tnkrl

3

ea tnk be

I

ea

mt r i l l e b de

8th Cav

Carp523

D i v P 40

t n k r l

54th k c h

Carpdl83

t t n k r l

3 ea rech bds

2 ea tnk regt

l a t h I n k Rqt ?13

tnkrl

l a t h Tank Rqt(? 13 t n k r l

5 ea a r t y rqt5

b tnk de rt r q t s

6 a nt i a ir z t y r q t s

2 w t

r e q t s

2 f f iL

r q t s

3rd

Gds

kiy

14th Gds R i f l e Carp14 Diva

I W t h R i f l e D i v

276th Rlfle Div

5Mh WI R i f l e D iv

W t h

S s p Rif ls We

94th

ep

Rifls

We

I 5 t WI h c h Carp i

3

ea h c h I n f Bdt

2

e t

lnk Roqt

2 h d Ibr Rills Bde

24Jld Ssp Ink Roqt

111th S s p I nk Rqt

119th s p Ink R q t

1st Hi iod Av iat ion Carps

5 ea

a r t y rqtr

8 ea

tn k d e rt a r t y r q t s

4 e t lntitir ary

rqt5

2 ea

wrt

r o q t s

Tottlrr II0,WO w n

134

tnkr

6 t h

kiy

1 5t h R i f l e Carps

= 3

Div

127th R i f le D i v

l6Gth R i f l e D lv

17th lank Carps (161 ttnkrl

3 tank b h

1 bt r i f l e bde

115th Ink Ws

(56

t n k r l

8Znd Sep I nk

Rqt (13

t11il

?IZth ssp Tnk

We I 3

trYrl

8th

kty

Div

=

9 k t y

Rqtr

3rd H ixod Av ia t im Carp5

5 er tnk dest ar ty

rqt5

2

m

a n ti a ir a rt y r q t s

3

ea

IRL r q t s

5 er

rsp M t r y s

Reinfwcrusnts

5th I n k

nd 6 t h Pry~50,ooO

m

I 5 3 3



h i s ads? af ht t le

k & N

1912

kq

Cets.hmt Mlljdt.

M,000 6rruns/S0,000

h i n s / 3 0

tnks

6th.l tal in kiy

l i t kiy

C o r p p l

d i v I-

2nd

kiy

Corps I: 3 d iv lco r p r arty

17th

Ry p s 4 d iv l - I

35th

kly Corps3 2.61cwps arty

2nd ky

Corps

ZPth by

C o r p r

3

Div

150

tanks)

2 n R dlvl-1

Alpine

Corps=

4.5 divlcwpr

uty

I ea cav Div I-

4 ea

hvy

arty

b t r y ~

I ea

inf div 1-1 6 e a u r t b n r

48th

R

Corps

Totalrt

100,000

m

2 3 t h i n f

Divl-I 50 tank5

litli

R Div

130 tankrl

621

puns

7th

Luft

Field

Div

3rd M i m kq

BP spns

kp Stahellluft Divl

Grp

5twpfrl

4th kiy

C o r p s l m l

Sth

kiy

CarpS(rBBl

3 41

SSC

Dlv

SBJth inf Div 7th Pz Div

387th

Inf

Div

bth R

Div

30th kiy CorpslFrittw Picol

Bp Pfeiffw

kd

lltn Div

Total1 45,wo

111

301th

Inf

Div

19th

R Div

Total: 65,W Total his RthforceamtsiIl0,W

Corrrlatim 01

Fwcss

8 t h I t a l i a n kiy

initial

R r i n f a c m t s

100,000 m

70,000 IRI

6th

kiy

and Irt

Initial

Riinfwtarents

bards k y

171,000

m

30,000

m

110

tbllidtlkl

Initial

Reinfwcmts

Rl

110,000 m

40,oOO m

lunivl kq 3rd buds kiyl

5

initial

I k i n f w c n t r

th Tnk

k y

200,000

m

30,000

n n

Iota1 liiitial

Re infwcmtr

krnd

Total

220,000 m

&@I

330,M)O m

Total initial

Rrinfwcsmts

Band

Total

371,000

IRI

&C4Oo_m_

431,000 mn



IRM

a MlRE

h s t e i n ' s h t r o f f n s i v e

W Ef

crr

VPTP ~

Fro? . W v .c V,M

???

nblJ

t&

40th h v I90,uOO w. md 100 l?nks) pth @q. K$z kol .@ m

md Lad )

3 r d hnt Prr,

iOOth Ri f le D i v I h l s t R i f l e D iv 1 2th

lvlk Caps

1Ukd

Rifle O i v

159t h R i f l e D iv 3 tnk

dn

M t h Rif l e D i v 219t h R i f l e D i v 15th Ink Corps

W t h R i f le D iv

270th Rifle Div 3 tnk b d d l lot r i f l e

340t h R i f l e

D i v

3 7 t h R i f l e Bdr 6 t h

Gds

c l v

Cwps

107th R i f l e Div 137th lank Bde 48th Eds Rifle D i v

J03td

Rifle

Div %?nd

lnk

Reqt

6znd Gds Rifle

Div

2 5th h a r d s R i f l e

D iv

111th Rifle

Div

iZPtli Rifle Ede

l a t h R i f l e D iv

4th lank Cap5 150

l a n k r l

179th lank Bde

3

Bd&l ht Rifle

Bde

I l b th Tank

Bde

B l s t

TMk Rqt

l92nd lank Me

59th Sep

l a n k

Reqt

M)th E q

ank Regt

b l s t

Sep Tmk Rqt

150th

lMk Bde

3d Ink b p s 1150 Ta n l s l

2d lank Corps

1175

T a n M

H e i n f a c m t r i

25th kJ5 R i f l e D i v

2 5 k d

Rille

Div

219 t h R i f l e

D i v

1st CZKh

D i v

1 9 th R i f l e

D i v

U t h

I n k

Bde

17th

Rifle

Me

1st

Gd

Cav

Corps

113th Ri f le Div

Total P w m e l i 57,517

len

l a nk S t r m p t h i 9 Jan 165

I4 F e b

=

100

IS

Feb = I10

27 F e b 39

I b

Ihr

22

t 5 5 1



' h th w s tq n F g t IVitutin)

6th

ply (Khjrl tr iwl

40,000m/40 tanka

15th Rifle Capr

h t h Rifle Div

17hd

Rifle Oiv

EGth RifIo Div

267th Rifle Div

l a t h Rille Div

115th lank ffle

21hd lank Reqt

1st bards pq IKuznetsov)

70,000 en

4th

Ms

Rifle Corps

SSth

Mr

Rifle Div

4lrt MI Rifle Diu

193th Rille

Div

6 t h M5 Rifle Carps

44th Gd Rifle Div

58th 13,Rifle

Diu

78th Rills Div

244th Rifle Oiv

m i l e Boup Popov

IPOpovl

4t h

Ms

lank Carp5

3 Medl ht Rifle

3rd Tank

Carp5

10th I n k

Carps

18th Tank Carp5

57th

Gdr Ri4Ie

Div

N t h Ms Rille Div

5Znd Rifle Div

9th l ank ffle

11th lank Me

J

each

S k i

We5

P w o v ' s

Strenqth

= 55,000

len

l a n k

Strength 25 Jan 212

30 Jan 180

7

F s b

= 140

I6

F s b

I45

21

Fsb

=

25

22 Fsb

a 90

h Feb = 50

3rd

W

b L

MY *@kQ

100,000 vntll0 tanks

14th

Gdr

Rifle Carps

14th Ms

RiflsDiv

90th Wr Rifle Div

hlst WBRifle Div

l a t h

M5

Rifle

Carps

5 R h

Ms

Rifle Div

24kd

Rifle Oiv

279th Rifle Diu

Mth

Ws

Rifle Div

2&th Rifle OIV

N k d Rille Div

2nd Mr Tank

C u p s

2kd Tank Carps

2nd Tank Carps

1st

W

kh Carp

8t h

M5

Cav

Capr

s?trgkw i 1 % ~

r

40,W

m

J21tt

Rifle Oiv

47th

MB

Rifle Div

Ukd Ri fle Div

Zhbth Rifle

Div

Nkd Rifle Div

nd TMk

CUP5

Frp n i -3

m,wo

en

l i t

W r lank Cups 1 1 5 1

25th lank Caps

I5t Odr c l v

Carps

Iota1 Tanks 562

C5 6 1



RD

t a n 2

(50,oOo

renl

24th

Pz

Cap5

385th Inf Div

387th In1 Div

Zlkd In1 Oiv

32Mh In f Oiv

298th In1 Div

SS Pz

Oiv

'Das

Reich"

1-1

C a p 5

craw

'Rc66dsutKhland" Div

168th In1 Oiv

1-1

BBth In1 Div ( -1

Rewan ts a t 5 other Div5

4th Yz Pray l 7 0 , W

l

5th A r m y Cap5

Ko5 Regirent

111th

In1 Div

15 th Lu f tna l f e F ld D iv

57th

P i

C a p 5

23rd

Pz Div

5s

Pat Div "Vik ing"

17th

Pz

Oiv

Zrd

Pz

Div

16th

Ibt

Div

11th

R

Oiv

mw

IF

mrnE

k n s t i i n ' s C o u n t m f f n i i v e

Jan*

I943

M.9FEW

1st R. pr?r. %,ooo1sn

40th

R

b p i

Hp

30th

llrq

Hp

bp

K r r l r i n g 13d M n O i v l

335th Oiv (-1

3rd

R b p i

7 th Pz Oiv

19th Pz Div

27th

PI O N

nP

Ho lldt

lPLW.M

29th

h y

bpr

6rp 79 12d h a kmy R w t 4

bp k u r i t y Regt 177

&pup k i t h

W t h I n f D iv

336th In f Div

17th Rrry

k p s

6Znd

In1 Olv

30bth

Inf

Oiv

Zplth In1 Div

6 th L u f t u l f s Fid Div

1Bth Pz (&pi

5th

Pz

Div

22nd

Pz

Div

W t h I n f Div

6 rp W l d t

Bp v m

Hvldrdwd

bp

S t l i n b U R



R ~ i n f p l c y ~ t ra I (an5t iin dur ing February

1743

. .

...

. . . . . . . . .

Rentacerents

LYL Fep

e4

hnl

ss Pz Cups

SS

R D i v

1 s

eich"

SS R Div 'Liebrtmdarte'

298th In f Div

23rd R Div

55

lbt Div 'Viking'

17th R Div

3rd

Pz

D i v

16th lbt Div

11th Pz Diu

RD

Lanl

ss Pz C u p ¶

SS Pz Div "Totmkopf'

( I

lhgt)

C a p R H l S

B a d w t u h l t n d Div

I U t h

Inf

Div

BBth I n f Div

1-1

SS

Pz Div "Totmkopf' 1-1

40th P i C u p 4

19th Pz

D i v

1-1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Re ? orc&to

rr

oc

11 Feb

AD Keq lforully L m z l

C a p s Rtu5

SS R Div 'Totmkopf'

I I

Rqtl

320th Inf Div

167th

In f

Div

53

R Div 'Lipbitandarto'

no

.%

5t h

Any

Cups

454th W w i t y D iv

444 th SK ur i t y D iv

KN

Rcginmt

27th

kry

C u p s

15t h Lu f t l u f f e

D i v

l b t h Ibt Div

7Pth In1 Div

Z r d R Div

17th

Any

Carps

h t h PZ DV

1-1

306th In f Div

3 0 h d In f Div

. __

........

It key 4Bth Pz C a p s

30th C u p s

6t h Pz Div 1-1

335th In f Div 302nd In f Div

304th Inf D i v

2 h d

Pz

Div

3rd

Pz

C a p s

17th

Pz

Div

3rd P Div

40th

Pz C w p i

11th R D i v l l Rqt

333rd In f

D i v l

7 t h

Pz D i v

I-

333rd Inf Div 1-1

55 Ibt D i v 'Viking'

no $ I

W t h Inf Diu

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4Lk.R rtE&nl

l s t h

R

Cups

XHth In f Div

17th R Div Bp Schuldt

l a d F l d

Trn9

Div

6s

R

C ups

15th I n f Div

B p S t e i n b i w

kw

M h n f Div

198th In f Div

33Znd Inf Div

hd

kry

7th

Arny

Cups

ZJJth Inf Div

57th l n f Div

4th Pz Div



' B o r d w t s c h l n d '

Ibt

Div

C a p 5

Hau6

SS

Pz Div ' To tmkq f '

( - )

lb7 th

lnf

Div

168th Inf Div

320th Inf Div

BBth Inf Div (-1

nn

~ o i i i d t

AD

K q f

5 t h kmy Carpr Carps Raur

451th

Sec Div 320th

In1

Div

444th See Div lh7 th

lnf

Div

29th k n y Cups "Bossdwtschlmnd"

15 th Lu f t F ld Div lba th Inf Div

79th

In1 Div

I h t h

h t

Div

15th

In;

Div W t h i n Div,

Bp

k h u l d t

17th

Pz Div Grp K r s i r in g

4

I

Rcq 46th

In f Div

4Bth

R

Carpi

S3Jth

Inf

Dlv

6 th R Div 3 rd R Carps

11th R Div

6Znd Inf Div

55

R Carps 19th R Div

SS Pz Div

'Das

Reich' 3 rd PI Div

SS PI Div ' lo tmkopf ' l - l

40th Pz Carps

SS

R Dlv 'L iebstmdart ' SS tbt Div 'Vikinp'

Bp

5tlinpbaUR 7 th Pz Div 1-1

4bth Inf

Div 1-1

15Srd F ld

Trng Div

1st

Pz May no M N

YJth Pray Carps 24th Pz C u p s

304th Inf Div, Bp k h u l d t K w w k ?M)

Bp Krsirirq, I r8gt 3rd kn Div 414th SK Div

335th Inf Div 115th

SK

Div

3rd

Pz

Carps

111th Inf Dlv

bhd

Inf Div

29th kny Carps

3 rd

Pz Div

l S t h L u f t F l d Div

Grp

P a t h

2Jrd Pz Div

prwth

57th P z Carps

W d nf Div

l b t h Ibt Div

40th k p 6 b p h i t h

381th Inf Div

3 3 t h

In1

Div

17th

kmy

Caps

291th

In1 Div

3 N t h

In1 Div

302nd

In1

Div

6th Pz

Dlv

2nd kry

7th kny

Carps

75th In1 Div

52nd kiy Cap6

57th

In1

Div

332nd Inf

Div

4th

Pz

Div

255th Inf Div

15th In1 Div

17th Pz Div

46th P i Carp5

I N t h

Inf Div

6 th Pz D l V

11th

Pz

Div

SS

PZ

h O S

SS

Pz

b i v "Das

Reich"

'3

Pz

Div ' T o t e n k q f '

SS Pz Div " L i e b r t m d a r t i

39th Inf Div

15Jrd Fld Trnq Div I-

SS

tbt

Div 'Viking'

7 t h R Div

19th Pz Div

3 rd kn Div

2nd&w

7 th kny Carps 1-1

75th In1 Div

J3rd kny

Carps

57th

Inf Div

Wnd In1 Div

255th Inf Div

23rd R Div

m t h Inf Div

Bp

de 5 a l n g r e

17th

kny

Cups

291th

In1 Div

W t h

In1

Div

M2nd

Inf Div

Bp R r q s t a l l s



Nation

........

-

......... _- . . . . . .

- . . .

. . .

Egypt

Syria J a d a n

......... ...

.

......

. .

-_

...

-. . ..

Soldiers 255,ooO

105,ooO 59,000

Tanks 1,940

2

400

80

0

sp llrtillwy 1,m

40

1115519 Sites Po

XI

M a t Aircraft

Mx) 320

40

.....

....... ........

-. .

.

....... .- .

-.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

..

..

....

Israel

............ _.

... -. ..... ...........

.-

........

Tanks

..............,225

kwxd Fighting vshlclsr. ........

. . I

,515

kwxed Pwmnel Carriers...

...

....500

P ~ s ~ m do Stvlding F a ce , . . . . , , . . .7 5 ,W

Pwmnel at Ful l nobilizatim...........75,ooO

-

......

..... .................................

............

.............................. ........

_-

....

........

Frm, A History

ol

the_ uyll

h y

y

Ze'w

Schiff .







.-

.

E A P 2--JGViEi PLAN TO D E F E A T G E R R A N S O U T H E R N Y I N G









..

EAP

t:

23

H O L L I D T H O L D S NUIS R i V E R L I N E l i s t PZ

S T A B I L i i E S DONEi.3

Si'4E2

JZL'IEiS EXPLOIi G A P LEFi BY F A L L OF A6 B

W I i H

biH A R N Y

Si P I C O R P S E V A C U A T E S

K H A R K O V

AFTER BIiTER

S C T T ; E / S O V I E T S

X O ' K I:i











I

SUEZ C A N A L ,m.\

C A M P A I G N

IN S I N A I

M A P

9 8

O r t i i s , p o l ? .



M A P

1 0

Beiss, p, 13.





M 11

P

I (I

I1

G e i r r ,

p.13 .







Endnotes

I .

US

Department of the Ariy,

@e[m ggy-EL pQ:~,

IFt. Leavenworth, Kansas:

CGSC,

IWb) , p . 1 5 and

p .

139.

2.

C a r l

von Claurewitz, O?-y , edited and translated by M. Honard and P. Paret IPrinceton: Princeton

Il ni ve rs it y Press, 197b1, p.357.

3.

Ibid.

1. Ibid., p.358

5 . Ibid.

b . Ibid., p.370.

7. h i d .

8. FM 100-5, IlleCg ? .~

pa129

9.

Ibid.,

p.129

and 130.

10.

Ibid., p.139.

11. Ibid.,

p.10.

12.

Erich von Manstein, & t - W g o e r l edited and translated

b y A.6.

Powell INovato, Californla:

Presidio Press,

1 9 8 2 ) ,

p 368 The Volga River flank of A6 A was screened by only one division, the lbth

Motorized Infantry Division covering

250

ri les. The defensive frontage of

AG 8

along the Don River and

the Chir Riv er was hel d by Hungarian, I t a l i a n and Ruianian Armies. The bul k

of

the German fornations were

f i gh t i ng t o capture Stal ingrad and the o i l f i el ds of the Caucasus.

13.

Ib id ., p.370. The 6erman sout hern wing con sis ted of 32 divisions covering 435 i i l e s fac ing a Sov ie t

force of

341

divisions.

11. F.Y. von Nellenthin, P??g[-#gt eyl

Inen

Vorki B al la nt in e Books, 1971),

p.250.

IS. Manstein,

p. 383.

48t h Pz Rrny prevente d the enemy from lov in g i n agains t the re ar o f 1st Pz Army

unt i l such

time a n the l at t er had wheeled back f r o i the Caucasus on t o the defensive fro nt faci ng east.

48th Pz

Corps had t o insu re the enery di d not thrust dDwn tho l w r reacher of th e Dan River t o Rostov

and cut of f both 4th Pz Arry and A6 A. The collapse of the Rumanians ieant 57th Pz Corps, con sls tin g of

only

two divisions - 17 th Pz and 23r d

Pz

Div,

was

t o hold against the Soviets. A6 Don could not get

enough

forces t o he lp 4th Pz Army. Even when A6 A offered the help af 3rd Pz Corps,

DKH

denied the nove.

A6

Don pers ist ed and ianagad t o get 7 th

Pz

Div f reed to send to 4 th P Arry , but H i t l er personally

intervened and halte d the move and stati oned the div ls io n i n Rostov. Not u n t i l mid January di d help

a r r i ve i n the form of SS Viking D i v and lb th Not I nf Oiv. During t h is ti ne , the 4th Pz Ariy faced tno

Sovi et armies, the 2nd 6ds Arr y and

t h e

J l s t dray consist ing of

1

tank corps,

3

iec h corps,

3

r i f l e c orp s

and

I

Cavalry Corps.

The

4 th

PI

Army

kept i t s forces concent rated i n v i ta l s t rongpoints

resisting

a t

deci sive points. The infa nt ry ranned there strongpoints while t he armor was dri vin q i n the eneny f lanks

with strong io bi le forces, whi l e other less threatened par ts of the fron t were covered only by f l i i s y

early warning screens.

t781



I b .

Ibid., p.383. 'Hit l er shored l i t t l e understanding for

thr

old-established 6ernan pr in ci pl e of

leadership and repeatedly sought t o reddle i n the operations of subordinate headquarters by issui ng

speci f ic

orders

of

h i s own...Nothing could b e done about such ord ers when they r el at ed t o th e novenents

of adjacent arny groups or the action to be taken with fornations which were s t i l l DKH reserves.

However, when

they directed that

a

p a r t i c u l a r l i n e

be

hel d t o the las t ran...the force of circunstances

usu all y proved stronger i n the end.'

17.

Paul Carell, h~gwgd -E [ h, (New Vorki B al la nt in e Books, 1971), p.194-195. Although operat ion al

control was sol idi f ie d, strat egic influences on t ac ti cs threatened the operational design. Before

Nanstein gained authority over A D Lanz (12 Febl, Hi t le r had ordered i t s

SS

Pz

Corps t o ho ld Kharkov at

a l l costs. Nanstein f e l t i t operationally indec isive t o hold Kharkovi i f ground were given up , if

reso urces could be husbanded, Kharkov could be retaken eas ily i n the operational counterstroke. AD Lanr

understood how hopeless Hauorer's s it ua ti on

was

i n Kharkov. But, under dlrect orders fron Hl tl er ,

A S

Lanz

ordered SS P Corps t o hold . Rlno st surrounded, Hausser ordered the evacuation on I6 Feb and fought his

way out of the c i t y . Hausser's forces fought doggedly and upset the Soviet tinet abl e, fo rc in g the

diss ipat ion

01

precio us amor t o take Kharkov. I n an unknown sid e advantage, Ha un er 'r heroic stand

also

confi rned the Soviet idea that the 6ernans were indeed withdrawing. Hi tl er placed the

blare

for the

debacle on Lanr and replace d h i n wi th Kerph.

IS.

Nanstein, p.421.

Though A6 B was weak, i t provided

a

v i ta l coord ina t ion l ink w i th A6 Central. This

quick

change i n cornand str uct ure rade fo r some anxious norents as u n i t s l e f t i n c on ta ct t r i e d

t o

t i e i n

nith the newly forned A6 South. A6 South nas faced with trying to rake sense of the d irpos i t ions and

capab i l i t ies

of

the inher i ted fornat ions 50 that

a

coherent plan could

be

developed for

a

f ront that

stretched fron Belgorod to the Black Sea. Sig nal s were hard t o es ta bl is h and RD Lanz was locked i n

conbat a t Kharkov and could not be extracted for repositioning. ' ...although the reMv al

of

HE Army

Group B

corplicated the handling of operations at the nost delicate spot on the Eastern Front, i t s t i l l

served one useful purpose. By br inging Arry Detachment Lanz under Sou t he rn Army Group,

i t

enabled our

headquarters

t o exercise exclu r ive corrand at the decisive place and tine.' This in i t i a l confusion

was

a

significant advantage to the Soviets.' OKH 5aw the need fo r u ni ty of corrand and created l lG South

consolidating

A6

Don and A6

8,

but Hitler refused to consider the placing

of

K l e i r t ' s

400,000

trapped Ion

of A6

A

under Hanstein. Renoval of A6 B war i n i t i a l l y d et ri ne nt al since l i t t l e e f f o r t was given to

proper handover, but German a g i li t y st ab il ize d the situ ati on.

19.

Ibid., pp.426-427. 'Ny purpose i n pu tt in g forw ard these ideas was t o persuade H it le r t o consider

operations on a long-tern basis for once...Yhen I objected that our own divisions were also at the end of

the ir tether, he rep li ed that they would b e brought f u l l y up to str eng th and issued w it h new weapons

duri ng th e ruddy season...He would not recogni ze, however, tha t dur ing tha t

sane

pe ri od the enemy (could1

br ing...1.5 n i l l i o n men to the fro nt. Neither would he adnit tha t wit h the nurber

of

tanks the enery

could produce i n tw o nonths...he could r e f i t about 60 arnoured brigades.'

20. Car el l, p.207 and 200. Popov

was

struck by the SS Viking Div which l ed with

a

devas ta t ing a r t i l l e r y

a t t a c k .

l i t h Pz

D i v

and 333 Inf Div joined the attack cutting Popov's overextended lines of

cowunications. Lacking

follon

and support in fa nt ry forc es and too fa r forward t o tu rn around, Popov

loat h i s supply l ines. Further indi catio ns

of

supply probleas are found i n the fanous quote of Popov,

' A l l wheels are s tand ing s t i l l . '

21. Ibid ., p.209. Since th e 6t h

o f

February the 6erranr had broken the Russian signal codes and were

p r i v y

t o a11 the co nvers atio ns betneen Popov Nob ile Group and Vatuti n. The 6erra ns knew, even before t he

Soviet

regin ental conranders, where the Soviet ba tt ali on s wnre going t o

b e sent. The 6erra ns had pe rfec t

tact ica l in te l l igence that enabled then

t o

sh i f t fo rces and take cak uh te d r i sks w i th the resu l t tha t

they were always ready at the r i gh t spot at the r ig ht t ir e.

17'11



22.

Ibi d., p.213. On 23 Feb, Popov si gn al le d a11 that remained to

him

was

a

handful of tanks, and

they were out of fuel. He had no a r t i l l e r y l e f t , n ex t t o

no

ammunition, and no food supplies. A5

Vatut in expla ined th is to Sta l in he was rebuffed and Vatutin signalled Popov,

'I

wish to remind you

emphatical ly tha t you dre t o u5e a11 av ail ab le means to you i n order to...annihildte the enerv...I am

holding you pe rsonal ly responsible.'

23. John Erickson,

h-Rg$ddlg-Be rin,

(Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 19831, p.53.

'In

par t i cu l a r ,

the tank forces urgent ly needed increased repa ir fa ci l i t i es ; a l l Front repai r uni ts were

up

with the tank

corps, so tha t the armour i n the rear went completely untended, pa rt ly because the two mobile tank

repair workshops prorired to the Front had not arrived.'

24,

Ibid.,

p . 5 4 .

'The German d ri v e on Belgo rod made th e rei nf or ce ne nt of th e Voronezh

Er.g?

a very urgent

matter. Rokossovskii on the Central

Em?

wa5 ordered t o move the 2 Is t Army south of Kursk; 64t h

Arrv

was ordere d t o move from Sta lin gra d area and Katuko v's 1s t Tank Arry receiv ed orders t o b lock t he Ger m

thrurt...Kazakov's 69th had to hold of f the

SS

troops. ..not th at Kazakov could do ru th with div is ion s

ground down t o less than

1000

men eac h.. .Iwi thl no tanks and less than 100 guns. ..ITlo Katuzov's disgust

the corrand of 2nd 6ds [sent to rein forc e h is sector1 di d not seize th ei r chance to at tack the 55 tank

u n i t s

i n t he f lank;

HP

2nd 6dr remained

on

the east bank of the Donets direct ing their br igades by radio

but fa i l i n g to fol low up th ei r chance. With 69th over the Donets, 215t Army moved to the no rth of

Belgorod, 15t

Tank con cen trat ed at Oboyan, and b4t h Army roved to the no rt h of Belgorod, 1st Army roved

to

the l i n e of the Donets; thus Kursk

was

secured from the south [t o f o r r the southern face of the

'Kursk' sal ient l ' .

25.

Erickson, p.52.

26. Carell, p.216.

27. Ibid., p.221.

28.

A D Ho l l i d t consisted of the k i t h Group, the Fret ter -Pic0 Group, four regular in fant ry d iv is ions, tno

Luftwaffee Fi el d Divisions, and var ious pasted together a l l ie d and G e r m d a r e uni t s. German alarm un i t s

were ha st i l y formed secu rit y un it s made up of rer nan ts of destroyed formations. The main strength of the

format ion l ay i n the 6th and 11th Pz Divisions.

29.

Manstein, p.422.

30. von Mellenthin, p.251.

31. Ibid., p.241-245.

32. Carell, p.194-195. 'The enemy i s withdrawing i n ret re at and massed colunns are withdrawing behind the

Dneiper...reqardless of supp lies or enery rearguards, ( a l l at tacking f ronts) t o thrust through the

retreating enemy,

reach the Dneiper before the onset of spr ing mud, and thus cut o ff Manstein's ret re at

to the r iver . '

3 3 .

Erickson, pp.19-50. 'Vatutin had decided on th is 'broadening' of the h is offen sive

on

12 February.

6ol ikov had ret h is s iqhts on the Dneiper, even though hi s senior commanders, t h ei r di vi si on s down to

1000

men,

a handful of guns and perhaps

50

mortars, pleaded for a pause. Both th e Voronezh and

Southwestern Fronts had done

some

prodiqious f iq ht in q and covered great stretches of ground, fol lo wing



nothing

less

than a tr a in of destru ction as ret re ati ng German un it s blew up bridges, bui ldi ngs and

ai rf ie ld s, tangled rai lwa y li ne s and damaged the few roads as much as possible. Both Vatu tin and

Golikov, however, embarked on an expansion

of

the i r o f fens ives

as

a r e i u l t

of

three factors:

overestimation of the ir own ca pa bll i t i er, wholly erroneous int erp ret ati ons of the in tel l ig en ce of German

movement and S l A V K A approval. Vatu tin had already dipped deeply i n t o h i s reserves...All three Soviet

fr on ts had sub sta nti al in te ll ig en ce of German movement. On the afternoon of

19

February and at dawn on

20 February Soviet reconnaissance planes report ed lar ge conce ntratio ns

of

German armor i n th e Krasnograd

area ( th i s

was

4th

Pz

Army), tro op movements a t Dneprov petrouski and what look ed l i k e armor regrou ping on

the south-east of krasnoarmeisk. lhese conce ntratio ns-lyin g s lap across the path of Vatut in 's r ight w ing-

were immediately

i n t e r p r et ed a t E m

HPs

as German tank cover for withdrawal of the main body

of

German

forces from the Donbas.'

34.

Carell , p. 199 .

35. Saad

E l

Shazly,

Le_Er~rr ?g-o fBe-se?l

(Sin Francisco8 American Research,

19801,

pp.222-223. 200

a i rc ra f t s t ruck Is r ae l i medium ar t i l l e r y pos i t i ons , th ree a i r f i e ld s ,

air

defense 'Hawk' ba tt er ie s,

adm ini str ati on centers, command posts, and radar sta tio ns.

2000

ar t i l l e ry tubes f i red a 53 m inute

preparation using

10,500

shells and a brigade

of 'FR06'

surfac e to surface miss il es was launched. Chain

Herzog,

he-_Rrib_1 rae i--??IT1

(New Vork: Vin tage

Books,

1904I,

p.242. Arab losses

i n

the assault

cross ing aaounted t o onl y 208 KIA,

the Egyptians had thought they would

lose

as

many

as 10,000

soldiers.

36 . Shazly., p.223-235. By 2230 hrs, 6 October, ei gh t heavy bridge s and fou r l i g h t bridge s were working

w i th th i r t y one fe r r ies . S ix ty o f the planned seventy breaches i n the east bank rampart were opened

except that three i n the southern crossi ng areas were inope rable due t o mud slid es. The Egyptians had

105t f i v e ai rc ra ft , twenty tanks and almost three hundred men. Ze'ev Sc hi ff ,

A-YL ory_o _tl?- r r i

h y ,

(New York: Mac Mil lan Pu bl is hi ng Company,

I9851,

p.217. lhough the Is ra el i

Air

Force succeeded i n

pro tec t ing Is rae l p roper , i t

ma5

unable t o provid e support t o ground forces d uring the ear ly days

of

the

co nf l i ct ; the Arab mis si l e systems were too extensive. Ylt h the assistance of the Soviet Union the

Eqyptians and Syrians had b u i l t networks of an ti ai rc ra ft miss i le s even denser than those

used by North

Vietnam. I n I 8 days of combat, the IDF l o s t more than 251 o f i t s a i rf rames

11041.

Egyptian and Syrian

air

fu rces los t 456 planes.

37. Sc hi ff , p.213 and p.214.

38. Shazly, p.238.

39 . Schiff, p.208.

40.

Avraham Adan, oe. Be-Br?~i.~ -t?e-s?eE, INovato, Cal i fo rni a: Presid io Press,

19801, p.234.

The

'operational hold', or defensive operations designed t o a t t r i t e the IDF

as

i t smashed i t s e l f on the

Egyptians, was ha ving l i t t l e e f fe c t a f t e r 9 O c t when the IDF went over to a defensive posture and shifted

the st r ateg ic main ef fo r t to Syr ia 's at tacks. On the 11th and 12th i t became clear that the Syrian

e f f o r t

was

i n grave circumstances. In l i g h t of thes e events, the Syr ian s demanded th at Egypt go ahead

wit h the plan t o take the Sinai passes and force the

IDF

i n t o t r ans f e r r i ng f o r ces t o t he S i na i .

I t

was

obvious that

the two Arab nations had a disconnect i n th ei r operational plans. Ihe Syrians claimed that

the Egyptians were to take the i r i n i t i a l canal crossing

a l l

th e way t o th e passes and indeed soae Si xt y

ki lometers

in to the Sinai and then go over to the operational defense. The Egyptians denied th i s sta tin g

that thei r posture

o f

11-12 October

1115

only about f i ve miles short

of

th ei r intended posi t ions ( they had

not achieved a l i n e roughly analogous to the Ar t i l l er y Road). Nonetheless, the Egyptians agreed to

attack on

15

October, however, th e Egyp tian ope ra tio na l commanders were

so

re luc tan t t o take th i s ac t ion ,

that the at tack did not take p l a c e u n t i l I4 October.



41. Ibid., p . 2 3 7 .

4 2 , Shazly, p.

246-211.

Both Arny conianders, f u l l y aware of the i nt en t of the operational design and

th ei r neans/strengths s tate d they could not attack, one threatened resi gnat ion 12nd hrny l. Afte r a

conference, there

was

only one concernion, on th e date of t he attac k, now to be on

14

October. Y hi le th is

gave

th e Egypti ans one nore day, i t a150 gave the I sr ae li s one nore day to f in i sh business on the 601an

and get to Sinai.

An

add i t i ona l res t r i c t i on to ope rat i ons was the requirenent that the bridgehead not be

weakened at a l l and th at the operationa l reserves be used for the attack. The operationa l reserves

consistsd o f 330 tank, the to ta l i n two d iv is ions the 4th hrn Div and the 21st Am

Div .

The 4th was

behind the

3rd Arny and the Z ls t posted behind the 2nd Arny. Each di v had two brigade s wit h one hundred

tanks per brigade and one nechanized brigade. The 215t Div had ha lf of i t s tanks forward t o prov ide

f i r e support to the inf ant ry holding the bridgeheads. The 4th D i v

Has also

to leave one brigade on the

west bank as a re serve, thus th e oper atio nal design th at depended on at le as t 330 tanks as a mobile

reserve

was now reduced to

100

tanks i n reserve.

43.

Ibid., p.241-245. Egypt had 1700 tanks with 1020

on

the east bank

i n

the defensive po sit i ons and

330 i n operational reserve on the west bank to destroy any eneny penetration. Losses up t o date were 240,

the Egyptians hi d only 780 tanks across the canal. Though the I sr ae li s had lo st

610

tanks to date, they

had the neans t o repl ace then. Thus the Is ra el is had 900 tanks and the Egyptians

780

and this was not

enough t o at tack th e passes a5

was

nor proposed i n the euphoria of the moment.

4 4 .

Ib id . , p. 217.

45.

Shazly , p. 248. Adan, p, 237 .

46. Shazly, p. 252.

17. Shazly, p. 258.

40. Ib id . , p. 253.

4 7 . Ibid., p.

254

and 255.

50.

Schif f . ,

p.271.

96

Egyptian tanks and

a

larg e nunber of arnored personnel carr ier s roved i nt o the

gian t ant i tank anbush set by the Isr ae l i di vis ion wait in g t o cross the canal. Only four vehicles escaped

the naelrtron, one was the brigade connander. The Isr ae li s los t four tanks.

5 1 .

Ildan, p.

442.

52.

Herzog,

p , 315.

53. Ibid., p. 246.

54.

Srh i f f , p . 320 and 321.

55.

Adan, p. 471.

5 6 Schi f f ,

p.

216.

57.

Schazly,

p.240.

I he

IDF

attacked the Egyptian 18th Div on the norning of B October and wa5 repulsed.

The Egy pti an 2nd Div was h i t i n t he a fternoon o f B October with two armored br igades i n the d ire ct i on of

El-Ferdan and was annihi lated. One I sr ae l i a r m e d brigade struck t he Egyptian lb th In f Div a t

Derverroir and

was

destroyed.



58. Schiff, p. 213.

5 9 .

S h a r l y ,

p.

261.

h0. I h i d . , p . 2.Tb

h l .

Operational intelligence preparation of the battlefield must take a macro view of the elements of

natioiial power on both sides political, economic,

psycholoqical,

geographic and military. Still, the

basic aspects of nurbers, norm5 and doctrinal procedures continues to b e important. l o this complete

analysis the comrander brings his understanding o f theoretical concepts and his knowledge of

HE IT-1

to

determine the operational design.

I831



EIRLIOGRAPHY

t ( O O k 5 1

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2 .

C a r e l l , P a u l . 5 c w c h e d

E a r t h .

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3. C l a u s e w i t z ,

C a r l

Yon.

0.n

Na . E d i t e d a rid t r a n s l a t e d b y M i c t i e a l H o w d r d ar id

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P r e s ; ,

1971,.

4.

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T h e

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1983, p p . 45-135.

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1981, pp.137-143.

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1967,

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7 .

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227-323.

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I .

S t r a c h a n ,

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t h e

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W a r .

L o n d o n : G e o r g e

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12. v on M e l l e n t h i n , F.W. a nd S t o l f i , R . H . S . l jA ' I0Jnd.e. r . A t t a c k . D u r h a m : Dukr

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13 . v o n M e l l e n t h i n , F.W. P . a n z e r B a t t l e r . New

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14 .

t i r e i s s , T ho ma s. T ,he.W e?t P o i n t Hilita y H i s t o r y S e r i e s : A t l a s f o r t h e

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r 84



l h e s i s / M o n o g r a p h s / P a p e r s

1 .

A .

7 .

8 .

9 .

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1 8 5 1



G ov er n m en t P u b l i c a t i o n s

1 . US D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e , D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y . G e rm a n D e f e n s e

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2 .

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