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ISSN 1612-9202 (Print)ISSN 1612-9210(Electronic)

Conservation Medicine • Human Health • Ecosystem Sustainability

ECOH EALTH2018 • VO LUME 15 NUMBER 2

ISSN 1612-9202 (Prin t )ISSN 1612-9210 (Elect ron ic)10393 • 15(2 ) 000-000 (2018)

One Health • Ecology & Health • Public Health

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ECOH EALTH Economics of Infectious Disease, Trade and Pandemic Risk

In This Issue

SPECIAL FEATURE ON ECONOMICS OF

INFECTIOUS DISEASE, TRADE, AND PANDEMIC

RISK

Berry et al. begin this Special Feature in EcoHealth on the

Economics of Infectious Disease, Trade, and Pandemic Risk

by discussing the benefits of a creating global pandemic

fund to fight large-scale emergence events. Pandemics

emerge stochastically, are predominantly zoonotic in nat-

ure and originate in tropical countries. These events are

increasing in frequency, and deliberations on the size and

nature of the WHO pandemic fund continue, yet appro-

priations as seen for Ebola in the USA are likely necessary

to manage these risks. The spillovers are key as seen by

these funds being used to combat to the outbreak of Zika

virus. The need for these kinds of funds which can be

flexibly targeted to combat future emerging disease threats

is clear and ought to be based on sound economic analysis.

Chitchumnong and Horan explain an individual’s

infectious disease risks may depend on others’ mitigation

choices, creating strategic interactions such that each

individual makes mitigation decisions based on the ex-

pected decisions of others. Prior work finds coordination

failures involving minimal mitigation investments could

arise in this setting. These results are largely based on

simplified economic models involving a single management

choice and fixed prices that influence mitigation incentives.

Relaxing these assumptions, they find strategic interactions

influence, and are influenced by, choices involving multiple

management options and also market price responses.

These features can reduce the potential for coordination

failure and also have important policy implications.

Morin et al. discuss the precautions private individuals

take to mitigate infectious disease risks. Such precautions

generally reduce both peak prevalence of symptomatic

infection and the number of people who fall ill (both so-

cially beneficial) while simultaneously prolonging an epi-

demic (socially detrimental). For diseases that are not very

infectious, or for which the duration of illness is short, it

may be socially optimal to promote private mitigation ef-

fort by increasing the cost of illness—hence dragging out a

low impact epidemic. By contrast, for highly infectious or

long-lasting diseases, it may be optimal to discourage pri-

vate mitigation by reducing the cost of disease—burning

out the epidemic as quickly and intensely as possible. For

moderately infectious diseases with medium infectious

periods, the social optimum depends on complex interac-

tions between prevalence and duration.

Berry et al. present a statistical matching methodology

for merging and analyzing detailed activity survey data and

health outcome data. Data are extrapolated from one

established national survey onto a new dataset by

sociodemographic characteristics, and the correlations be-

tween activity choice and influenza vaccination are ex-

plored. Significant correlations were found and the sign of

the correlation flips when considering either the intensive

(how much) or the extensive (do or not do) decision for

some highly studied activities. These correlations can pro-

vide an additional metric for targeting those least likely to

vaccinate. The methodology outlined in this paper can be

replicated to explore correlation among actions and other

health outcomes.

Trade creates pathways for spread of bioinvaders.

Current trade policy banning imports from risky sources is

inefficient and costly to enforce. If agents bear the cost of

their actions and allowed to evaluate the expected costs and

benefits of their actions, efficient outcomes can often be

achieved. In this special feature, Lee et al. model import

choice behavior under risk of introducing foot-and-mouth

disease introduction. Using a 50-year dataset to parame-

EcoHealth 15, 237–240, 2018https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-018-1354-1

In This Issue

� 2018 EcoHealth Alliance

terize the model, they find whether producers diversify

import sources to mitigate risk and simultaneously create

gains from trade. The results of this work can be used in

designing novel trade policies that incorporate scientifically

sound methods and producer behavior into the design.

Managing livestock diseases depends on the actions of

different actors, both within and across different regulatory

frameworks. Bate et al. use bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) in

England and Scotland as a case study, as there are con-

trasting strategies for BVD management. Using an agent-

based bioeconomic model, they assess the payoff depen-

dence of farmers connected by trade but using different

BVD management strategies: test–cull, test –cull with vac-

cination, and vaccination alone. When two farms trade, all

actions by the selling farm provide benefits to the pur-

chasing farm, with the greatest benefit from test culling

with vaccination. Unilateral disease management strategies

can be effective in reducing disease risks created through

trade.

Shanafelt and Perrings evaluate the effects of post-

2001 reforms on global foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) risk

in the livestock trade and estimate an empirical model of

disease risk that tests for the impact of changes in trade

volume and biosecurity measures on the probability of a

disease outbreak. They find that before 2001, biosecurity

measures were the most significant determinant of risk.

After 2001, trade plays the greater role. Their results

highlight the trade-off between trade restrictions and

biosecurity measures in global foot-and-mouth disease

management. The more that trade restrictions are relaxed,

the more important biosecurity becomes.

Near real-time epidemic forecasting approaches are

needed to respond to emerging epidemics. Chowell et al.

wrap up this special feature by retrospectively assessing the

performance of models that capture early subexponential

growth dynamics to generate short-term forecasts of the

2001 foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the UK.

They find that while the generalized growth model provides

a useful 10-day forecast of the epidemic before the peak, a

different model—the generalized Richards model—is nee-

ded to forecast the epidemic after the peak.

LASSA VIRUS HOST IN GUINEA

The Natal multimammate mouse is the natural host of

Lassa virus, an arenavirus that causes Lassa fever in hu-

mans. In the absence of a vaccine, rodent control and

adjusting human behavior are currently considered to be

the only options for Lassa fever control. In this study,

Marien et al. investigated the spatial behavior of multi-

mammate mice by performing several field experiments in

Lassa fever-endemic villages. Their conclusions discuss

implications for rodent control.

WEST NILE VIRUS IS FOR THE BIRDS

Using the house sparrow-West Nile virus host–parasite

system, Burgan et al. sought to develop techniques to more

efficiently identify highly competent individuals in free-

living communities. They found that a simple-to-measure

form of parasite tolerance may be an efficient substitute for

more complex forms of tolerance in individual hosts and

identified potential biomarkers of individual competence to

West Nile virus.

MAPPING MERS-COV HOT SPOTS

Camels infected with MERS-CoV can spread the disease to

humans, but understanding the production and marketing

systems for camels can help mitigate the risk. Giyonko

et al. used a value chain approach to study camel systems

and movements in Kenya and defined high-risk practices

and locations that can increase disease risks to humans.

Intervention and disease surveillance should focus on these

areas to reduce human infection risks and spread of disease.

VACCINATING WILD BOARS

Tuberculosis (TB) infections in wild boar may be exacer-

bated by coinfections with porcine circovirus type 2

(PCV2). Risco et al. explored whether vaccination against

PCV2 affected TB prevalence and TB severity in wild boar.

Two groups of wild boar were studied, living in the same

game estate until they were hunted. TB prevalence was

similar in vaccinated and control groups, but the severity of

TB lesions was significantly higher in control animals than

in vaccinated wild boar, suggesting a positive effect of

PCV2 vaccination.

PARASITE PATHOLOGY IN PONDS

Ongoing changes in climate and nutrient loading in

freshwater systems can alter transmission of aquatic para-

238 In This Issue

sites at several stages in the life cycle, complicating efforts to

predict and mitigate disease risk. Here Paull and Johnson

show that the percentage of infected snails increased with

warmer temperatures, while overall snail population den-

sities declined. Greater nutrient concentrations increased

the likelihood that amphibians would suffer deformities as

a result of infection. Comparing how different forms of

environmental change drive shifts in disease risk is critical

for determining effective management strategies.

ARGH, ARGS IN OUR FERTILIZER

Manures and biosolids contain pathogens and antibiotic

resistance genes (ARGs) and are applied as fertilizers for

crops not intended for human consumption on lands wild

deer frequently visit. Rogers et al. investigated the preva-

lence of enteric pathogens and ARGs in the feces of deer as

related to proximity of collection to residuals application.

Campylobacter, tetracycline-resistant genes and ery-

thromycin-resistant genes were associated with proximity

of collection to concentrated animal feeding operations;

tetracycline-resistant genes were associated with proximity

to land-applied biosolids. As a result, deer in proximity to

these activities pose an increased risk to nearby produce

and water quality.

TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI TRANSMISSION

Hodo et al. used an ecological approach to study Try-

panosoma cruzi parasite transmission dynamics among

nonhuman primates (NHPs), wildlife, and kissing bugs

across the southern USA. Raccoons, opossums, and skunks

likely serve as key reservoirs of T. cruzi and live in close

proximity to the NHPs, endangering their livelihood.

Further, three species of kissing bugs were collected of

which 17% were infected. Interventions to protect NHP

and human health must focus on interrupting vector-me-

diated spillover from sylvatic cycles.

PERCEIVING THE THREAT

Safiou et al. describe the socioeconomic characteristics of

Beninese cattle farmers, their perception on tick burden, as

well as common tick control strategies in light of the cur-

rent Amblyomma tick infestation, and the growing preva-

lence of Rhipicephalus microplus. National and regional tick

control programs need to take into account the perception

and constraints of local communities to better mitigate

tick-borne diseases.

CONSERVATION AND INDIGENOUS WELL-BEING IN OKLAHOMA

This paper addresses the impact of Cherokee elder per-

spectives on the larger body of Cherokee citizens regarding

tribal land conservation and health in Oklahoma. Carroll

et al. surveyed Cherokee citizens before and after they

viewed a short PhotoVoice documentary conveying elders’

views on land use and health. Results showed significant

changes in citizens’ opinions after viewing the documen-

tary, including shifts in their priorities for funding tribal

land conservation. They conclude that broadcasting elder

perspectives using contemporary media technology is an

effective method for increasing knowledge about relation-

ships between land conservation and community health

and for increasing support for tribal land conservation

policy.

BONOBOS IN THE CONGO

Tourism and research are important tools for the protec-

tion of wild great ape populations. However, these activities

also involve a certain risk since human pathogens may

easily cross the species barrier and infect the great apes.

Here, Grutzmacher et al. describe respiratory disease

outbreaks in wild bonobos living in the Democratic

Republic of Congo caused by human respiratory syncytial

virus and human-derived bacterium, Streptococcus pneu-

moniae. Their data underline the need for a One Health

approach covering human and animals with the dual

positive effect of enhancing the health situation for people

and great apes.

PARASITES IN EUROPEAN BISON

Captive bred animals are often immunologically naıve and

more susceptible to pathogens. Kołodziej-Sobocinska et al.

investigated Ashworthius sidemi infection intensity of cap-

tive bred bison released into the wild and then culled,

compared with simultaneously studied wild-born animals.

Mean infection intensity of released bison was over three-

fold higher than in wild bison and indicates a rapid

In This Issue 239

acquisition of parasites in previously dewormed bison re-

leased from captivity. They propose that controlled expo-

sure of animals to parasites prior to release may be

beneficial and increase their immunity, and management

protocols should be established and standardized for

endangered species reintroductions.

240 In This Issue

The Economics of Infectious Disease, Trade and PandemicRisk

The emergence and spread of zoonotic diseases has long

been recognized as an incidental effect of our species’

activities on the planet—especially production and trade.

The emergence of zoonoses results from activities that

bring susceptible people into contact with livestock and

wild animals infected with novel pathogens—whether

bacteria, parasites, fungi, viruses or prions. Spread results

from activities that move infected individuals, or that alter

the range of wild reservoirs or vectors. Neither process is

new. Diseases such as plague, yellow fever, influenza, an-

thrax and tuberculosis all originally emerged through

contact with infected wild reservoirs. The spread of small-

pox, typhus, and measles from Europe to the USA in the

century after Columbus’s first voyage across the Atlantic

was an incidental effect of voyages of exploration and

exploitation.

What is new is the rate at which novel diseases are

emerging, and the speed with which they are spread. Severe

acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory

syndrome (MERS), Hendra virus (HeV), and Nipah virus

(NiV) represent a host of zoonotic diseases first identified

only in the last 25 years—a product of population-driven

pressure on the world’s remaining wildlife refugia. The rate

by which emerging diseases spread is also accelerating, as a

by-product of the growth of trade and travel across

increasingly tightly linked networks. Once SARS arrived in

Hong Kong from Guangdong Province in China in February

2003, it was spread to multiple countries in a matter of days.

The global air traffic network now has the capacity to move

pathogens worldwide in a matter of hours.

While there is good reason to believe that rates of

emergence and spread will eventually saturate as pathogens

become increasingly widely distributed, this will not hap-

pen any time soon. Two recent studies identified novel

viruses from large sample set of two zoonotic disease

reservoirs (a fruit bat and a macaque) and then used mark-

recapture algorithms to estimate their unknown viral

diversity. Extrapolation to all terrestrial mammals and

water birds indicates that around 1.6 million unknown

viruses exist within viral families known to contain zoo-

noses in these host groups. This implies that there may be

between 650,000 and 840,000 unknown zoonoses waiting to

emerge (Carroll et al. 2018).

The current trends pose challenges for both the science

and management of infectious disease. From a scientific

perspective, the problem is to generate predictive models

that capture the interactive effects of the epidemiological,

ecological, and socioeconomic processes at work in emer-

gence and spread. There is scope for strengthening existing

models of both. Emergence risks tend to be highest in

tropical regions where population-driven expansion into

wildlife refugia brings susceptible people or livestock into

contact with wildlife reservoirs of diseases new to hu-

mankind (Jones et al. 2008). By combining efforts to model

diseases-in-waiting, the process of land use change and its

effects on population densities in wildlife refugia, and

exposure at the margins of converted land, it is possible to

estimate differences in the disease risks posed by similar

processes in different parts of the world. Spread risks, by

contrast, tend to be highest in regions most tightly con-

nected by trade and travel (Tatem et al. 2006a, b). By

combining efforts to model the epidemiological processes

involved, trade and travel networks, changes in trade and

travel volumes, and biosecurity along trade/travel routes, it

is possible to estimate differences in the disease risks faced

by people in different parts of the world.

EcoHealth 15, 241–243, 2018https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-018-1347-0

Editorial

� 2018 EcoHealth Alliance

For both emergence and spread, risk is a product of

decisions made by people, and hence of the conditions that

lie behind those decisions. Factoring the decision process

into models of emergence and spread not only improves

the predictive power of those models, but adds to the

instruments available to disease managers (Perrings et al.

2014). The papers included in this special feature focus on

two issues. One is prediction of the course of disease once

an outbreak has occurred. A second is the role of private

decisions that either increase or decrease disease risk.

The special feature focuses on the effect of a decision-

environment that comprises both a public health/biosecu-

rity regime and the economic factors that drive risky

activities. The private decision to convert land at the edges

of wildlife refugia may, for example, be driven by relative

land prices, property rights and land access regimes, alter-

native employment opportunities, agricultural product

markets and so on. The private decision to import risk

materials similarly reflects relative product prices, shipping

costs, exchange rates and the like. In all such cases, the risk

to society depends on a private calculus—whether the pri-

vate benefits of a risky activity outweigh the private costs.

The volume and direction of trade are generally good

empirical predictors of the sources of epizootic and zoo-

notic diseases (Pavlin et al. 2009; Smith et al. 2009), but this

is conditioned by the effectiveness of the public health/

biosecurity regime in place. Biosecurity measures do not

always identify the source of risk. A ban on Russian pigs

and pig products caused by the presence of African swine

flu in Russia, for example, failed to remove the risk posed

by infected containers or trade vehicles that were not tar-

geted (Mur et al. 2012). Nonetheless, differences in biose-

curity measures on different trade routes do matter. The

growth of trade with emerging markets and developing

economies, for example, has increased the likelihood of

reinfection from existing reservoirs (Di Nardo et al. 2011).

Getting the science of infectious disease right implies a

better understanding of the epidemiological consequences

of trading decisions: the importer’s decision about what to

trade with whom, the traveller’s decision about where to go

and when. Among disease managers, there is current con-

cern that existing risk assessments and the risk management

strategies they inform fail to capture the true risks of trade.

In some instances the neglect of trade means that risks are

underestimated (Barker et al. 2006; King et al. 2006). In

others, the risks of either particular diseases or particular

commodities may be overestimated (Bruckner 2011; Mac-

Diarmid 2011).

Improving the management of infectious disease im-

plies a better appreciation of the potential for influencing

risk by altering not just the biosecurity regime but also the

costs and benefits facing both traders and travellers. Where

the risks faced by society are an externality of private

decisions, they can be mitigated by altering the private net

benefits of those decisions. Traders and travellers can be

confronted with the cost of their actions. In the limit, these

could include the expected cost of pandemics such as SARS,

Foot and Mouth Disease, or Highly Pathogenic Avian

Influenza. Strengthening the science of infectious disease to

include the factors behind risky decisions may provide

health authorities with a valuable set of tools with which to

contain risk. Charging traders with the expected cost of

their actions could generate valuable resources to respond

when emerging or re-emerging disease outbreaks occur.

Charles Perrings

School of Life Sciences,

Arizona State University, Tempe, USA

e-mail: Charles.Perrings@asu.edu

Simon Levin

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology,

Princeton University, Princeton, USA

Peter Daszak

EcoHealth Alliance, New York, USA

REFERENCES

Barker I, Brownlie J, Peckham C, Pickett J, Stewart W, Waage J,et al. (2006) Foresight: Infectious Diseases—Preparing for theFuture, London: Office of Science and Innovation

Bruckner GK (2011) Managing the risks of disease transmissionthrough trade: a commodities-based approach? Scientific andTechnical Review International Office of Epizootics 30:289–296

Carroll D, Daszak P, Wolfe ND, Gao GF, Morel CM, Morzaria S,et al. (2018) The Global Virome Project. Science 359:872–874

Di Nardo A, Knowles NJ, Paton DJ (2011) Combining livestocktrade patterns with phylogenetics to help understand the spreadof foot and mouth disease in sub-Saharan Africa, the MiddleEast and Southeast Asia. Scientific and Technical Review Inter-national Office of Epizootics 30:63–85

Jones KE, Patel N, Levy M, Storeygard A, Balk D, Gittleman JL,et al. (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases.Nature 451:990–993

King DA, Peckham C, Waage JK, Brownlie J, Woolhouse MEJ(2006) Infectious diseases: Preparing for the future. Science313:1392–1393

242 C. Perrings et al.

MacDiarmid TR (2011) The spread of pathogens through inter-national trade. Scientific and Technical Review InternationalOffice of Epizootics 30:13–17

Mur L, Martinez-Lopez B, Sanchez-Vizcaino JM (2012) Risk ofAfrican swine fever introduction into the European Unionthrough transport-associated routes: returning trucks and wastefrom international ships and planes. BMC Vet Res 8:149

Pavlin B, Schloegel LM, Daszak P (2009) Risk of ImportingZoonotic Diseases through Wildlife Trade, United States.Emerging Infectious Disease 15:1721–1726

Perrings C, Castillo-Chavez C, Chowell G, Daszak P, Fenichel E,Finnoff D, et al. (2014) Merging Economics and Epidemiology

to Improve the Prediction and Management of Infectious Dis-ease. Ecohealth 11:464–475

Smith KF, Behrens M, Schloegel LM, Marano N, Burgiel S, DaszakP (2009) Reducing the Risks of the Wildlife Trade. Science324:594–595

Tatem AJ, Hay SS, Rogers DJ (2006) Global traffic and diseasevector dispersal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences103:6242–6247

Tatem AJ, Rogers DJ, Hay SI (2006) Global transport networks andinfectious disease spread. Advances in Parasitology 62:293–343

Published online: July 12, 2018

The Economics of Infectious Disease, Trade and Pandemic Risk 243

What’s New

THE 5TH INTERNATIONAL ONE HEALTH

CONGRESS

The One Health Congress is the world’s premier conference

for the worldwide One Health community. One Health

advocates from all over the globe will gather for 4 days of

lectures, debates, workshops, and symposia. To capture the

multifaceted One Health paradigm, the Congress will have

distinct program tracks on One Health Science, Antimi-

crobial Resistance, and the Science/Policy Interface.

June 22–25, 2018, Saskatoon, Canada

https://onehealthplatform.com/international-one-

health-congress

ECOHEALTH 2018 CONGRESS

The overall theme of Ecohealth 2018 is ‘‘Environmental

and Health Equity: Connecting Local Alternatives in a

Global World.’’ This theme emphasizes the need to connect

local initiatives in a world with global drivers that threaten

healthy ecosystems and populations, and makes a call to

tackle these forces and pursue justice.

August 15–18, 2018, Cali, Colombia

http://ecohealth2018.co

WORLD HEALTH SUMMIT 2018

Held once a year, the World Health Summit has grown into

the world’s most prominent forum for addressing global

health issues. It brings together key leaders from academia,

politics, civil society, and the private sector to address the

most pressing health-related challenges on the planet.

October 14–16, 2018, Berlin, Germany

https://www.worldhealthsummit.org/conference.html

KEYSTONE SYMPOSIA: FRAMING

THE RESPONSE TO EMERGING VIRUS

INFECTIONS

The key themes to be covered include the need to under-

stand why zoonotic diseases matter, their association with

agriculture, the importance of surveillance and early

detection, and the difficulties of dealing with diseases that

involve both medical and veterinary communities. The

conference will bring together experts in virology,

immunology, vaccinology, and epidemiology with those

who seek to transfer knowledge between these groups,

veterinarians and industry and government.

October 14–18, 2018, Hong Kong

http://www.keystonesymposia.org/18S2

THE 8TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

ON EMERGING VIRAL DISEASES

This symposium gathers reports on outstanding scientific

achievements in a variety of research fields including

emerging viral pathogens, viral–host interaction, antiviral

immunity, and arboviruses. It will specially organize invited

talks, panel discussions, and academic posters to present

the latest developments in the related areas and to explore

the frontiers of emerging viral diseases. This symposium

will provide global researchers an open, high-quality

communication platform for exchanging the state-of-the-

art research and developments and for strengthening col-

laborations and communications.

October 20–22, 2018, Wuhan, China

http://english.whiov.cas.cn/Notice2016/201805/

t20180508_192264.html

EcoHealth 15, 472, 2018https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-018-1341-6

What’s New

� 2018 EcoHealth Alliance

The Artist as Serial Killer

Peter Daszak1 and Yasha Feferholtz1

EcoHealth Alliance, 460 W 34th Street, New York, NY 10001

Writing an essay about a piece of art is a bit like

investigating a murder scene. The artist leaves us clues as to

their intent—hints of greater meaning that are necessarily

covered with multiple layers of deception and trickery. As

the artist produces each opus, these clues add together to

form the theme of the artist’s life work, just as a serial killer

lays out a pattern, knowingly or unwittingly, at the scenes

of each of their crimes. These clues may be explicit: Pi-

casso’s gradual breakdown of the face into a series of ab-

stract shapes; Rousseau’s juxtaposition of nature with

modern life to reflect our primordial fear of nature and

human origins, culminating in the magnificent The

Dream—his last painting. They may be subtle and hidden; a

challenge for the viewer to decipher, or a test of our

intellectual capacity to identify what the artist has hidden

for us.

So let us use our detective skills to interpret this issue’s

cover art, and find out what Minas Halaj’s ‘‘Banker’’ is

telling us about the artist’s motivation and goals. ‘‘Banker’’

portrays a financial worker from the Industrial Age, in a

thick woolen suit, whose face is covered and consumed by a

beautiful bouquet of chrysanthemums. Drawing parallels

with Rene Magritte’s The Great War (La Grande Guerre)

and other works, Halaj juxtaposes humanity with nature.

But there is a subtle difference in texture and tone between

Halaj and Magritte. Where Magritte works with smooth,

velvety concrete and buffed-up bowler hats, Halaj builds

painstakingly intricate, multi-layered, and complex col-

lages. This depth, the dull brown and gray washed back-

ground, and the occasional spatter of red paint and black

ink reminds me of the post-industrial decay that I would

see so often in the North of England in the 1970s. Like the

fireweed growing in a disused factory, the chrysanthemum

in ‘‘Banker’’ dominates the topography, sprouting from its

victim with vigor. The banker is clearly long-since deceased,

degrading into the fragmented parchment—a former will

or financial contract perhaps—and both symbols of a past

era. Thus, Halaj plays on themes of life and death, happi-

ness and mourning.

This issue of EcoHealth focuses on the economics of

infectious disease, trade and pandemic risk. To us,

Published online: August 6, 2018

Correspondence to: Yasha Feferholtz, e-mail: Feferholtz@ecohealthalliance.org

EcoHealth 15, 473–474, 2018https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-018-1355-0

Cover Essay

� 2018 EcoHealth Alliance

‘‘Banker’’ reminds us of our relationship with nature, and

the competition between our desire to push forwards as a

species and dominate for economic gain, versus the need of

biodiversity in the landscape around. Like the flower,

bankers are a basic component in complex systems—in this

case financial markets. They create value by connecting

people in need of resources to those with excess, and

promoting consumption and well-being across economic

cycles. If they take on too much risk, they can destroy value

and bring populations to the point of war and famine.

While flowers symbolize happiness, they also create value,

as does all biodiversity, through providing ecosystem ser-

vices within their complex relationships.

Viewed through our detective lens, Halaj’s painting has

clear motive, a smoking gun and a trail of clues for us to

follow. The cause of death is suffocation, the airways closed

by the plants bulging tendrils. The crime is one of passion

and revenge. The banker’s motive is greed—his head lying

on a contract to log and grow crops on a patch of tropical

forest in one of the colonies. And the murderer……Well,

dear colleagues, I leave that to you. Read on, and all shall

eventually become clear.

474 P. Daszak, Y. Feferholtz