Jump-Landing Program for Females: Development of a ... · for Females: Development of a Systematic Progression ... focus surrounding the ankle and hip ... erect trunk position during

Jump-Landing Programfor Females:Development ofa Systematic ProgressionModelGuy Mothersole, MSpEx,1 John B. Cronin, PhD,1,2 and Nigel K. Harris, PhD1

1Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand;and 2School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

A B S T R A C T

SPORTING MOVEMENTS OFTEN

INVOLVE JUMP LANDINGS FROM

A VARIETY OF HEIGHTS AND DIS-

TANCES. THESE JUMP LANDINGS

ARE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH

GROUND REACTION FORCES.

ALTHOUGH ATHLETES MAY HAVE

THE CAPABILITY TO ABSORB

THESE JUMP-LANDING IMPACTS,

INCORRECT LANDING TECH-

NIQUE, INSUFFICIENT MUSCULAR

STRENGTH, AND A LACK OF BAL-

ANCE AND NEUROMUSCULAR

CONTROL PLACE THE LOWER

EXTREMITIES UNDER RISK OF

INJURY. DESIGNING AND IMPLE-

MENTING JUMP-LANDING TRAIN-

ING INTEGRATING CORRECT

LANDING PRINCIPLES AND SPE-

CIFIC CONDITIONING OF THE

LOWER LIMB MAY HELP TO

REDUCE INJURY PREVALENCE

AND IMPROVE PERFORMANCE.

THIS ARTICLE FOCUSES ON

TARGETED STRATEGIES AND

SYSTEMATIC PROGRESSIONS

FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

JUMP-LANDING PROFICIENCY

FOR FEMALE ATHLETES.

INTRODUCTION

Many sports, such as netball,basketball, and volleyball, aretypified by a variety of jump-

landing tasks that are often critical tosuccess and winning performance. Typ-ically, high ground reaction forces(GRFs) are generated by athletes inthese sports given the dynamic andexplosive nature of jump landings intraining and competition (12,36,48).When jump-landing impact forces areexpressed relative to body weight (BW),they have been reported to be as high as5.7–8.9 BW (12,36,44) during specificsporting movements. As a result, ath-letes are exposed to high external andinternal forces, which are consideredpotentially injurious for the lowerextremities (24,44,46).

GRFs produced during jumping andlanding are an accurate representationof impact intensity as there is an asso-ciation between impact force and com-pressive strain on the bones andsurrounding musculature (51). If theimpact force surpasses the force pro-duced by the involved musculature,then all exceeding GRFs will bediverted by the bones and ligamentoustissue, which amplifies the expectedrisk of ligament ruptures (21). This

injury mechanism is particularly preva-lent among athletic female populations(21,24,40). The inability for female ath-letes to correctly attenuate high jump-landing impact forces through musclecontraction has been linked to incorrectlanding technique (12,43), insufficientmuscular strength (18,21,35), a lack ofbalance (25,41), and deficiencies in neu-romuscular control (20).

To physically condition the bodyto effectively attenuate impact forceduring competition, it is essential tosystematically progress jump-landingintensity throughout training. Thiscan be achieved by gradually increas-ing the stress imposed on the body inan effort to develop a high jump-landing impact tolerance. This system-atic increase in stimulus is importantfor continual adaptation and a prereq-uisite for injury prevention and athleticimprovement (30).

KEY WORDS :

adaptations to training; athletictraining; complex training; exerciseselection; exercise technique; female;injuries/injury prevention;neuromuscular adaptations;plyometrics; resistance training

VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2014 Copyright � National Strength and Conditioning Association52

Given the previous information, theneed for an appropriately designedjump-landing program integrating cor-rect landing principles and progressiveconditioning of the lower limb isapparent. This article first presentsideal fundamental jump-landing andfeedback mechanics before introduc-ing a systematic progression modelfor the development of jump-landingproficiency. The model incorporatesrecommended design methods andtargeted training components for effec-tive program implementation.

FUNDAMENTAL JUMP-LANDINGAND FEEDBACK MECHANICS

When implementing any type of jump-landing training, it is imperative thatthe strength and conditioning profes-sional emphasizes proper technique(40). It is proposed by Myer et al.(40) that throughout an effectivejump-landing sequence, the chest isencouraged to be over the knees withshoulders and hips aligned. The verti-cal jump should have minimal for-ward/back or side-to-side movement,and the landing should display ade-quate flexion of the hips, knees, andankles (Figure 1) as this helps to atten-uate impact forces. In addition, theknees should be positioned above thefeet with no excessive adduction orabduction as equal distribution of forceacross both the medial and lateral com-partments of the knee may reduce the

impact stress (23). With respect to footplacement, a forefoot to heel groundcontact pattern is advocated with thefeet landing parallel as this helps todiffuse impact forces more evenlythroughout the feet (29). In the caseof a single-leg landing, the foot shouldbe positioned under the body’s centerof mass (COM). Adhering to these fun-damental jump-landing mechanicsmay help to reduce both the rate andmagnitude of GRF during impact.

Receiving feedback is an essential partof modifying movement patterns as itis a key component of acquiring newmotor programs (12). Herman et al.(18) examined the use of strength train-ing and feedback on lower body bio-mechanics during a jump task. Theyconcluded that with the exclusion ofproper instruction on technique, ath-letes may not effectively integrate thebenefits of their increased strength intotheir movement patterns. The use ofvideo feedback and expert feedbackhas been shown to significantly reducevertical ground reaction force (VGRF)(225.8%) for all video feedback condi-tions (43). Researchers exploring theeffects of verbal feedback on volleyballspike jump–landing technique reportedthat a single session of augmented feed-back significantly reduced VGRF by223% (12). Similar conclusions weredrawn from McNair et al. (37) demon-strating that precise kinematic instruc-tion (feedback on knee flexion angle at

initial ground contact) can mediate de-creases in landing GRF by 213%.

Consistent landing technique feedbackis critical during each phase of thisproposed training model to ensure thatfundamental movement patterns aremaintained during potentially unsafejump-landing sequences. Furthermore,it is suggested to cease all jump land-ings if the desired technique dimin-ishes to ensure that the incorrectbehavior is not learned. A set of sug-gested jump-landing kinematics foreffective feedback delivery throughouttraining can be observed in Figure 1. Itis also recommended that the strengthand conditioning coach uses a cameraor other electronic devices for videorecording purposes to reinforce verbalfeedback to the athlete, as this will beinvaluable and likely enable a morerapid progression through the phases.

JUMP-LANDING PROGRESSIONMODEL

The majority of studies investigatinginterventions aimed at improvingjump-landing performance and injuryprevention use a variety of trainingmethods, for example, strength andplyometric training (6,14,23,39). It istherefore difficult to decipher thedegree of influence certain programshave on the training outcomes. Itwould seem that a combination oftraining strategies has the most advan-tageous effect on landing mechanics,

Figure 1. Fundamental jump-landing technique instruction: (1) head upright, (2) chest above knees with feet shoulder width apart,(3) shoulders and hips level, (4) descend to a self-selected depth with knees in line with toes, (5) jump verticallywith minimal forward/back and side-to-side movement, (6) land with a forefoot to heel foot placement and adequateflexion of hips, knees, and ankles.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 53

impact force dissipation, and physicalconditioning of the lower body. Themost promising training componentsseem to be teaching fundamental exer-cise techniques and landing principleswith the appropriate feedback; improv-ing balance and stability with specificfocus surrounding the ankle and hipjoint; increasing muscular strength, withparticular emphasis on the muscles ofthe posterior chain; and heighteningneural drive and neuromuscular controlthrough plyometric-type exercises.

The ultimate goal of a jump-landingprogram is to not only improve

performance but also prevent injury.For this to occur, the program mustsystematically progress in intensity, sothat the body can appropriately adaptto the given training stimulus. The mostinfluential barriers that impede theadvancement of jump-landing perfor-mance are injury and training plateaus;however, the correct application of pro-gressive overload can potentially reducethe effects of these barriers (30). In thisregard, we propose a model that ad-dresses this progression and the integra-tion of various training methods. Themodel is a derivative of that proposed

by Kritz et al. (33) where athletes areloaded according to their ability toperform an exercise and as such ath-letes are progressed through assisted,BW, resisted, eccentric, and plyomet-ric exercises.

This model incorporates 4 phases,which increase in load intensity andmovement complexity (Figure 2).The 4 phases focus on specific out-comes and include (a) technique andgeneral strength, (b) eccentric strength,stability, and alignment, (c) stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) propulsive powerand landing, and (d) sport-specific

Figure 2. Jump-landing training progression model.

Jump-Landing Program for Females

VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201454

jump landing. It needs to be acknowl-edged that each phase has a focus andbuilds upon the previous, but the focusis not exclusive to that phase.

With respect to the proposed model,the reader needs to be cognizant thatsome examples are given for each ofthe training modalities used in eachphase. There are, however, a myriadof exercises and combinations that canbe used. The menu is only limited bythe imagination and experience of thestrength and conditioning coach. Eachprogram should be specifically tailoredin regard to the athlete’s particularweaknesses, sport movements, and posi-tional demands. The aim of this model isto provide a framework to guide exer-cise prescription and progression fora flexible decision-making approach tomeet the athlete’s requirements.

PHASE 1: TECHNIQUE ANDGENERAL STRENGTH

This first stage should focus on exer-cises and techniques aimed at develop-ing competent movement patterns andgeneral strength. In this phase, exercisesare chosen that aim at optimizingmovement efficiency, laying the foun-dation for more complex and explosivemovement patterns typical of the latterphases. Optimal movement has beendescribed as pain-free motion involvingcorrect posture, muscle coordination,and joint alignment (4). Typically, fun-damental movement patterns, such as

squats, lunges, push, pull, bend, andtwist patterns, form the basis of muchof the training.

This type of movement education istypically linked to “strength endur-ance” training and is progressedthrough an assisted, BW, or resistedparadigm (Figure 3). For example, theathlete is asked to perform a BW squatwith good technique [Kritz et al. (32)],and if the athlete cannot perform anacceptable squat, then it is recommen-ded that the athlete performs assistedsquat training until squat technique isperfected. Thereafter, this athlete willprogress to BW squat training andwhen ready resisted squat training.

Females have a tendency to adopt anerect trunk position during landing (27),which can subsequently reduce flexionof the knee (2). It is speculated that thisupright positioning of the trunk isbecause of weak gluteal and hamstringmuscles, given their function as hip ex-tensors and trunk stabilizers (5). It is alsodocumented that female athletes areinclined to use their quadriceps musclesto a greater extent to stabilize duringlanding while underusing their ham-string muscles (21,23,26). Particularlyfor the knee, the co-activation of thehamstrings and quadriceps may provideinjury protection during landing by re-sisting anterior and lateral tibial trans-lation along with transverse tibialrotations (9). Greater activation of thehamstring muscles allows the knee to

produce increased flexion, which cre-ates a better position to absorb impactforces (21). By strengthening thesemuscles (Figure 4), and mimickingsuggested landing mechanics, thebody has a considerable mechanicaladvantage by simulating a safer land-ing position (38).

While landing, balance is achieved pri-marily through the ankle and/or hip(14). Stability is maintained throughthe ankle when the body is static orwhen there is limited disturbance asseen during the end recovery phase ofa landing, because of the joint’s smallrange of motion (28). The ankleachieves this stability mainly in theanterior-posterior plane. Therefore, withregard to balance training, basic stabilityexercises are initially static with limitedmovement. The objective of this is todevelop the ability to activate the stabi-lizer muscles and concentrate on propri-oceptive information being received tomaintain stability; therefore, this sectionhas been termed “proprioception.” Staticbalance exercises can be manipulated byopening and closing eyes, changing thearm position, and progressing from sta-ble ground to unstable surfaces (Figure 5)(50). The use of unstable surfaces aidsthe development of synergistic musclerecruitment and activation patterns(22,41). It needs to be acknowledgedthat strength and balance training doesnot necessarily need to be viewed in iso-lation. For example, exercises, such as

Figure 3. Squat progressions: left to right—assisted squat, body weight squat, resisted squat.


single-leg squats, split squats, and lunges,will also challenge balance ability.

Plyometric training during phase 1 hasbeen termed “long response” in thatthe propulsion and landing are typifiedby adequate hip, knee, and ankle flex-ion and also alignment upon impact.That is, the propulsive and landingphases are deeper than other phases,reducing particularly the landing forces(i.e., soft landings), which becomea greater focus in phase 2. Plyometricexercises should initially be performedbilaterally with a progression to single-leg landings once correct landing

mechanics are regularly demonstrated(Figure 1). It is also advocated that alllandings are held for 3–5 seconds toassist in the development of perfectlanding technique.

Box jump exercises are effective duringthis phase as they develop basic jump-landing ability in a controlled environ-ment. Jumping onto a box effectivelydevelops jumping actions without theaccentuated landing impact caused bygravity through reducing the descentto the ground. Jumping onto a box alsoallows the athlete to comfortably sim-ulate a deep squat position during

landing, which is the position theywill be encouraged to replicate duringeccentric landings in phase 2. Thesetypes of jump landings can be pro-gressed within this phase by increasingthe height of the box as this challengesthe force required to perform thejump. Increasing the height also in-creases the depth of the squat posi-tion during landing as more hipflexion is required to get the feet ontothe higher box.

Progression to phase 2 is recommendedonce the athlete demonstrates adequatestrength endurance during squatting

Figure 4. Hamstring exercises: top right—Russian hamstring drop (start position), top left—Russian hamstring drop (finish position);bottom left—Romanian dead lift (start position), bottom right—Romanian dead lift (finish position).



and lunging patterns at an appropriateload in addition to demonstrating satis-factory single-leg balance. It is alsoimportant that perfect technique duringjump-landing tasks (Figure 1) is dis-played as competent performance in thisphase is critical to the development ofjump-landing ability in the latter stagesof this progressive model.

PHASE 2: ECCENTRIC STRENGTH,STABILITY, AND ALIGNMENT

The emphasis of phase 2 is to developeccentric leg strength along withenhancing balance, stability, and con-trol of joint alignment. The landingcomponent is the primary focusthroughout this phase with exercisesand drills projected toward improvingthe body’s ability to land controlledand aligned.

During jump landing, the most promi-nent forces are present when theinvolved musculature is contractingeccentrically (8). Therefore, the bodymust possess adequate levels of eccen-tric strength to control the body’smovements and accomplish safejump-landing form (18). Consequently,the strength-training emphasis duringphase 2 should move toward develop-ing “eccentric strength.” Exercising

muscles with an eccentric muscle con-traction focus has been shown to pro-mote greater gains in overall strengthand muscle hypertrophy because ofthe larger loads that the muscle cancontrol in comparison with concentrictraining (47). Therefore, an increase inmuscle mass is an adaptation that mayoccur throughout this phase.

In terms of specific exercises, theemphasis should continue to progresssquatting ability in addition to exer-cises that focus on single-leg strengthdevelopment (Figure 6). Incorporatingsingle-leg exercises will help to developthe athlete’s ability to express strengthin an unstable environment and eccen-trically loading the lower extremities ina safe manner. In the absence of spe-cific eccentric machines, the strengthand conditioning professional isencouraged to be creative in designingor using eccentric overload exercises.Instances of this could be using “twoup one down–type exercises” whereathletes push concentrically with 2limbs and eccentrically lower withone. In addition, the exercises dis-played in Figure 4 are also suitable asthey effectively stimulate the eccentricaction of the muscles involved in jump-

landing performance.

Balance training drills in phase 2 shouldtransition toward more dynamic stabi-lizing exercises, however, they shouldstill be performed in a stationary posi-tion, and therefore have been labeled as“dynamically static.” With the focusbeing stability and alignment, effectivebalance drills should allow the athlete tomaneuver their COM while continuingto stabilize on their stance leg (Figure 7),as this is consistent with successful land-ing performance.

Exercises such as swings as seen inFigure 8 challenge functional ankle sta-bility and strengthen the glutealmuscles. Cueing the torso to be strongand tall is important given the reducedbase of support, which increases therequired stability to perform compe-tent movement. The swing exercisecan progress to swinging movementswhile on toes as this effectively de-creases the base of support and createsa higher COM, which challenges theability to stabilize to a greater extent.

For the plyometric training compo-nent, a progression to accentuatedlandings begins, thus termed “eccentricresponse.” It is recommended thatdrop and stick exercises are initiallyused in this phase. Drop and stick

Figure 5. Static balance exercises: left to right—single-leg floor, bilateral wobble board, single-leg Bosu ball.


exercises are performedwith the athletestarting in a standing position and thenquickly dropping into an athletic squatstance. A progression from this point isto drop into a lunge position and thenfinally a single-leg squat position.

Exercises in this phase can be furtheradvanced by performing drop landingsoff a box. Drop-landing exercises areparticularly important as they allowthe body to adapt to high impactforces in a controlled manner (44).

Advancing drop landings within thisphase can be achieved by increasingbox drop height and also jumping dis-tance. Increasing the box height will allowathletes to experience greater impactforces because of the effect of gravity

Figure 6. Single-leg exercises: left and middle pictures—lateral crossover step down, the athlete starts the movement at the top ofthe box and slowly lowers the opposite foot to the ground; right picture—eccentric bulgarian squat, the athlete startswith the front leg in an extended position and then quickly drops to the bottom position and arrests the movement.

Figure 7. Dynamically static exercises: left to right—medicine ball single-leg squat (start position), medicine ball single-leg squat(finish position); single-leg stiff-legged dead lift (start position), single-leg stiff-legged dead lift (finish position).



and an associated increase in impactvelocity (38). In the same respect, largerjumping distances yield greater propulsiveforces upon takeoff (15), which effectivelyincreases both vertical and horizontalCOM velocities during landing. This inturn increases the magnitude of the land-ing forces. In addition, the proportion ofunilateral landings should increase to chal-lenge the need to stabilize and balance.

Progression to phase 3 is recommen-ded once the athlete exhibits acceptableeccentric control during squatting at anappropriate load. Furthermore, athletesmust demonstrate an ability to maintainbalance during exercises that challengedynamic stability in addition to per-forming correct landing mechanics dur-ing single-leg drop landings. Thiswould validate that the required physi-cal ability is present to safely advancethe training phase.

PHASE 3: STRETCH-SHORTENCYCLE PROPULSIVE POWER ANDLANDING ABILITY

Phase 3 of this progression modelshould focus on exercises and techni-ques aimed at developing propulsivepower and landing ability. The impactforces experienced during jump land-ings are inherently larger and have

more degrees of freedom than the pre-vious drop-landing program in phase 2.For example, because the landing ispreceded by a jump, there is likely tobe greater horizontal and/or lateralmomentum to arrest or control whenjumping for distance.

The focus for the strength-trainingcomponent throughout phase 3 isto increase “relative strength.” A typ-ical adaptation of consistent high-intensity strength training is thegrowth and proliferation of myofibrilmuscle filaments; however, increasesin strength can also be achieved byincreasing neural activation, whichlimit changes in muscle size (16).The objective is to develop neuralstrength without increasing musclesize to increase strength per kilogramof body mass. It is recommended thatdeveloping relative strength isachieved by increasing maximumstrength while minimizing changesin body mass; however, it can alsobe developed by maintaining strengthand reducing body mass. In particular,reducing body mass by decreasingbody fat is advocated as this increasesthe athlete’s functional body mass.

Given the association betweendecreased strength and increased injury

prevalence (21), it is important that max-imum neural strength is continuallyincreased in an effort to attenuate theincreased impact forces experiencedduring the advancement of exercisesperformed throughout this phase. Inaddition, most sports necessitate athletesto possess certain amounts of strengthendurance and power; therefore, maxi-mal relative strength is an optimal qual-ity to develop given the strongcorrelation between both strengthendurance and muscular power.

As intimated previously, there islikely to be greater horizontal and/or lateral momentum to arrest or con-trol during this phase because of theinclusion of the propulsive jumpphase; so, the strength training needsto become multiplanar in focus. Exer-cises that strengthen the musculaturein the vertical, horizontal, and lateralplanes are fundamental to this phase(Figure 9).

The location of the upper body’s COMhas been shown to affect the final posi-tion of the knee during landing (6),particularly during single-leg landings.When landing is projected from a me-diolateral direction or when landingfrom a perturbed jump, balance ismaintained predominately through

Figure 8. Swing exercise: swings involve the athlete balancing on one leg flat footed while swinging the airborne leg forward andback, laterally in front and laterally behind. A typical set would involve 10 repetitions (reps) on the left leg, forward andback and then change to the right leg; this is immediately followed by 10 reps on the left leg, swinging the leg laterallyin front of the body and then change to the right leg; and finally 10 reps on the left leg, swinging the leg laterally behindthe body and then change to the right leg. The aim for the athlete is to perform all 60 reps without touching the ground.


the hip joint (28). This is evidentlybecause of the hip joint’s larger rangesof motion, which is achieved inboth the medial-lateral and anterior-posterior planes (1). This type of bal-ance is termed “dynamic” as the bodyendeavors to stabilize while simulta-neously performing movement.

It is recommended that balance train-ing exercises during phase 3 challengestability in a dynamic fashion. That is,a landing will be preceded by a pre--movement, such as a lateral jump. Thiscan be progressed by jumping onto an

unstable surface (Figure 10). To con-tinue the progression of swing drills,the strength and conditioning coachshould add a jump and land with eachswing repetition. These exercises are de-signed to develop functional stabilitywhile also continuing to improve tech-nique in both landing and takeoffpositions.

With regard to the plyometric training,this phase should involve a wide vari-ety of movements that are dynamic innature with an overriding objective ofenhancing the SSC and landing ability

of athletes (44). Movements andground contact times are typicallyquicker during this phase as opposedto the 2 preceding phases; therefore,this component has been termed“short response.” Essentially, thisphase emphasizes development ofneuromuscular control, particularlyaiming to stabilize the working jointsthrough unconscious activation ofthe surrounding musculature (46).Unconscious muscle recruitment, co-activation, and coordination have beenfound to be critical factors involvedin successful jumping landing infemales (20).

Researchers have reported that aftera growth spurt, adolescent females donot seem to develop the neuromuscu-lar system at the same rate as the mus-culoskeletal system (19). This issuggested to reduce the amount of neu-romuscular control of the knee duringlanding, causing landing techniqueswhich are associated with injury. Vari-ous studies using plyometric-typetraining have been able to correct thisimbalance in neuromuscular control(6,17,34,39,42). The strength and con-ditioning coach needs to be aware ofthis reduced control throughout theneuromuscular system during periodsof rapid growth, thus paying particularfocus toward the development ofphases 1 and 2. The importance ofdeveloping phase 3 is amplified as theimpact forces during landing occur toorapidly to be modified by a reactionresponse from the neuromuscularsystem (13). To effectively preventunwarranted injury during jump land-ing, it is essential to pre-activate theinvolved musculature before groundcontact (20,46).

Muscle activation strategies and theirsubsequent effect after plyometric train-ing were explored by Chimera et al. (7).This study observed significantly differ-ent muscle activation patterns from theadductor muscles with pre-activationoccurring earlier, in conjunction withgreater activationmagnitude before land-ing. Furthermore, significant increasesin adductor and abductor muscleco-activation were found, suggesting that

Figure 9. Hip thrust exercise.

Figure 10. Dynamic balance exercise: left to right—lunge onto wobble board, jumponto Bosu ball.



the muscles were working in concert tobalance joint forces during jump-landingpropulsive exercises.

Plyometric exercises in this phaseshould demand quicker propulsive ac-tions and stiffer more abrupt landings.For example, the athlete could performcontinuous hop and stick exercises witha focus on jumping and landing execu-tion. This can be progressed into theathlete performing submaximal tripleor quintuple bounding sequences withthe strength and conditioning coachobserving their single-leg propulsiveand landing ability (alignment and sta-bility) when there are increasing motorcontrol demands associated withincreased horizontal and verticalmomentum. Short response movementsare more aggressive in nature and are anappropriate prerequisite for the sport-specific exercises within phase 4.

The ability to perform the jump-landing movements with good tech-nique (Figure 1) drives progressionthrough this phase. If faulty techniqueis observed during the propulsivephase, the athlete could benefit fromfurther phase 1 training or a lessintense plyometric exercise. If faultytechnique is observed during the land-ing phase, then further phase 2 train-ing may be prescribed. To advance tophase 4, it is recommended that theathlete possesses adequate muscularstrength during resistance exerciseswith a multiplanar focus. It is alsoadvocated that the athlete demon-strates the ability to stabilize froma moving position. Furthermore, it isadvised that fundamental jump-landing mechanics along with controland posture are maintained during ex-ercises using multiple jump-landingefforts. Athletes who can repeatedlyperform short response jump-landingactivities successfully will demon-strate the capability to effectively trainthese movements in a sport-specificcontext.

PHASE 4: SPORT-SPECIFICJUMP-LANDING ABILITY

The objective of this final phase is todevelop propulsive power production

and landing ability specific to the sportor activity the athlete is engaged in.This is in an effort to optimize thetransfer of conditioning activities tothe performance demands of the sport.

The focus for the strength-trainingcomponent during this phase is similarto phase 3 of increasing relativestrength but also consequently devel-oping “muscular power.” The overallaim is to increase strength per kilogramof BW in addition to increasing thespeed at which the load moves duringexercises. The amount of jump-landingtraining the athlete performs duringsport-specific training and competitionis high velocity in nature and thereforewill preserve or develop the athlete’svelocity capability. Therefore, if force-producing capabilities of the musclesincrease during this phase, the neteffect will be enhanced power throughincreasing the load lifted at the samevelocity. The athletes, however, shouldalso be instructed to increase themovement speed of exercises in com-parison with phase 3. Increasing rela-tive strength needs to be the continualaim during this phase, as it is quitelikely that the athlete’s resistance train-ing volume will be reduced given thetraining requirements of the sport dur-ing competition. This is assuming thatthis phase of training is implementedadjunct to in-season competition. Aswith all phases, exercise selectionshould complement the nature ofjump-landing actions and should bespecific to the athlete’s particular weak-nesses. However, if an athlete hasdeveloped the required level of relativestrength for their specific sport, posi-tion, and/or movement requirements,as ascertained by the strength and con-ditioning coach, it is suggested thatresistance training could progress tofast explosive movements, such asOlympic-style weightlifting deriva-tives. Weightlifting exercises, such aspower cleans and snatches, are aneffective means of developing power(31,49). The movement patterns usedin these types of exercises are similarto movement witnessed in jumping-landing patterns (3). In addition, the

skill and muscle coordinationrequired to execute these exercisesmay help to foster neuromuscularadaptations that are transferred tosports performance (50). Anothereffective set of exercises that can beused to develop muscular power forjump-landing proficiency are resistedjump squat variations (10). Jumpsquats involve the exact action ofjump landing in addition to providingsimilar neuromuscular benefits asweightlifting exercises (11).

Exercises and drills throughout thisphase should use unanticipated cut-ting actions and perturbed move-ments, as this helps to integrate safelevels of sport-specific landingtechnique. Adaptations from this spe-cific form of stimulus have beenshown to reduce injury prevalenceand improve performance duringmultidirectional sporting activities(23). Specifically for balance and sta-bility training, the ultimate aim duringphase 4 is to advance the athletes’ability to maintain steadiness andregain stability while resisting exter-nal forces. This type of balance train-ing has been termed “perturbeddynamic.” An example of this is get-ting an athlete to catch a medicineball while standing with one leg. Thisphase can also incorporate movingswings that use the same initial swingmovement process from phase 3;however, they are overloaded byjumping and landing diagonally, lat-erally, horizontally, or backward afterevery swing. The preceding swingscan also integrate jumping with ballin hand in addition to perturbed ordisrupted flight. This final progres-sion of exercises allows the body toattempt to stabilize in a sport-specificdynamic fashion.

Phase 4 plyometric training concen-trates on jumps that are “sport spe-cific.” Intramuscle and intermuscleactivation patterns are sensitive tospecific landing movements (45);therefore, it is important to stimulatethe musculature with jump-landingactivities related to actual performance.An example of this is a depth jump


exercise in which an athlete descendsfrom a height to the ground, thus over-loading the eccentric phase and per-forming a concentric action such asa maximum vertical jump immediatelyafter the landing. This is an effectivemodality of training as it allows thebody to simulate similar loading stim-ulus experienced during competition.

Once the appropriate jump-landing tech-nique (Figure 1) has been demonstrated

during multiple drop jump–landing tasks,the plyometric component can intro-duce unanticipated landing drills toenhance the pre-activation of muscles,thus increasing the ability to dynami-cally stabilize during unplanned land-ings. This is an important aspect todevelop as many competition sportingactions involve reactive unexpectedjump landings. These can be effectivelyadministrated using verbal and/or visual

directional prompt drills (Figure 11) orperturbing the athlete. Reducing thereaction time for the athlete to performthe directional demand will help toprogress this type of activity.

The final progression among the plyo-metric components is to introducegame-related drills and exercise situa-tions that demand multidirectional,unanticipated perturbed jump landings.Examples of these situations are repeti-tive rebound blocks in volleyball, 3-stepjump shot at goal in handball, and/orreceiving a pass that necessitates a jumpand reacting to the movement of theball as seen in netball (Figure 12).

During this final phase, the advance-ment to unpredictable game-simulated movements requires theintegration of all training compo-nents to be performed to a high stan-dard. It is therefore critical that eachphase of this proposed model is pro-gressed only after the appropriatelevel of strength, balance, and jump-landing proficiency is continuallydemonstrated to the satisfaction ofthe strength and conditioning coach.Decisions surrounding the advance-ment of an athlete through eachphase is at the discretion of the

Figure 11. Directional cue jumping exercises: left to right—(visual) after completinga ladder sequence, the athlete looks at the strength and conditioningcoach just before jumping either left or right depending on the direction ofthe coach’s hand; (verbal) with the athlete initially standing outside thelarge hurdles, the strength and conditioning coach says a color, the athletethen jumps inside with the correlating color between their feet with thebody facing the middle of the colored cross.

Figure 12. Reaction jump-landing drill: left to right—the athlete starts with a 1808 turn and then reacts and attempts to catcha thrown ball. The athlete can also be instructed to land on a certain foot.



strength and conditioning coach;however, it must be reiterated thatdemonstrating competent movementduring a particular phase is the criti-cal factor required for successfulprogression.

CONCLUSIONS

It is evident that an effective jump-landing program involves various com-ponents, which address the diversedemands of landing that is implicitduring competition. Identified strate-gies targeted toward perfecting landingtechnique, improving balance, andincreasing strength and plyometricability may accumulatively enhancejump-landing performance andreduce injury prevalence. Addition-ally, to optimize athlete compliance,program design should focus on per-formance and injury preventionsimultaneously. Most importantly,training regimes must systematicallyprogress task-specific intensity at anindividualized rate for optimal adap-tation, hence the development ofthis 4-phase program. Decisionssurrounding the most appropriatemethod to maximize training effi-ciency are dependent on the in-tended aim of the training phaseand the particular conditioningresponse the strength and condition-ing coach is envisioning. The pro-posed model provides a frameworkto assist strength and conditioningprofessionals in making sound deci-sions concerning individualizedjump-landing training. Within eachof these phases, there is still muchresearch to be performed in termsof improving practice. Futureresearch may want to direct theirattention to quantifying the GRFsassociated with various jump-landing tasks, which can be tabledinto a program that progressivelyoverloads the athlete. This would beinvaluable to the strength and condi-tioning coach in terms of exerciseprescription.

Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:The authors report no conflicts of interestand no source of funding.

Guy

Mothersole isa Masters grad-uate in sport andexercise sciencewith The Schoolof Sport andRecreation, AUTUniversity,Auckland, New

Zealand, and a strength and conditiningcoach for High Performance Sport NewZealand.

John B. Cronin

is a Professor inStrength andConditioning atAUT Universityand holds anAdjunct Profes-sorial Position atEdith CowanUniversity.

Nigel K. Harris

is a Senior Lec-turer in Sport andExercise Science atAUT Universityand a strengthand condition-ing coach.

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Jump-Landing Program for Females: Development of a ... · for Females: Development of a Systematic Progression ... focus surrounding the ankle and hip ... erect trunk position during