July 1, ………….VERMILOGICAL RESEARCH FOR …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/51371/7/07_chapter3.pdf · clippings and the leaves ... A laboratory study was undertaken

………….VERMILOGICAL RESEARCH FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT July 1,

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3.1 Wastes on vermicompost

A revolution is unfolding in vermiculture studies (rearing of useful

earthworms species) for multiple uses in sustainable waste management and

sustainable agriculture explained by (Bhawalkar, 1995; Fraser-Quick, 2002;

Martin, 1976; Satchell, 1983). The viability of using earthworms as a treatment

or management technique for numerous organic waste streams has been

investigated by a number of workers (Hand et al., 1988; Logsdon, 1994;

Madan, 1988; Singh and Sharma, 2002).

In nature, worms are known to feed mainly on dead leaves (Bahl, 1927;

Hess, 1925; Hesse, 1899; Langdon, 1900; Comfort, 1956; Cooper and Baculi,

1968; Cooper, 1968a; 1968b; 1969a; 1969b; Cooper et al., 1969; Cooper and

Rubilotta, 1969) and loam (Laverack, 1963). Darwin (1881) studied the role of

earthworms in the breakdown of dead plants, animal residues, soil and forest

litter. The ability of some species of earthworms to consume and break down a

wide range of organic residues such as sewage sludge, animal wastes, crop

residues and industrial refuse was studied by (Mitchell et al., 1980; Edwards et

al., 1985; Chan and Grifths, 1988; Hartenstein and Bisesi, 1989; Elvira et al.,

1996a, 1998). The ability of earthworms to recycle organic wastes into organic

manure by biological degradation process was studied by various authors

(Collier, 1978; Graff, 1981; Giraddi, 2000).

The disposal of organic wastes from domestic, agricultural and

industrial sources is increasingly causing environmental and economic

problems. Vermicomposting technology in processing sewage sludges and


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solids from wastewater studied by Neuhauser (Neuhauser et al., 1988a)

Dominguez (Dominguez et al., 2000), materials from breweries (Butt, 1993),

paper wastes (Butt, 1993; Elvira et al., 1996a), urban food and garden residues,

animal wastes (Edwards et al., 1985; Edwards 1988; Elvira et al., 1996b;

Dominguez and Edwards 1997), as well as horticultural residues from

processed potatoes, dead plants and the brewery and mushroom industries

(Edwards, 1988).

Considerable work has been carried out on vermicomposting of various

organic materials such as animal dung, agricultural waste, forestry wastes, city

leaf litter and food wastes (Hand et al., 1988; Logsdon, 1994; Madan et al.,

1988; Singh and Sharma, 2002). Similarly, industrial wastes such as guar gum

industrial waste, paper pulp and distillery wastes have been vermicomposted

and turned into nutrient rich manure by many authors (Sundaravadivel and

Ismail, 1995; Suthar, 2006a; Suthar, 2007a; Hand et al., 1988). A wide range of

the organic waste such as sewage sludge (Dominguez et al., 2000), crop residue

(Bansal and Kapoor, 2000), textile mill sludge (Kaushik and Garg, 2003),

agriculture, urban and industrial waste (Garg et al., 2005; Suthar, 2006a),

vegetable waste (Singh et al., 2005), water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes

(Gajalakshmi et al., 2001b), kitchen waste (Nair et al., 2006) and guar gum

waste (Suthar, 2006b) have been studied the suitablity for vermicomposting. An

experiment was conducted on preparation of vermicompost with different farm

wastes and weeds by (Babu et al., 2008).

Experiments were conducted on vermicomposting using animal dung

such as cow dung (Kale et al., 1982; Reinecke et al., 1992; Edwards et al.,

1998), sheep dung (Kale et al., 1982), poultry manure (Kale et al., 1982), pig

solids (Edwards et al., 1998), horse solid (Edwards et al., 1998) and turkey

waste (Edwards et al., 1998), goat and cow dung (Loh et al., 2003) as

substrates converted from waste into vermicast. Various organic wastes tested


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in past as feed material for different species of earthworms include sewage

sludges (Benitez et al., 1999; Delgado et al., 1995; Diaz-Burgos et al., 1992),

paper mill industry sludge (Butt, 1993), pig waste (Chan and Griffiths, 1988;

Reeh, 1992), Organic debris (Fragoso et al., 1993) water hyacinth (Gajalakshmi

et al., 2001b), paper waste (Gajalakshmi et al., 2002c), brewery yeast (Butt,

1993), crop residues (Bansal and Kapoor, 2000), cow slurry (Hand et al.,

1988k), cattle manure (Mitchell, 1997), vine fruit industry sludge

(Atharasopoulous, 1993), rice stubbles, mango leaves (Talashilkar et al., 1999)

and activated sludge (Hartenstein and Hartenstein, 1981), textile mill sludge

(Kaushik and Garg, 2003) etc.

Experiments were conducted on vermicomposting of food waste, grass

clippings and the leaves from garden wastes by Morgan and Burrows, (1982).

Gajalakshmi et al., (2001a; 2001b; 2002a; 2002b) and Gupta (Gupta et al.,

2007) were studied vermicomposting using water hyacinth. Green waste such

as yard debris (Edwards, 1995; Frederickson et al., 1997), vegetable scraps

(Shanthi et al., 1993), domestic food waste (Haimi, 1990; Haimi and Huhta,

1988), commercial food waste (Edwards, 1995; Kater, 1998), bakery waste

(Greenscene, no date), commercial kitchen scraps and kitchen waste (Scott,

1998) were also processed by vermicomposting.

Babu (Babu et al., 2008) was conducted an experiment on preparation

of vermicompost with different farm wastes and weeds such as Papaya leaf

litter, Glyricidia loppings, Celosia, Parthenium, Redgram stalks and farmyard

manure.

In India wastes such as crop residues, cattle dung and urine, poultry

waste, sawdust, household refuse and night soil are abundant. Use of these

residues for vermicomposting and mushroom cultivation was studied by Madan

(Madan et al., 1988).


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While many studies have been reported in the literature on the use of

vermicomposting for processing of different organic wastes, few studies

reported its use in the processing of source-separated human faeces.

Researches into vermiculture have revealed that worms can feed upon

wide variety of organic wastes and provides sustainable solution for total waste

management (Fraser-Quick, 2002; Kale, 1998). The farm wastes, animal

wastes, garden wastes from homes and parks, the sewage sludge from the

municipal wastewater and water treatment plants, the wastewater sludge from

paper pulp and cardboard industry, brewery and distillery, sericulture industry,

vegetable oil factory, potato and corn chips manufacturing industry, sugarcane

industry, guar gum industry, aromatic oil extraction industry, logging and

carpentry industry were tested as feed material for vermicomposting by

earthworms in many experimental study (Datar et al., 1997; Edwards and

Fletcher, 1988; Edwards, 1988; Edwards, 1998; Frederickson et al., 1997; Gaur

and Singh, 1995; Graff, 1981; Gunathilagraj and Ravignanam, 1996; Kale et

al., 1993; Kale and Sunitha, 1995; Kaviraj, 2003; Lakshmi and Vizaylakshmi,

2000; Loehr et al., 1984; Lotzof, 2000; Seenappa and Kale, 1993; Seenappa et

al., 1995; Senapati, 1992; Sinha et al., 2009; Sudha and Kapoor, 2000; UNSW

ROU, 2002; Sinha and Gokul, 2007; Sinha et al., 2009; Sinha et al., 2009).

Even the fly ash (rich in nitrogen) from the coal power plants once

considered as a biohazard study to compost by earthworms and converted into

organic fertilizers by Saxena (Saxena et al., 1998). Study of pig solid treatment

by vermicomposting (Edwards et al., 1985; Chan and Griffiths, 1988; Wong

and Griffiths, 1991) and cattle solids (Hand et al., 1988; Edwards, 1998) also

studied. Viljoen and Reinecke (1989a) studied that vermicompost produced

from banana wastes and cattle manure in the ratio of 8:1. Worms at are grown

in a mixture of flying heart farm and restaurant residuals are composted with

wood chips, manure, and yard trimmings were studied by Farrell (1997).


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Vermicompost from biological sludges and sewage effluent were

studied as in an ecological strategy for the conservation of arable soils. A soil

sampled in the south of Italy and sown with oats was used in experiments. At

the end of the experiments (one month) a phyto-test (with Lepidium sativum)

was carried out on the treated soils by Masciandaro (Masciandaro et al., 1997).

The composting of household waste by a traditional Indian composting

procedure was compared to vermicomposting in order to select a more efficient

method of composting by Gandhi (Gandhi et al., 1997). A survey of 126 users

of household kitchen waste vermicomposting systems ware studied by

Applehof (1988). Werner (1997) taking a project at the Betty Van Dyke ranch

funded by the California Integrated Waste Management Board to study various

uses of municipal organics in commercial agriculture using vermitechnology.

A laboratory study was undertaken to examine the feasibility of using

vermicomposting to stabilize the waste product - dry olive cake, for use as a

soil amendment. Dry olive cake is obtained from a new two stage centrifugation

process used to extract olive oil from olives. Cattle manure was examined as a

comparison and as a co-composting agent. Different ratios of cake to co-

composting agent were examined by Nogales (Nogales et al., 1998).

Several varieties of earthworms have been recommended to be used in

vermicomposting by various workers, such as, deep burrowing and surface

dwellers (Albanell et al., 1988, Bansal and Kapoor, 2000, Chan and Griffiths,

1988; Ismail, 1997; Kale et al., 1982; Zajonc and Sidor, 1990) and it has been

established that the epigeic forms (surface dwellers) of earthworms are the most

suitable form for vermicomposting. The concept of vermicomposting started

from the knowledge that certain species of earthworms grow and consume a

wide range of organic residues very rapidly, converting them into

vermicompost, a humus like, soil building substance in short time.


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Certain epigeic earthworm species such as Eisenia foetida, Perionyx

excavatus and Eudrilus eugeniae are voracious feeders of organic wastes

(Senapathi, 1994; Kale and Bano, 1985). From this statement, particular species

of earthworms have been used to the process of coirpith and paddy waste

decomposition and end-product. To make out what is the effect of the

earthworm Eisenia foetida (Sav.) on decomposting organic residues was

studied and miscellaneous wastes and sewage sludge added with pine bark were

used to study by Haimi and Huhta (1988). Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg), was

used to prepare coirpith based vermicompost (Vijaya et al., 2008). Gupta et al.,

2007 investigated the potential of water hyacinth spiked with cow dung into

vermicompost. Five vermi-reactors containing water hyacinth and cow dung in

different ratios, were run under laboratory conditions for 147 days. In year

2008, a study was conducted by Tajbakhsh and his coworkers to assess the

potential of earthworms, Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei in composting

different types of organic substances such as stump and different agro-wastes.

Epigeic earthworms such as Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei, Perionyx

excavatus and Eudrilus eugeniae have been used to convert organic waste into

vermicast or the worm faeces that can be used as organic fertilizer and soil

conditioner was studied by various authors (Dominguez et al., 2000; Bansal

and Kapoor, 2000; Loh et al., 2003; Suthar, 2006b; Nair et al., 2006; Garg et

al., 2006a).

Yadav et al., (2010) study the suitability of vermicomposting technology

for processing source-separated human faeces and processed vermicompost by

Eisenia foetida. Gajalakshmi with his coworkers in 2002 (Gajalakshmi et al.,

2002b) conducted six month long trials on different vermireactors fed with one

of the Fresh whole plants, Dried whole plants, Chopped pieces of fresh plants,

Spent weed taken from reactors after extracting volatile fatty acids,


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Precomposted fresh weed, Precomposted spent weed forms of water hyacinth

by the earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae.

Earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida, Perionyx

sansibaricus, Pontoscolex corethrurus and Megascolex chinensis were

compared for their efficiencies in biodegrading organic wastes such as cow-pea,

banana, and cassava (Prabha et al., 2007). The peels of bitter cassava (Manihot

utilissima) root, was vermicomposted by earthworm, Eudrilus eugeniae (Eug)

and transform the cassava peels into vermicompost. Vermicomposting and field

investigations set up to assess the impact of three agricultural wastes: poultry

dropping, cowdung and guava (Psidium guajava) leaves on Eudrilus eugeniae

ability to vermicompost cassava peel treated by Mba (Mba, 1996).

Zajonc and Sidor (1990) evaluated and compared various non-standard

materials such as cotton waste with cattle manure grape cake etc, for the

preparation of vermicompost. A multiplication trial was conducted at the

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),

Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh with three kinds of earthworm cultures (Eisenia

foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus) using wheat straw,

chickpea straw, tree leaves (Peltophorum sp.) and Parthenium sp. mixed with

cow dung as feed materials (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Eisenia foetida were used to vermicompost woodchip and sewage

sludge that are produced as waste product by platinum mines (Maboeta and

Rensburg, 2003). Gupta (Gupta et al., 2005) evaluate the leachate of municipl

solid waste and the leachate of postvermicomposted sludge and earthworm E.

foetida was used for vermicomposting. Gajalakshmi (Gajalakshmi et al., 2000)

assessed the two epigeic species (Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus)

and two anecic species (Lampito mauritii and Drawida willsi) of earthworms in

terms of efficiency and sustainability of vermicomposting of water hyacinth

and cow dung.


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Kurien and Ramasamy (2006) assessed the bioconversion potential of

two epigeic species (E. foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae) of earthworms was

assessed in terms of efficiency and sustainability of vermicomposting of Taro

(Colocasia esculenta) and 60 g of 6:1 Colocasia: cowdung were given as feed

to worms.

Epigeics like Eisenia foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae have been used in

converting organic wastes studied as agro waste and domestic refuse into

vermicompost by Asha Aalok (Asha et al., 2008).

Jais and Hassan (2008) was studied the ability of the earthworm Eisenia

foetida to convert four different types of organic wastes such as shredded

banana trunk, cafeteria waste, shredded newspaper and cow dung into

vermicast in the natural Malaysian environmental conditions. A new

vermicomposting technology which respecting ecological and economical

aspects was studied by Gajalakshmi using of water hyacinth (Gajalakshmi et

al., 2001a; 2001b; 2002a; 2002b; Gupta et al., 2007). Bharti (2010) studied the

impact of various combinations of Parthenium hyterophorus and cow dung as

well as long grass on the earthworm Eisenia foetida during vermicomposting.

Kale (Kale et al., 1982) studied the potential of Perionyx excavatus to

vermicompost different wastes such as sheep dung, horse waste cow dung,

biogas sludge and poultry manure and sand as control.

Decomposition of various organic substrates such as kitchen waste,

agro-residues, institutional and industrial wastes including textile industry

sludge and fibers into valuable vermicompost has been extensively studied

using an exotic earthworm species (epigeic-Eisenia foetida) were studied by

Ndegwa (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2001) Garg (Garg et al., 2006a) and Nair

(Nair et al.,2006).


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The cow dung has been employed as a medium substrate (Kavian and

Ghatnekar, 1996; Barely, 1961; Arora and Sharma, 2002, Sevenson, 1957;

Ismail and Sasiravanan, 1993) to initial and acclimatize earthworms first to

local conditions and then initiate vermicomposting of some industrial

substrates. 8 experiments were carried out with plerotus harvested on spot

straw and spent straw and spent straw with cow dung with Eudrilus eugeniae.

Cow dung (Shweta and Mamata, 2001), kitchen waste (Allevi et al., 1987), leaf

litter (Bhattacharya et al., 2002), were used individually and / or in

combination utilizing two different types of earthworms, E. foetida and

Lampito maurutii and E. eugeniae was mass cultured on different feed

formulation (mixing cow, sheep and horse dung with other organic wastes (rice

polish, wheat bran, green gram bran, vegetable waste and egg shell powder) in

various combinations). Vermicomposting is an innovative technology for the

treatment of waste water sludge in Mexico, where experience exists in the

treatment of organic garbage and coffee residues (Munnoli and Saroj bhosle,

2009).

Numerous studies have shown the ability of certain earthworm species

such as Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei and Lumbricus rubellus to process a

wide variety of organic matter such as animal excreta, sewage sludge, crop

residual and agricultural wastes (Benitez et al., 1999; Monroy et al., 2006;

Khwairakpam and Bhargava, 2009; Eastman et al., 2001). Kretschmar

(Kretschmar, 1998) worked with E. foetida in human faeces. Suthar (2006a)

has attempted vermicomposting with partially degraded faecal matter by using

two different earthworm species E. foetida and Dendrobena veneta at different

temperatures.

Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei and E. eugenius species were studied as

the earthworm adapted to water hyacinth decomposition (Gajalakshmi et al.,


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2001b). They present the Perionyx excavatus capacity to degrade different

proportion of water hyacinth with pig manure.

Whiston and Seal (1988), investigated the influence of earthworms in

the formation of soils and the conversion of farm manures into soil conditioners

have led to the establishment of a commercial vermiculture industry in the UK,

based upon the activity of Eisenia foetida. E. eugeniae was cultured in plastic

pots containing ground Paspalum digitatum (P. dilatatum) grass (Dallis grass).

This medium was toxic to the worms, if not fermented. Fermented and aerated

grass was palatable. The worms fed and grew on the fermented-aerated grass

and voided black colloidal casts (vermicompost), similar to the casts normally

voided on cassava peel diet (Mba, 1983).

An outdoor study was undertaken using polyethylene containers to

assess the suitability of different organic residues, soybean straw (Glycine max

L. Merril.), wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.), maize stover (Zea mays L.),

chickpea straw (Cicer arietinum L.) and city garbage as food for the tropical

epigeic earthworm Perionyx excavatus and to assess the influence of this

earthworm on the decomposition of these materials. (Jefferies and Audsley,

1988; Lee, 1985; Manna (Manna et al., 1997), studies conducted on the

vermicomposting of organic household waste including garden residues and

contents of a composting toilet using crushed bark with earthworm species E.

foetida by Huhta and Haimi (1988).

A laboratory study was conducted to examine the feasibility of

vermicomposting dairy biosolids (dairy sludge), either alone or with either of

the bulking agents - cereal straw or wood shavings, using the epigeic

earthworm Eisenia andrei. Earthworms added directly to these three substrates

died within 48 hours. A system was developed to overcome the toxic effect of

unprocessed dairy biosolids by Nogales (Nogales et al., 1999).


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The vermicomposting of pulp mill sludge mixed with sewage sludge,

pig slurry and poultry slurry at different ratios was studied by Eisenia andrei

(Elvira et al., 1997). The potential for using paper-mill sludge enhanced with

spent yeast from the brewing industry as feedstock for soil-dwelling

earthworms was investigated by Butt (1993).

Vermicomposting of vegetable waste was examined in order to identify

suitable worm species and efficient levels of temperature and moisture.

Laboratory experiments were conducted under controlled conditions using

commonly available species: Pheretima sp., Eisenia sp. and P. excavatus

(Shanthi et al., 1993). Trials were made to treat biosolids and green waste

(chipped yard waste) by Scarborough (1999). The efficiency of recycling cattle

dung and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) by culture of the earthworm

Megascolex sp. was studied by Balasubramanian and Kasturi (1995).

Anaerobically stabilized effluents of dried vine fruit industry were

treated by earthworm species L. rubellus (Athanasopoulos, 1993; Applehof,

1981). The various groups, during and after the process carried out on rabbit

manure, on full-scale, in a small earthworm farm, comparing it with

spontaneous maturation process of the same material (Allievi et al., 1987). To

study identify the use of the "Vermiculture Ecotechnology" method for the

treatment of household and industrial sewage in different sized system (Wong

and Griffiths, 1991).

An investigation was made for the biomanagement of lantana (Lantana

camara L.) and congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) through

vermicomposting using earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae. The mixture of

cowdung and raw material of both the weeds was used in the ratio of 1:1. The

vermicompost was ready for use within two months. The nutrient composition

of vermicompost prepared from lantana and congress grass was higher than that

of its substrates as well as FYM. Further, the effects of vermicompost prepared


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from different sources were evaluated on soil fertility and yield of wheat (PbW

343) by Vivek (Vivek et al., 2008).

The experiments were conducted to obtain compost from some toxic

weeds by using vermicomposting and conventional methods. The weeds used

in the experiment were congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.), water

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and bhang (Cannabis sativa Linn.). Total six

sets of experiments were setup by using above materials. In the experiment

Eisenia foetida were used to treat the process (Chauhan and Joshi, 2010).

Sewage sludges and solids from wastewater (Neuhauser et al., 1988a;

Dominguez et al., 2000), materials from breweries (Butt, 1993), paper wastes

(Butt, 1993; Elvira et al., 1996a), sewage sludge., cattle manure (Sabine, 1978;

Lotzof, 1998) urban food and garden residues, animal wastes (Edwards et al.,

1985; Edwards, 1988; Elvira et al., 1996b; Dominguez and Edwards, 1997) as

well as horticultural residues from processed potatoes, dead plants and the

brewery and mushroom industries (Edwards, 1988) was treated by

vermicomposting. Most of this research has utilized the earthworm species

Eisenia foetida (Savigny, 1862) and Eisenia andrei (Bouche 1972) (Schulz and

Graff, 1977; Sabine, 1978; Hartenstein, 1981; Edwards and Niederer, 1988;

Edwards, 1988).

Vermicomposting is defined as a low cost technology system for

processing or treatment of organic waste (Hand et al., 1988). For the better

vermitechnology and production of earthworm, the best vermireactors were

also studied by various authors. Epigeic forms of earth worms can hasten the

composting process to a significant extent (Senapathi, 1988; Kale et al., 1992;

Tomati et al., 1983b) with production of better quality of composts and quality

worms, compared with those prepared through traditional methods (Tripathi

and Bhardwaj, 2004). Corn meal and bread crumbs have been studied possible

foods (Hess, 1937). Cooper (Cooper et al., 1969)) used spent coffee grounds to


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aid in culturing Allolobophora sp. Le Ray and Ford (1937) recommended

Pablum as a satisfactory food for invertebrates, including earthworms. In an

experiments, Purina Lab Rabbit Chow, which has essentially the same

ingredients as Pablum and contains a high proportion of alfalfa leaf, was used.

A mixture of walnut meal, peanut oil and Buss Bedding was used by Cooper et

al., 1970).

3.2 Biology of earthworms in vermiculture

Most of the research on utilization of earthworms in waste management

has focused on the final products, i.e. the vermicompost and worms. The

earthworm species most commonly utilized for the breakdown of organic

wastes are Eisenia foetida and its related species Eisenia andrei. Their

biological requirements have been studied extensively (Hartenstein Bisesi,

1989; Kaplan et al., 1980; Reinecke and Venter, 1987; Venter and Reinecke,

1988; Reinecke and Viljoen, 1990; Gestel et al., 1992).

There are many studies on the earthworm resources of India including of

its north-eastern states (Kale and Bano, 1986). However, information is scanty

regarding the biology and ecology of earthworm species from tropical regions

(Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri, 2002).

Knowledge of the reproductive strategies of earthworms comes

predominantly from studies on temperate species (Evans and Guild, 1948;

Satchell, 1967; Lavelle, 1971; Reynolds, 1973; Phillipson and Bolton, 1977).

Dominguez (Dominguez et al., 2000) investigated the growth, reproduction and

population dynamics of E. eugeniae in cattle waste. The influence of

temperature and population density on its growth, reproduction, life cycle and

studied its potential for development as a replacement for E. foetida or E.

andrei in organic waste disposal or vermicomposting by Aira (Aira et al.,

2006). It has been observed for some vermicomposting earthworms species that


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different food diets can affect their growth, reproduction or both also (Tiunov

and Scheu, 2004).

Their biology and main environmental requirements have been studied

extensively by various authors (Venter and Reinecke, 1988; Haimi, 1990;

Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

The biology of composting earthworms had been investigated in terms

of their certain fundamental requirements, for instance the temperature (Kaplan

et al., 1980; Lowe and Butt, 2002; Reinecke and Kriel, 1981), pH (Kaplan et

al., 1980), density or stocking rate (Rhee, 1992), substrate (Doube and Brown

1998) and moisture content of the substrate (Hallatt et al., 1992). The effect of

bedding substrate on biological parameters such as biomass production, cocoon

numbers, hatchling success in popular composting earthworms is still

unanswered. Lowe and Butt (Lowe and Butt, 2002) studied the development of

earthworm culture techniques for temperate, soil dwelling (anecic and

endogeic) species: Allolobophora chlorotica, Aporrectodea caliginosa,

Aporrectodea longa and Lumbricus terrestris.

The effect of cow, buffalo, horse, donkey, sheep, goat and camel animal

wastes on growth and reproduction of an epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida

was studied by Garg (Garg et al., 2005). The effect of various animal agro and

kitchen wastes on the growth and development of an epigeic earthworm Eisenia

foetida was studied under identical laboratory condition by Nath (Nath et al.,

2009a).

Several different culture media containing pulverized newspaper,

pelletted rabbit food, walnut meal, peanut oil, topsoil and coffee grounds were

tested for their effect on weight and viability of earthworms (Lumbricus

terrestris) by Cooper (Cooper et al., 1970). The feasibility of vermicomposting

water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Mart.) mixed with pig manure in different


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proportions was tested using tropical composting earthworm Perionyx

excavatus and studied the worm production and biomass production of

Perionyx excavatus by Zirbes (Zirbes et al., 2011).

Loh (Loh et al., 2003) observed the growth such as biomass and gain,

reproduction as cocoon production of Eisenia foetida in cattle waste and goat

waste. The growth, fecundity and mortality of E. foetida was studied by Gunadi

and Edwards (Gunadi, and Edwards, 2003) in a range of different wastes such as

cattle manure solids, pig manure solids and super market waste for more than

one year and assess the moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, C/N ratio,

NH4 and NO3 contents of the different cattle solids, different pig solids, fruit

wastes, and vegetable wastes. Vermicomposting of neem (Azadirachta indica)

was studied by Gajalakshmi and Abbasi (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2004) in

high-rate reactors operated at the earthworm E. eugeniae and authors also

studied growth and reproduction of earthworm on the neem-fed vermireactors

and mango leaf litter.

Another study was also conducted by the same other to describe cocoon

morphology and analyse cocoon development, hatching success, dynamics of

cocoon production and fecundity in seven species of Indian earthworms viz.

Perionyx excavatus Perrier, Lampito mauritii (Kinberg), Polypheretima

elongata (Perrier), Pontoscolex corethrurus (Muller), Eutyphoeus gammiei

(Beddard), Dichogaster modiglianii (Rosa) and Drawida nepalensis

(Michaelsen). Such information could then be used to fit these earthworms into

broad categories of reproductive strategies and allow selection of appropriate

species for vermiculture (Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri, 2002)

Very little is known about their nutrition for mass rearing. However,

among the different variables necessary for raising earthworms, it seems that

the type of feeding material or substrate is focused for vermicomposting and

vermiculture. Edwards (Edwards, 1998) studied the type, quality and quantity


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of the organic wastes on determining the rates of growth of a concerning

nutritional factors. He studied the impact of different earthworm species by

nutritional status for a specific earthworm species (Suthar, 2006b) and a

specific feed mixture (Suthar, 2006b). Recently Singh (Singh et al., 2005)

studied the effect of initial substrate on vermicomposting potential of P.

excavatus (Suthar, 2006a). However, earthworm biomass and cocoon

production rate were studied by Hendrickson (Hendrickson, 1990).

Cegarra (Cegarra et al., 1994) studied the reproduction of E. foetida

species, from compost elaborated with tannery residues (hair, tannery and

backyard waste compost). The growth and reproduction of Eudrilus eugeniae

(Kinberg) in cattle waste solids was studied by (Cooper et al., 1969).

Researchers have utilized the earthworm species Eisenia foetida (Savigny,

1862) and Eisenia andrei Bouche 1972 and the potential of both species as a

source of protein, to be used for animal feed (Sabine, 1978).

The quality and amount of food material influences on population, rate

of growth and cocoon production studied by Garg and Kaushik (Garg and

Kaushik, 2005), Lowe and Butt (Lowe and Butt, 2002) and Suthar (Suthar,

2006b). Evaluation of the influence of feed stocks on life cycle of tropical

earthworms studied by Suthar (Suthar, 2007b).

Dash and Senapati (1980) studied the morphology of cocoons of three

tropical earthworms, Lampito mauritii, Drawida willsi and Octochaetona

surensis and the effect of soil moisture and temperature on the cocoon hatching

process and the emergence pattern of juveniles in the field. Most studies on the

life cycles of tropical earthworms concern the composting species Perionyx

excavatus (Hallatt et al., 1990, 1992). In Perionyx excavatus, Hallatt (Hallatt et

al., 1990) studied the growth rate, rate of maturation, cocoon production, the

hatching success of cocoons, the incubation period and the number of offspring

per cocoon under controlled laboratory conditions at different moisture and


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temperature regions. Nevertheless, for commercial based vermicomposting

practices much of the researches have been focused on Eisenia foetida

(Edwards, 1988; Hartenstein, 1983; Kaushik and Garg, 2003; Loh et al., 2003);

Lumbricus rubellus (Cluzeau and Fayolle, 1989) and Dendrobaena veneta

(Fayolle et al., 1997; Loehr et al., 1985; Lofs-Holmines, 1986).

The growth patterns of the epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida (Savigny)

in different types of organic wastes have been investigated by various authors

in laboratory studies (Edwards, 1998; Garg and Kaushik, 2005; Kaushik and

Garg, 2003; Kaplan et al., 1980). Animal manures have been used as a main

substrate for E. foetida for cattle (Edwards et al., 1985; Reinecke and Viljoen,

1990) ducks (Edwards et al., 1985), horses (Kaplan et al., 1980), pigs (Reeh,

1992), poultry (Edwards et al., 1985), rabbits and sheep (Edwards et al., 1985).

Urban wastes are very diverse, ranging from sewage bio-solids to food wastes

from restaurants and supermarkets.

There are few studies are available concerning the growth of E. foetida

in urban wastes. E. foetida has been used in substrates such as plant wastes

such as composted grasses, municipal pruning and river weeds (Frederickson et

al., 1997), maple pruning wastes (Akpa and Loquet, 1997), potato wastes,

vegetable wastes, coffee grounds and tea leaf wastes (Shanthi et al., 1993).

Studies concern the growth and fecundity but not the mortality of E.

foetida. The potential of some epigeic earthworm to recycle organic waste

materials into value-added products is studied by various authors (Kale et al.,

1982; Elvira et al., 1998; Garg and Kaushik, 2005).

Potential of some epigeic earthworms: Lumbricus terrestris, Eisenia

foetida, E. andrei, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus have been to

combat the problems of organic waste disposal on a low-input basis (Kale et

al., 1982; Butt, 1993; Dominguez et al., 2001; Garg and Kaushik, 2005).


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Recently, Suthar (2007a) observed the potential of a new species such as P.

sansibaricus for waste decomposition operations.

Growth, reproduction, life cycle and environmental requirements of

earthworms were studied by Neuhauser (Neuhauser et al., 1988b) using sludge

and horse manure; Loehr (Loehr et al., 1985) using a mixture of animal and

vegetable waste materials, Bano and Kale (1988) and Viljoen and Reinecke

(1992) using cowdung; Elvira (Elvira et al., 1998) using sludges from paper

and pulp industries and agricultural organic waste and Loh (Loh et al., 2003)

using cattle and goat manures. Further, the trends of reproduction, the

characteristics of cocoons, incubation period, hatching success and fecundity

were studied in E.eugeniae and in Indian earthworms Perionyx excavatus,

Lampito mauritii, Polypheretima elongata, Pontoscolex corethrurus,

Eutyphoeus gammiei, Dichogaster modiglianii and Drawida nepalensis

(Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri, 2002). Furthermore, relative population growth

in time and space (Kale and Bano, 1986); moisture requirement and

reproduction (Hallatt et al., 1992; Dominguez and Edwards, 1997); temperature

relations and their effect on survival growth, maturation and cocoon production

(Viljoen and Reinecke, 1992) were also studied.

However, the waste decomposition efficiency of P. excavatus was

studied and described in literature (Kale et al., 1982; Edwards et al., 1998;

Suthar, 2006a; Suthar, 2007a). The comparison of the composting efficiency

can be performed by using a common substrate for Earthworm species. In most

of the previous studies on P. excavatus, cattle dung and plant-derived wastes

were used as substrate material in vermicomposting experiments (Kale et al.,

1982; Edwards et al., 1998; Manna et al., 2003; Suthar, 2006a; Suthar, 2007b).

Though earthworm biology reared on various organic wastes has been studied

(Edwards and Bohlen, 1996; Elvira et al., 1998; Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri,


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2002), till-to-date earthworm biology on their natural habitat has been poorly

understood (Parthasarathi, 2007).

Lampito mauritii Tolerance to temperature, soil moisture and various

other physical factors (Kale et al., 1982) with wide choice of habitats and food

preferences has studied by Kale (Kale et al., 1992). The growth patterns of E.

foetida in number of different organic waste resources have been investigated

by various authors in laboratory culture (Edwards, 1998; Garg and Kaushik,

2005; Kaushik and Garg, 2003; Kaplan et al., 1980; Suthar, 2007a). The life

cycle parameters of above tropical species has been investigated in respect to

their environmental requirement like temperature (Viljoen and Reinecke, 1992),

moisture (Hallatt et al., 1992), fecundity and density pressure (Kale and Bano,

1986), pH (Singh et al., 2005) but influence of culture material or substrate

quality on their life cycle parameters is less considered.

Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) and Perionyx excavatus (Perrier) are the

commonly used earthworms for vermicomposting in tropical and sub-tropical

countries (Kale et al., 1982; Reinecke et al., 1992; Giraddi et al., 2002).

Researchers have been conducted on the biology of vermicomposting

earthworms such as E. eugeniae, Eisenia foetida (Savigny) and P. excavatus

(Bano and Kale, 1988; Venter and Reinecke, 1988; Hallatt et al., 1990; Manna

et al., 1997). Duration to sexual maturity, from cocoons to hatch and egg

maturation time and other reproduction and growth parameters were observed

by vermicomposting earthworms’ species by Edwards (Venter and Reinecke,

1988).

Studies on all five common species of composting worms have observed

that the population density, size and maturation per worm; reproduction per

worm and consumption per worm (Reeh, 1992; Dominguez and Edwards,

1997; Frederickson et al., 1997). Dominguez and Edwards (1997) however,

observed that high stocking rates influence and conversion rates (Haimi and


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Huhta, 1986). Hatchlings and juveniles biomass and processing waste by body

weight were studied (Jefferies and Audsley, 1988; Mba, 1989; Viljoen and

Reinecke, 1989b; Reeh, 1992; Elvira et al., 1996b; Edwards et al., 1998).

Haimi (1990) and Dominguez (Dominguez et al., 1997b) observed that the

individual body weight and reproduction of the species E. andrei.

Effect of cocoon production and the viability of worms (Edwards and

Bater, 1992; Edwards et al., 1998), feedstock type (Mba, 1989), availability

(Reinecke and Viljoen, 1990) also studied. Their prolific reproductive capacity

has also been studied (Guererro, 1981). Belewu and Banjo (1999) and Sowande

(Sowande et al., 2002) have studied on various treatments used in converting

sawdust into usable products and its nutritive value. This waste forms the major

constituents of the cellulose substrate used for earthworm culture in this study.

The life-cycle of Dendrobaena veneta was studied to assess the potential

of this species in vermiculture. The development, growth and reproduction

were investigated by rearing worms at 25°C on urine free cattle manure with a

moisture content of 80% over a period of 200 days (Viljoen et al., 1991).

Juvenile specimens of the epigeic earthworm species, Eudrilus eugeniae were

subjected to a range of different constant temperatures in a temperature gradient

trough over a period of 80 days. Other environmental factors and food

availability were maintained at a constant, optimal level. Survival, growth rate,

maturation and cocoon production were monitored regularly (Viljoen and

Reinecke, 1992). Cassia seracea and P. hysterophorus were used to study

growth and reproduction of earthworm and compare it with cattle manure study

(Slocum, 1999).

The life history of earthworm species was studied for the potential of the

earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae as waste processor and protein producer. The

development, growth and reproduction of E. eugeniae were also observed.

Cattle dung was used as substrate with a moisture content of 70-80% and a


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temperature of 25°C. Data were gathered over a period of 300 days. Sheppard

(1988), Slocum (1999), Venter and Reinecke (1988), Reinecke and Viljoen

(1990) studied the role of feeding status on the growth and reproduction of

Eisenia foetida, pre-clitellate specimens were kept for 180 days under

controlled conditions. A control group was regularly provided with freshly

produced cattle manure while the experimental groups were fed only

sporadically and at some stage even starved by removing some of the substrate.

Worm growth, maturation and cocoon production were monitored.

The lifecycle and reproduction of the vermicomposting worm Perionyx

excavatus was studied in cattle manure under controlled moisture and

temperature conditions (76-83% and 25°C resp.) (Reinecke and Viljoen, 1990;

Fayolle et al., 1997). Growth and reproduction of the earthworms Eisenia

andrei and E. foetida were studied under identical circumstances by Haimi,

(1990). The biology of the oriental vermicomposting species, Perionyx

excavatus is poorly understood. Quantitative observations were made at 25°C

in urine-free cattle manure in order to study the growth of this species by

Reinecke and Hallat (1989) and Reeh (1992). The rate of maturation and

cocoon production were studied under conditions of favorable moisture and

nutrition over a period of 250 days.

The life cycle of Perionyx excavatus has been studied and the potential

of this epigeic earthworm species for breaking down and processing organic

wastes is well studied. Understanding of its optimal environmental

requirements is required in order to optimize and accelerate the

vermicomposting process. The rates of growth and reproduction of P.

excavatus, on a variety of organic wastes were evaluated in these experiments.

The time of maturation and the rates of growth of these species under various

populations studied earthworm fecundity in cattle dung and sugarcane bagasse


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mixed in different ratios (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996; Edwards and Lofty,

1977).

The effect of some vegetable bulking agents (straw, pine needles, pine

bark, oak leaves and fern fronds) in mixtures with pig slurry (1:1 dry weight) of

the growth and reproduction of Eisenia andrei, Bouche 1972 in cultures with

either 1 or 8 individuals are prepared. Unlike individual cultures, with no food

limitation and no competition, the cultures with 8 individuals represent a more

real situation, with food competition and mating processes. The maximum

growth and reproduction rates were studied, both in the individual and in the

group cultures, in the mixtures with straw and pine needles (Dominguez and

Edwards, 1997). The effect of yeasts on growth and cocoon production of the

compost earthworm, Eisenia foetida (Savigny) was studied by various authors

(Baker and Barrett, 1994; Baker and Kilpin, 1992; Buckerfield, 1994).

At the Soil Ecology Laboratory of Ohio State University, an experiment

studied a continuous vermicomposting process for different mixtures of pig

manure slurries and agro forestry by-products. The research project analyzed

the effects of earthworm populations on the process and also evaluated the

vermicompost produced at different times (Dominguez et al., 1997a).

Neuhauser (Neuhauser et al,, 1988a) studied to identify the fundamental factors

that affect the performance of the vermistabilisation process and determine

design and management relationships for earthworms in managing the

treatment of sewage sludge. This study utilized five composting worm species:

Eisenia foetida; Dendrobaena veneta; Eudrilus eugeniae; Perionyx excavatus;

Perionyx hawayana. The reproduction and biomass are studied to find

suitability for sludge management through E. foetida (Neuhauser et al., 1988b).

Earthworm growth and reproduction in feedlot cattle manure has been

studied by Mitchell (1997). He also studied the process yielded two products:

residual vermicompost and in earthworm biomass. Earthworm growth and


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reproduction in sewage sludge and cattle manure was studied by Sabine (1978)

and Lotzof (1998). The suitability of cow slurry as a substrate for

vermicomposting by Eisenia foetida was investigated. Particular attention was

given to the effects of the earthworm’s growth and reproduction on the

decomposition and stabilization of the slurry and to the interactions between E.

foetida and the micro flora of the substrate by Hand (Hand et al., 1988). The

potential of different kinds and combinations of wastes were studied on the

biomass of Eisenia foetida capable of processing a given amount of waste in a

period of one month was tested. Mixed miscellaneous wastes and activated

sewage sludge mixed with or embedded in sieved pine bark was capable of

maintaining the required biomass for a long period by (Haimi and Huhta,

1986).

Freshly, shredded green waste (yard waste) was composted for 16

weeks. Samples of the fresh material were also vermicomposted using Eisenia

andrei (Bouche) and rates of growth and reproduction obtained which were

comparable to published rates for other wastes (Frederickson et al., 1997).

Elvira (Elvira et al., 1998) studied vermicomposting with Eisenia andrei of

sludges from a paper mill mixed with cattle manure in a six month pilot scale

experiment. Initially, a small-scale laboratory experiment was carried out to

determine the growth and reproduction rates of earthworms in the different

substrates tested.

Bioconversion of solid paper-pulp mill sludges and primary sewage

sludge for 40 days at a ratio of 3:1 dw.dw was studied in containers with and

without earthworms (Eisenia andrei). Growth and reproduction of the

earthworms in this mixture was also studied by Elvira (Elvira et al., 1997).

Various authors studied the suitability of Eisenia foetida to treat a range of

agricultural wastes and some vegetable wastes. The source of these wastes

include pig, cattle, horse, chicken, duck, turkey, rabbit, mushroom compost,


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processed potato waste, spent brewery yeast and paper pulp. The optimum

environmental conditions for this species were studied and some data on

growth, reproduction and population dynamics was observed. Also study on a

comparison between vermicomposting systems for breeding earthworms by

various authors (Edwards, 1988; Edwards, 1998; Edwards et al., 1985).

All aspects of the worm biology such as feeding habits, reproduction

and biomass production potential were studied by various authors in order to

utilize the earthworms successfully in vermiculture (Prabha et al., 2007).

Buckerfield and Webster (1998) investigate the effects on earthworm numbers

and population recovery before and after potato cropping and harvesting

farming practices. The life cycle parameters of P. excavatus, P. sansibaricus

tropical species have been investigated in respect to their environmental

requirement like temperature (Viljoen and Reinecke 1992), moisture (Hallatt et

al., 1992), fecundity and density pressure (Kale and Bano, 1986).

Information is scanty on the biology and ecology of earthworm species

from tropical regions. Growth, reproduction and life cycle of earthworms were

studied by various authors using different waste as raw materials; Sludge and

horse manure (Neuhauser et al., 1988a), mixture of animal and vegetable waste

materials (Loehr et al., 1985), cow dung (Bano and Kale, 1988; Viljioen and

Reineck, 1992), sludge from paper and pulp industry (Elvira et al., 1998), sugar

industrial wastes, cattle and goat manure (Loh et al., 2003).

The growth and reproduction of Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) in cattle

waste solids was studied by growing groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 small

earthworms in 100 g of waste in small containers in incubators at 15°, 20°, 25°

and 30°C. Earthworms were weighed weekly and the number of cocoons

produced per week was assessed. Fecundity, growth, maturation and biomass

production were studied (Dominguez et al., 2001). Aira (Aira et al., 2006)

studied the effect of C to N ratio of pig slurry in microbial biomass and activity


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and in the growth and reproduction of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. However

there has been relatively little work on the biology and ecology of Eisenia

foetida species (Viljoen and Reinecke, 1989a).

The growth, fecundity and mortality of the epigeic earthworm Eisenia

foetida, in a range of different wastes were studied for more than one year in

the laboratory. Separated, pre-composted and fresh cattle manure solids, fresh

pig manure solids of different levels of maturity (nursery young, growing-

finish, and sow pigs) and fruit and vegetable wastes from a supermarket were

offered to the earthworms as substrates. The growth, fecundity and mortality of

E. foetida were monitored for 23 weeks until the earthworms stopped producing

cocoons (Gunadi and Clive, 2003).

Sogbesan and Ugwumba (2006) studied, 360 adult earthworms of

weights ranging from 1.8-3.3g (mean 2.65±1.01g) and lengths 15.0cm -30.0cm

(mean 22.5±7.5cm) were cultured in three media; soil substrate (control),

cellulose substrate dry neem leaves and soil substrates in nine wooden boxes

(0.9 m x 0.6 m x 0.3 m) for 84 days. The earthworms were monitored for

weekly growth pattern, nutrient utilization and productivity. The composting

potential of two epigeic earthworms (P. excavatus and P. sansibaricus) was

studied by Suthar and Singh (2008) to breakdown the domestic waste under

laboratory conditions.

Growth (length, biomass and mean growth rate) and reproduction (total

duration, clitellum appearance, clitellum completion, cocoon commencement,

rate of cocoon production, incubation period, hatching success and mean

number of hatching per cocoon) of indigenous Lampito mauritii (Kinberg) in

comparison with exotic Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) cultured on three feed

substrates clay loam soil, cowdung and pressmud (filter cake) have been

studied by Parthasarathi (2007) over a period of 360 days under laboratory

conditions (30 ± 2oC, 60-65% moisture). Bisht (Bisht et al., 2007) studied the


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reproductive potential of Metaphire posthuma grown on field soil, cow manure

and poultry droppings was quantified in laboratory conditions to evaluate its

suitability for vermicomposting and improving soil fertility in crop fields of

Kumaun region. The study revealed that copulation is not a prerequisite for

production of viable cocoons.

Amorim (Amorim et al., 2005) tested with herbicide Phenmedipham on

reproduction, growth and mortality in Enchytraeus albidus and Enchytraeus

luxuriosus. A number of studies have been conducted on the standard worm

Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei. Numerous reproductive parameters have

been studied in earthworms exposed to various xenobiotics: cocoon and

hatchling production, viability of the worms produced (Gestel and Dis 1988;

Robidoux et al., 1999; Silva et al., 2009; Neuhauser and Callahan, 1990; Silva

et al., 2010; Robidoux et al., 2000; Maboeta et al., 1999) and sexual maturation

(Venter and Reinecke, 1985).

The impact of organic material quality on biomass production and

reproduction potential of commercial composting earthworm species: Eudrilus

eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus and Perionyx sansibaricus were studied, by using

three different type of culture material namely Jbs: (Jowar straw (Sorghum

vulgare) with bajra straw (Pennisetum typhoides) with sheep manure (1:1:2),

fym (farmyard manure) and Kitchen waste with leaf litter of Magifera indica

(1:1), under laboratory conditions for 150 days. The above substrate or culture

materials have different palatability, particle size and physiochemical

composition (Suthar, 2007a). Studies on comparative reproductive biology of

vermicomposting earthworms were taken up at the Main Agricultural Research

Station, UAS, Dharwad, during 2004-05, to assess the reproductive potential,

across the seasons. Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) was observed to have mean

fecundity during summer and rainy months of E. eugeniae and Perionyx

excavatus (Giraddi et al., 2008).


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A field experiment was conducted during 2005 to study the effect of

earthworm stocking rates on vermicomposting of two crop wastes viz., soybean

waste (Glycine max L.) and millet straw (Panicum milliare Lamk.). With the

increase in earthworm stocking from 100 to 250 worms per 1.0 × 1.0 × 0.5m

vermi bed, population growth and vermicompost production rates were also

studied, in both the substrates by Giraddi (2008). The effect of various animal

agro and kitchen wastes on the growth and development of an epigeic

earthworm Eisenia foetida was studied under identical laboratory condition.

There was observed significant growth and development of earthworm among

different combination of animal agro and kitchen wastes (Nath et al., 2009b).

For each waste such as cow, buffalo, horse, donkey, sheep, goat and

camel, five hatchlings per 100g of waste were inoculated and monitored for

biomass gain, mortality, sexual maturity and cocoons production periodically

for 15 weeks (Garg et al., 2005). Comparative study was performed to evaluate

composting efficiency and biology of three earthworm species such as Eisenia

foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus by Chauhan (Chauhan et al.,

2010).

Zirbes (Zirbes et al., 2011) studied the impact of Parthenium

hyterophorus on the earthworm Eisenia foetida during vermicomposting.

Various combinations of Parthenium and cow dung as well as long gress were

used. Different parameters earthworm population like increase in population,

population growth rate, biomass and age class were analysed (Maboeta and

Rensburgr, 2003). Studies on earthworm multiplication were also conducted at

ICRISAT using tree leaves and Gliricidia stems mixed with cattle manure as

feed material. Puri (2004) worked on the survivability and reproduction of E.

foetida in human faeces. E. eugeniae was cultured in plastic pots containing

ground Paspalum digitatum (P. dilatatum) grass (Dallis grass). This medium

was transit and was rapid and varied with age, hatchlings, juveniles and adults,


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were studied (Mba, 1983). Mixtures of lettuces-broccoli, lettuces-cauliflowers

and cabbages-cauliflowers media were studied the largest earthworms

populations by Tamayo (Tamayo et al., 1997).

Worms selection and biology were studied and reported by several

authors since (Barley, 1959; Barley and Jennings, 1959; Bhawalkar and

Bhawalkar, 1993; Darwin, 1881; Neilson, 1951; Palanisamy, 1996; Ramesh et

al., 1997; Tomati and Galli, 1995; Tomati et al., 1987; Atiyeh et al., 2002b;

Ismail, 2005; Jensen, 1998; Singh, 1993; Sinha, 1998; Sinha, 2008; Alvarez et

al., 1995; Weltzien, 1989; Atiyeh et al., 2000a; 2000b; 2000c; Bonkowski and

Schaefer, 1997; Hammermeister et al., 2004; Subler et al., 1998). This was

verified by Bhatia (Bhatia, 2000; Bhatia et al., 2000), Sinha and Bharambe

(Sinha and Gokul, 2007).

However relatively little work on the biology and ecology of this species

also studied (Neuhauser et al., 1988a; Viljoen and Reinecke, 1989b; 1992;

Reinecke et al., 1992).

3.3 Nutrition of vermicompost

Vermicompost is one of the byproducts of vermicomposting processes

of waste or organic materials. The quality of vermicompost is depending upon

the composing earthworm species, nature of the substrate and other

environmental factors. There are some works related to the quality of

vermicompost derived from different wastes. But there are very scanty

information related to the quantity of vermicompost production through

different earthworm species on different wastes.

Waste were converted into rich in organic matter was studied and

reported by several authors since (Barley, 1959; Barley and Jennings, 1959;

Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar, 1993; Darwin, 1881; Neilson, 1951; Palanisamy,

1996; Ramesh et al., 1997; Tomati and Galli, 1987; Tomati and Galli, 1995;


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Atiyeh et al., 2002a; Ismail, 2005; Jensen, 1998; Singh, 1993; Sinha, 1998;

Sinha, 2008; Alvarez et al., 1995; Weltzien, 1989; Atiyeh et al., 2000a; 2000b;

2000c; Bonkowski and Schaefer, 1997; Hammermeister et al., 2004; Subler et

al., 1998).

A work was evaluated to study the potential of an epigeic earthworm

Eisenia foetida to convert the different combination of animal wastes (cow,

buffalo, sheep, horse and goat dung) different agro and kitchen wastes in to rich

nutrient vermicompost and pre and post chemical analysis of feed mixtures by

Nath (Nath et al., 2009b). Comparative study was performed to evaluate

composting efficiency such as pH, carbon, nitrogen, P, K, C/N and C/P ratios of

three earthworm species such as Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and

Perionyx excavatus Vegetable waste by Chauhan (Chauhan et al., 2010).

Similarly, industrial wastes such as guar gum industrial waste, paper pulp, and

distillery wastes have been vermicomposted and turned into nutrient rich

manure studied by various authors (Sundaravadivel and Ismail, 1995; Suthar,

2006a; Suthar, 2007a).

Sharma (Sharma et al., 2008) revealed that recycling of two obnoxious

weed plants (Lantana camara L.) and Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus

L.) as organic manure through vermicomposting, the nutrient contents in

vermicompost has studied over the substrate used the nutrient content of fresh

Salvinia molesta and Eichhornia crassipes. Seven vermicomposts produced by

the action of worms on sheep manure, dairy manure, poultry manure, mixture

of wastes (underfelt, lawn clippings etc.), kitchen scraps, another mixture

(carboard, wheat, meat etc.) and piggery solids were studied for it nutrition

(Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Edwards and Shipitalo, 1998; Handreck, 1986).

In view of the growing awareness about vermicomposting technology in

recycling a wide range of organic wastes, the behaviour of phosphorus during

mineralization of different organic wastes in the absence and presence of


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epigeic earthworms was studied from different organic wastes (Ghosh et al.,

1999). Waste derived from vegetables such as gourds, cucumbers, beans etc,

were used for different vermicompost and the quality were studied (Acharya,

1997).

In Colombia, more than one million tons of coffee pulp is produced

every year. Its transformation into compost by means of turned piles has led to

a final product with poor physical and chemical characteristics and

vermicomposting has been suggested as an alternative method of transforming

these wastes into a useful organic fertilizer. The ability of the earthworm

Eisenia foetida to transform coffee pulp into valuable compost was studied by

Orozco (Orozco et al., 1996).

Tests have also been conducted combining thermo-composting and

vermicomposting to improve efficiency and compost quality (Manna et al.,

1996; 2003; Nair et al., 2006).

Rabbit manure with 50% of city refuse and 10% of ferric phosphate

were left to transform with and without worms (Eisenia foetida). Ash, carbon,

nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metal contents along with conductivity and pH

were studied by Cegarra (Cegarra et al., 1994).

Castings of Eisenia foetida from sheep manure alone and mixed with

cotton wastes were analyzed for their properties and chemical composition

every 2 weeks for 3 months and compared with the same manures by Albanell

(Albanell et al., 1988).

The biochemical changes in fresh cow manure caused by the earthworm

Eisenia andrei (Bouche) were measured over a period of four months, under

controlled laboratory conditions by Atiyeh (Atiyeh et al., 2000a). Studies were

undertaken to select the most suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting,

to enrich vermicompost by inoculation with beneficial microbes and neutrinos,


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to standardize an economically feasible method of vermicomposting, to achieve

nutrient economy through vermicompost and to assess the performance of

vermicompost as a bioinoculant in cow-pea, banana, and cassava. Earthworm

species Eudrillus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida, Perionyx sansibaricus, Pontoscolex

corethrurus and Megascolex chinensis were compared for their efficiencies in

biodegrading organic wastes (Prabha et al., 2008).

Agro-industries account for production of large quantity of wastes such

as coir industry waste, paper and dairy industry waste, biscuit industry waste,

fruit pulp industry waste, oil refineries and breweries wastes, stems, leaves,

flowers from aromatic oil extraction units etc. Apart from sugar and alcohol as

primary products, sugar industries and fermentation units also produce many

by-products such as pressmud, bagasse, distillery waste, and boiler ash and

fermentation yeast sludge. All these wastes serve as an excellent source of

nutrients (Bano et al., 1987; Kitturmath et al., 2007).

Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar (1993) investigation was aimed to analyse the

various physicochemical parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, moisture

content, organic carbon and C/N ratio in vermicomposting of leaf litter which

are of importance in quick and efficient degradation of complex organic

material into simple compounds during different intervals of time (15, 30 and

45 days) by Lampito mauritti (Priya and Lakshmi, 2011)

Composting of water hyacinth, mixed with cattle manure, rice husk and

sawdust in four different proportions, was performed in a pilot scale rotary

drum composter. The physico-chemical characteristics such as temperature,

moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, total organic matter (OM),

nitrogen dynamics and nutrients were evaluated during the 20 days composting

process (Waikhom et al., 2012). Puri (2004) worked of E. foetida in human

faeces physical characteristics.


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Composts obtained from mixtures of lettuces-broccoli, lettuces-

cauliflowers or cabbages-cauliflowers were tested for amounts of organic

matter, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn and B and had pH values were

observed in compost mixtures including lettuces by worms through

vermitechnology (Tamayo et al, 1997).

3.4 Vermicompost on phyto-test

Vermitechnology research extends up to phyto-test and their quality and

quantity on the plants and plant products. Most of these studies aimed that

vermicomposts have beneficial effects on plant growth. Vermicomposts tested

whether as soil additives or as components of horticultural media, seed

germination and seedling growth and development of plants.

There are only few research studies that have examined the responses of

plants to the use or substitution of vermicomposts to soil or greenhouse

container media (Chan and Griffiths, 1988; Edwards and Burrows, 1988;

Wilson and Carlile, 1989; Mba, 1996; Buckerfield and Webster, 1998).

There have been several studies, which worm worked waste and their

excretory products (vermicast) on plant growth (Arancon et al., 2006; Arancon

et al., 2008; Atiyeh et al., 2000a; Atiyeh et al., 2000b; Atiyeh et al., 2000c;

Atiyeh et al., 2002a; Azarmi et al., 2008; Bhatia, 2000; Canellas et al., 2000;

Scheu, 1987).

It has been studied on all yield parameters such as improved seed

germination, enhanced rate of seedling growth, flowering and fruiting of major

crops like wheat, paddy, corn, sugarcane, tomato, potato, brinjal, okra, spinach,

grape and strawberry as well as of flowering plants like petunias, marigolds,

sunflowers, chrysanthemums and poinsettias (Subler et al., 1998; Tiwari et al.,

1989; Lunt and Jacobson, 1994; Nighawan and Kanwar, 1952; Chaoui et al.,

2003; Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Edwards, Dominguez and Arancon, 2004;


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Tomati and Galli, 1995; Bhatia, 2000; Bhatia et al., 2000; Atiyeh et al., 2000b;

Canellas et al., 2000, Alvarez et al., 1995; Weltzien, 1989; Hoitink and Fahy,

1986; Scheuerell and Mahaffee, 2002; Shiralipour et al., 1992; Sinha et al.,

2009; Sinha and Gokul, 2007; Edwards and Fletcher, 1988; Bonkowski and

Schaefer, 1997).

Several scientists working on vermiculture throughout the world the

positive role of earthworms and its metabolic products (vermicast) on crop

growth and development. Important among them are Alam (Alam et al., 2007),

Ansari (Ansari, 2008), Atiyeh (Atiyeh et al., 2000b; Atiyeh et al., 2000c),

Arancon (Arancon et al., 2003; Arancon et al., 2004), Bhat and Khambata

(Bhat and Khambata, 1994), Bhatia (Bhatia, 2000; Bhatia et al., 2000), Baker

and Barrett (Baker and Barrett, 1994), Chauhan (Chauhan, 2009), Canellas

(Canellas et al., 2000), Edwards and Burrows (Edwards and Burrows, 1988)

Ghabbour (Ghabbour, 1996), Garg and Bhardwaj (Garg and Bhardwaj, 2000),

Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaiah (Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaiah,

1986), Palanisamy (Palanisamy, 1996), Scheu (Scheu, 1987), Tomar (Tomar et

al., 1998) and Wilson and Carlie (Wilson and Carlile, 1989).

Arancon (Arancon et al., 2008) demonstrated the effects of

vermicompost produced from three types of wastes are cattle manure, food

waste and paper waste on growth and flowering of petunias. Atiyeh (Atiyeh et

al., 2001) study the effects of additions of earthworm processed pig manure

vermicompost on the growth and productivity of French marigold plants

(Atiyeh et al., 2001). Arancon (Arancon et al., 2008) produced vermicompost

from food wastes, paper wastes and cattle manure were applied to peppers

(Capsicum annuum) and studied their effects on the growth and yields of

peppers.

Arancon produced vermicomposts commercially from food wastes, were

substituted at a range of different concentrations into a soil-less commercial


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bedding plant container medium, Metro-Mix 360 (MM360), to evaluate their

effects on the growth and yields of peppers (Capsicum annuum) in the

greenhouse. Six-week-old peppers (Capsicum annum L. var. California) were

transplanted into 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20% or 10% MM360 substituted with

0%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% vermicompost (Arancon et al.,

2004). Tajbakhsh (Tajbakhsh et al., 2008b) evaluated the potential of epigeic

earthworms Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei to transform spent mushroom

compost (SMC) into a more useful product (vermicompost). This experiment

was designed to characterize the physical, chemical and microbial properties of

a standard commercial horticultural, greenhouse container and bedding plant

medium (Metro-Mix 360) that had been substituted with a range of increasing

concentrations (0%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50% and 100% by volume) of pig manure

vermicompost.

In greenhouse trials, the growth of marigold and tomato seedlings were

tested by vermicompost in a commercial horticultural potting medium was

studied by Atiyeh (Atiyeh et al., 2000b).

E. eugeniae used in the composting of coirpith. The resultant bio-

compost was tested as a growth promoter for the medicinal plant Andrographis

paniculata and also for reclamation of barren soil for use in the production of

this plant (Vijaya et al., 2008; Coon and Ernst, 2004). The effects of

earthworm-processed sheep-manure vermicompost on the growth, productivity

and chemical characteristics of soybean straw (Glycine max L. Merril.), wheat

straw (Triticum aestivum L.), maize stover (Zea mays L.), chickpea straw

(Cicer arietinum L.), city garbage (Manna et al., 1996) and greenhouse

tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum OTOR) (Federico et al., 2007) has also

been studied.

Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on

vermicomposting has been developed at the Ohio State University. This has


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included experiments investigating the effects of vermicompost on the

germination, growth, flowering and fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell

peppers and tomatoes as well as on a wide range of flowering plants including

petunias, marigolds, bachelor’s button, chrysanthemums, impatiens,

sunflowers, and poinsettias. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural

container media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were

similar to those studies when composts were used (Sinha, 2008).

The small number of field experiments reported in the literature have

shown that amending soils with vermicomposts on the growth and yield of

some crops such as cowpeas (Mba, 1983), cress (Masciandaro et al., 1997),

grapes (Buckerfield and Webster, 1998; Venkatesh et al., 1998), Chichorium

(Vadiraj et al., 1998), bananas (Athani et al., 1999), strawberries (Arancon et

al., 2004) and tomatoes (Arancon et al., 2003). Krishnamoorthy and Vajrabhiah

(1986), Tomati and Galli (1995) Edwards and Burrows (1988) studied the

production of plant growth in the vermicomposts.

Various greenhouse and field studies have examined the effects of a

variety of vermicomposts on a wide range of crops including cereals and

legumes (Chan and Griffiths, 1988), vegetable (Edwards and Burrows, 1988;

Wilson and Carlile, 1989) ornamental and flowering plants (Edwards and

Burrows, 1988; Atiyeh et al., 2000a) and field crops (Mba, 1996; Buckerfield

and Webster, 1998; Arancon et al., 2004).

Whether used as soil additives or as components of horticultural media,

vermicomposts usually study seedling growth and development and

productivity of a wide variety of crops (Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Wilson

and Carlile, 1989; Mba, 1996; Buckerfield and Webster, 1998; Edwards 1998).

Enhancement in plant growth and productivity has been attributed to the

physical and chemical characteristics of the processed materials (Gallardo and


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Nogales, 1987; Bugbee and Frink, 1989; Tyler et al., 1993; Alvarez et al.,

1995; Beeson, 1996).

The studies have revealed that vermicompost may be potential sources

of nutrients for field crops if applied in suitable ratios with synthetic fertilizers

(Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaian, 1986; Tomati et al., 1987; Mascolo et al.,

1999). The earlier workers have studied the effect of vermicompost application

on growth and productivity of cereals and legumes (Benik and Bhebaruah,

2004; Suthar, 2006a), ornamental and flowering plants (Kale et al., 1987;

Nethra et al., 1999) and vegetables (Edwards and Burrows; 1988; Atiyeh et al.,

2000b; Atiyeh et al., 2001).

Many people started studying about the role of worms in soil

improvement and crop production. Worms select those parts of the soil which

are rich in organic matter was studied by several authors since (Barley, 1959;

Barley and Jennings, 1959; Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar, 1993; Darwin, 1881;

Neilson, 1951; Palanisamy, 1996; Ramesh et al., 1997; Tomati et al., 1983a;

Tomati et al., 1987; Tomati et al., 1988).

The worms on soil and land, total plant growth and crop productivity

where studied by various authors (Bonkowski and Schaefer, 1997; Clarholm,

1981; Hopp, 1946; Hopp and Slater, 1949; Joshi and Kelkar, 1952; Lavelle and

Martin, 1992; Lee, 1985; Neilson, 1951; Puh, 1941; Russell, 1910).

Studies on vegetable and cereal crops done in India at University of

Rajasthan (1997-2001) and at Bihar Agriculture University (2007-2009) and in

Australia at Griffith University (2007-2009), have also testified. Application of

vermicompost in potted and field crops growth performances in terms of height

of plants, color and texture of leaves, appearance of fruiting structures etc., as

compared to chemical fertilizers and the compost (Sinha, 2009)


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There is a study that vermicompost on growth of plants and favourable

influence on all yield parameters of crops like, wheat, paddy and sugarcane

(Ismail, 1997; Ansari, 2008). To identified the effect of the root formation,

elongation of stem and production of biomass, vegetables, ornamental plants

etc. studied by numerous authors (Grappelli et al., 1985; Kale and Bano, 1986;

Kale et al., 1987; Kale, 1998; Atiyeh et al., 1999; Ghosh et al., 1999).

Total plant growth and crop productivity on different vermicompost

studied by numerous authors (Bonkowski and Schaefer, 1997; Clarholm, 1981;

Devliegher and Verstraete, 1997; Hopp, 1946; Hopp and Slater, 1949; Joshi

and Kelkar, 1952; Lee, 1985; Neilson, 1951; Puh, 1941; Russell, 1910;

Shrikhande and Pathak, 1948; Winding et al., 1997; Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar,

1993; Darwin, 1881; Hoitink and Fahy, 1986; Scheuerell and Mahaffee, 2002;

Thangavel et al., 2003).

Investigations were undertaken by Rani and Srivastava (1997) to assess

the effect of organic wastes alone and in combination with earthworms on plant

growth. Maize and wheat were grown as test crops (Sharma and Madan, 1988).

Vermicompost (produced by earthworms from organic wastes) was tested in

pot experiments for its ability to replace a proportion of the urea fertilizer

applied to rice.

An experiment was conducted on mulberry crop (Morus sp.) to

investigate the effect of vermicompost in comparison with farm yard manure

and fertilizers on the mulberry leaf yield during 1993 - 1994 at Akola, India.

The treatment of full dose NPK fertilizers plus vermicompost and farmyard

manure on the number of branches, height of the plant, number of leaves per

plant and leaf yield per plant was studied by Murarkar (Murarkar et al., 1998).

The possibility of reducing the use of chemical fertilizer by using

vermicompost as organic fertilizer was tested on the summer crop of paddy


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variety HAMSA. The control plot received the recommended dosage of farm

yard manure and the chemical fertilizers. The experimental plot received half

the recommended dosage of chemical fertilizers and the vermicompost. At the

time of seed setting and 2 months after the harvest of the crop, the soil samples

were analysed (Kale et al., 1992).

The effects of earthworms on plant growth (paddy and sugarcane,

vegetables and fruit) were studied by Ismail (1995). The sericulture (silkworm

culture) waste (silkworms ejected feces litter) for composting with other mixed

plant residues and for raising earthworms Eisenia foetida and form

vermicompost during vermicomposting process. Vermicomposted sericulture

litter significantly used to study the growth of mulberry varieties S146, K-2 and

Mandley over other treatments (Sharma et al., 1999).

Vermicomposting of sericultural wastes was studied in the laboratory

during 1995 using Perionyx excavatus, cow dung and sericulture wastes and

also studied the content of mulberry (Morus indica) leaf litter and silkworm

larval litter and also study the K, Mn, Zn and Fe content of the mulberry leaf

litter (Gunathilagaraj and Ravignanam, 1996). Chan and Griffiths (1988) study

the vermicomposting of pre-treated pig manure in Hong Kong using the

earthworm Eisenia foetida and also studied effect of vermicompost on the

growth of Glycine max (soybean).

Vermicomposted coirpith produced by an exotic earthworm, Eudrilus

eugeniae (Kinberg) was amended with alkaline soil from an industrial site and

compared with coirpith composted with effective microorganisms as a growth

medium for the medicinal plant, Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) in field

plots (Vijaya et al., 2008).

A study was designed to characterize the physical, chemical and

microbial properties of a standard commercial horticultural, greenhouse


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container, bedding plant medium (Metro-Mix 360), that had been substituted

with a range of increasing concentrations (0%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50% and 100%

by volume) of pig manure vermicompost and to relate these properties to plant

growth responses. The growth trials used tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum

Mill.), grown in the substituted media for 31 days under glasshouse conditions,

with seedling growth recorded in 20 pots for each treatment (Atiyeh et al.,

2001).

A field trial on amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.) with different

levels of vermicompost prepared using ayurvedic pharmaceutical wastes from

Oushadhi Pharmaceuticals, Thrissur, farm yard manure (FYM) and inorganic

fertilizers was conducted by Preetha (Preetha et al., 2005). Parthenium plants

and neem leaves were composted using the epigeic earthworm, Eisenia foetida

and the resulting composts were tested on supporting the growth of plant with

the germination and growth of Vigna radiate seedlings by Sivakumar

(Sivakumar et al., 2009).

Seedlings of Acacia mearnsii, Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus patula

were grown in pure pine bark compost, pure vermicompost (abattoir waste

reduced by worms) and five mixtures of pine bark and vermicompost (Donald

and Visser, 1989).

The efforts were made to study the impact of vermicomposted and

composted farmyard manure (FYM) along with some combination of NPK

fertilizers on field crop of garlic (Allium stivum L.). A total of six experimental

plots were prepared (Surindra, 2009). Azarmi (Azarmi et al., 2008) study, the

effects of vermicompost on soil chemical and physical properties was evaluated

in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) field.

Documents

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