,WNKQ %UCT

Cayo Julio Csar NCVP (BJVT *VMJVT $BFTBS=PQVC ?

4QOC +VCNKC FG LWNKQ FG C %=PQVC ? KDFGO FG OCT\Q FG C % HWG WP NFGT OKNKVCT [ RQNVKEQ FGNC GTC VCTFQTTGRWDNKECPC0CEKFQ GP GN UGPQ FG NC HFOT +VMJB GP WPC HCOKNKC RCVTKEKCFG GUECUC HQTVWPC GUVWXQ GORCTGPVCFQ EQP CNIWPQU FG NQUJQODTGU OU KPW[GPVGU FG UW RQEC EQOQ UW VQ %C[Q/CTKQ SWKGP KPWKTC FG OCPGTC FGVGTOKPCPVG GP UW ECTTGTC RQNVKEC 'P C % C NQU CQU GN RQRWNCT %KPPCNQ PQODT BNFO EJBMJT ECTIQ TGNKIKQUQ FGN SWG HWG TGNGXCFQ RQT 5KNC EQP SWKGP VWXQ EQPKEVQU C ECWUC FG UWOCVTKOQPKQ EQP NC JKLC FG %KPPC 6TCU GUECRCT FG OQTKT COCPQU FG NQU UKECTKQU FGN FKEVCFQT HWG RGTFQPCFQ ITCEKCUC NC KPVGTEGUKP FG NQU RCTKGPVGU FG UW OCFTG=? 6TCUNCFCFQ C #UKC EQODCVK GP /KVKNGPG EQOQ MFHBUVT FG /CTEQ/KPWEKQ 6GTOQ 8QNXK C 4QOC C NC OWGTVG FG 5KNC GP C % GLGTEKGPFQ RQT WP VKGORQ NC CDQICEC 'P C% UWEGFK C UW VQ )C[Q #WTGNKQ %QVC EQOQ RQPVEG[ RTQPVQ GPVT GP TGNCEKP EQP NQU EPUWNGU 2QORG[Q [%TCUQ EW[C COKUVCF NG RGTOKVKTC NCP\CT UW RTQRKC ECTTGTC RQNVKEC=? 'P C % %UCT UKTXK EQOQ EWGUVQT GPNC RTQXKPEKC FG *KURCPKC [ EQOQ GFKN EWTWN GP 4QOC &WTCPVG GN FGUGORGQ FG GUC OCIKUVTCVWTC QHTGEK WPQU GURGEVEWNQU SWG HWGTQP TGEQTFCFQU FWTCPVG OWEJQ VKGORQRQT GN RWGDNQ'P C % HWG GNGIKFQ QSBFUPS VSCBOVT=PQVC ? CN QDVGPGTOU XQVQU SWG GN TGUVQ FG ECPFKFCVQU C NC RTGVWTC 'UG OKUOQ CQ OWTK 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 2Q 1POUJGFY .BYJNVT FGUKIPCFQ FWTCPVG NC FKEVCFWTC FG 5KNC [ GP NCUGNGEEKQPGU EGNGDTCFCU RCTC UWUVKVWKTNG XGPEK %UCT #NVTOKPQ FG UW RTGVWTC UKTXK EQOQ RTQRTGVQT GP *KURCPKCFQPFG ECRKVCPG WPC DTGXG ECORCC EQPVTC NQU NWUKVCPQU'P C % HWG GNGIKFQ EPUWN ITCEKCU CN CRQ[Q FG UWUFQU CNKCFQU RQNVKEQU 2QORG[Q [ %TCUQ NQU JQODTGU EQPNQU SWG %UCT HQTO GN NNCOCFQ 1SJNFS 5SJVOWJSBUP 5WEQNGIC FWTCPVG GN EQPUWNCFQ $DWNQ UG TGVKT C P FG GPVQTRGEGT NC NCDQT FG %UCT SWG UKP GODCTIQ NQIT UCECTCFGNCPVG WPC UGTKG FG OGFKFCU NGICNGU GPVTG NCU SWG FGUVCEC WPC NG[ CITCTKC SWG TGIWNCDC GN TGRCTVQ FG VKGTTCU GPVTGNQU UQNFCFQU XGVGTCPQU6TCU UW EQPUWNCFQ HWG FGUKIPCFQ RTQEPUWN FG NCU RTQXKPEKCU FG )CNKC 6TCPUCNRKPC +NKTKC [ )CNKC %KUCNRKPC GUVC NVKOC VTCU NC OWGTVG FG UW IQDGTPCFQT %NGT 5W IQDKGTPQUG ECTCEVGTK\ RQT WPC RQNVKEC OW[ CITGUKXC EQP NC SWGUQOGVK C RTEVKECOGPVG NC VQVCNKFCF FG NQU RWGDNQU EGNVCU GP XCTKCU ECORCCU 'UVG EQPKEVQ EQPQEKFQ EQOQNC (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT PCNK\ EWCPFQ GN IGPGTCN TGRWDNKECPQ XGPEK GP NC #BUBMMB EF "MFTJB C NQU NVKOQU HQEQU FG QRQUKEKP GPECDG\CFQU RQT WP LGHG CTXGTPQ NNC

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l"MFB JBDUB FTU| NC UWGTVG GUV GEJCFC KPKEKCPFQ CU WP EQPKEVQ EQPQEKFQ EQOQ NC 4FHVOEB (VFSSB$JWJM EF MB 3FQCMJDB EF 3PNB GP GN SWG UG GPHTGPV C NQUPQUJNBUFT=PQVC ? SWG GUVCDCP NKFGTCFQU RQT UW XKGLQ CNKCFQ2QORG[Q 5WU XKEVQTKCU GP NCU DCVCNNCU FG (CTUCNKC 6CRUQ[ /WPFC UQDTG NQU EQPUGTXCFQTGU NG JKEKGTQP GN COQ FGNC 4GRDNKEC 'N JGEJQ FG SWG GUVWXKGTC GP IWGTTC EQPNC OKVCF FGN OWPFQ TQOCPQ PQ GXKV SWG UG GPHTGPVCTC C(CTPCEGU ++ GP

#*0(3"'"

CUVTQPQOC QVTQ CEGTEC FG NC TGNKIKP TGRWDNKECPC TQOCPC [ WP GUVWFKQ UQDTG GN NCVP PKPIWPQ FG NQU EWCNGU JCUQDTGXKXKFQ JCUVC PWGUVTQU FCU .CU PKECU QDTCU SWG UGEQPUGTXCP UQP UWU $PNFOUBSJPT EF MB (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT[ UWU $PNFOUBSJPT EF MB (VFSSB $JWJM 5G EQPQEG GN FGUCTTQNNQ FG UW ECTTGTC EQOQ OKNKVCT [ ITCP RCTVG FG UW XKFCC VTCXU FG UWU RTQRKCU QDTCU [ FG NQU GUETKVQU FG CWVQTGUEQOQ 5WGVQPKQ 2NWVCTEQ 8GNG[Q 2CVTEWNQ Q 'WVTQRKQ

1 Biografa

1.1 Primeros aos

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

"MVNOPT SPNBOPT DPO TV QFEBHPHP .VTFP 1VTILJO .PTD

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

'N JGEJQ FG SWG NQU +VMJP $TBSFT RGTVGPGEKGPVGU CN RQFGTQUQ RCVTKEKCFQ TGRWDNKECPQ PQ QDVWXKGTCP ECTIQU KORQTVCPVGU FWTCPVG GN RGTKQFQ TGRWDNKECPQ UG GZRNKEC RQTUW HCNVC FG HQTVWPC GP EQORCTCEKP EQP NC CTKUVQETCEKC TQOCPC FG NC RQEC FG JGEJQ %UCT ETGEK GP WPQ FG NQUDCTTKQU OU RQDTGU FG NC EKWFCF NC 5WDWTC

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

1SJNFSPT BPT

-VDJP $PSOFMJP 4JMB

'PHWTGEKFQ 5KNC QTFGP C WPC DCPFC FG UKECTKQU SWG NQECRVWTCTCP [ CUGUKPCTCP CPWN UW PQODTCOKGPVQ EQOQBNFO EJBMJT [ EQPUE VQFC UW HQTVWPC # %UCT PQ NGSWGF QVTC UCNKFC SWG JWKT FG 4QOC XKPFQUG QDNKICFQ CECODKCT FG TGHWIKQ ECFC PQEJG EC[ GPHGTOQ CN PQ GUVCTCEQUVWODTCFQ C GUVC ENCUG FG XKFC 7PC PQEJG HWG UQTRTGPFKFQ RQT NQU UKECTKQU FG 5KNC RGTQ RWFQ UCNXCTUG CNUQDQTPCTNGU EQP GN FKPGTQ SWG UG QHTGEC RQT UW ECDG\CFQU VCNGPVQU FG QTQ 6TCU GUECRCT FG NQU JQODTGU FG 5KNCRGTOKVK C UW HCOKNKC KPVGTEGFGT RQT N CPVG GN FKEVCFQT 5WOCFTG UWU VQU/CTEQ )C[Q [ .WEKQ NCU XTIGPGU XGUVCNGU[ GN [GTPQ FG 5KNC /COGTEQ 'OKNKQ .RKFQ .KXKCPQ NQITCTQP EQPXGPEGT CN FKEVCFQT SWG CEEGFK C TGICCFKGPVGUC RGTFQPCTNG NC XKFC 6TCU QTFGPCT GN EGUG FG NC RGTUGEWEKP FKLQ SWG GUG LQXGP UGTC GN P FG NQU PQUJNBUFT RWGUlGP N XGQ C OWEJQU /CTKQU|=?

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

$PSPOB DWJDB

FWTCPVG GN DCPSWGVG .C CXGPVWTC FG %UCT GP #UKC NNGIOW[ RTQPVQ C QFQU FG NQU EKWFCFCPQU FG 4QOC 'P NCRQNVKEC TQOCPC CEWUCT C CNIWKGP FG OCPVGPGT TGNCEKQPGUJQOQUGZWCNGU RCUKXCU GTC WPC GUVTCVGIKC EQOP=? RWGUNC JQOQUGZWCNKFCF RCUKXC C FKHGTGPEKC FG NC CEVKXC GTCEQPUKFGTCFC WPC RTEVKEC XGTIQP\QUC 5WU GPGOKIQU RQNVKEQU RTQENCOCTQP SWG UG JCDC RTQUVKVWKFQ EQP WP TG[DTDCTQ [ NG CRQFCTQP lNC TGKPC FG $KVKPKC| ECWUCPFQ WPITCP FCQ C UW TGRWVCEKP 5KP GODCTIQ %UCT UKGORTGFGUOKPVK GUVG JGEJQ 'N TGUVQ FG NC ECORCC NG XCNK WPCOGLQT TGRWVCEKP OQUVTCPFQ ITCP ECRCEKFCF FG OCPFQ [WP CTTQLQ [ XCNQT RGTUQPCN GPEQOKCDNGU RQT NQU SWG /KPWEKQ 6GTOQ VTCU NC VQOC FG /KVKNGPG NG EQPEGFGTC NCEQTQPC EXKEC NC EQPFGEQTCEKP CN XCNQT OU CNVC SWG UGQVQTICDC GP NC 4GRDNKEC 4QOCPC=?

&GURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG 5KNC GP GN C % %UCT TGITGU C 4QOC G KPKEK WPC ECTTGTC EQOQ CDQICFQ GP GN(QTQ TQOCPQ FPFQUG C EQPQEGT RQT UW EWKFCFC QTCVQTKC5W RTKOGT ECUQ HWG FKTKIKFQ EQPVTC %PGQ %QTPGNKQ &QNCDGNC WP RTQVGIKFQ FG 5KNC SWG GP GN CQ C % JCDCUKFQ GNGIKFQ EPUWN [ FGURWU CN CQ UKIWKGPVG RTQEPUWNGP /CEGFQPKC [ FQPFG CN RCTGEGT JCDC OCNXGTUCFQ NQUHQPFQU FGN 'UVCFQ &QNCDGNC CN GPVGTCTUG FGN RTQEGUQ GPUW EQPVTC EQPVTCV RCTC UW FGHGPUC C WPQ FG NQU OU KNWUVTGU CDQICFQU FG NC RQEC 3WKPVQ *QTVGPUKQ NNCOCFQ l'N$CKNCTP| RQT UW OCPGTC FG OQXGTUG GP NQU GUVTCFQU [CN GOKPGPVG .WEKQ #WTGNKQ %QVVC UW RTQRKQ VQ RGTQGUVQ GTC PQTOCN # RGUCT FG GUVQU HQTOKFCDNGU GPGOKIQU %UCT OQUVT UW ECNKFCF FG QTCFQT SWG CWPSWG PQNG UKTXK RCTC ICPCT NC ECWUC U NG RTQEWT NC HCOC SWGDWUECDC=?

#N CQ UKIWKGPVG WPCU EKWFCFGU ITKGICU SWG JCDCP UKFQUCSWGCFCU RQT )C[Q #PVQPKQ *[DTKFC FWTCPVG NC ECORCC FG 5KNC GP )TGEKC NG EQPCTQP NC FGHGPUC FG UW ECWUC%UCT JCDN CPVG GN RTGVQT /CTEQ 6GTGPEKQ 8CTTP .EWNQ EQP OWEJC GNQEWGPEKC [ ICP GN LWKEKQ RGTQ *[DTKFC

#*0(3"'"

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

'P C % %QTPGNKC HCNNGEK OKGPVTCU FCDC C NW\ C WP PKQ SWG PCEK OWGTVQ [ RQEQ FGURWU %UCT RGTFK C UW VC,WNKC XKWFC FG /CTKQ C SWKGP UG JCDC UGPVKFQ OW[ WPKFQ 'P EQPVTC FG NCU EQUVWODTGU FG NC RQEC %UCT KPUKUVKGP QTICPK\CT UGPFQU HWPGTCNGU RDNKEQU #ODQU HWPGTCNGUUKTXKGTQP VCODKP RCTC FGUCCT NCU NG[GU FG 5KNC RWGU GPGN UGRGNKQ FG ,WNKC UG GZJKDKGTQP NCU KOIGPGU FG )C[Q/CTKQ [ FGN JKLQ SWG JCDC VGPKFQ EQP GNNC [ SWG VCODKP JCDC NWEJCFQ EQPVTC 5KNC UW FKHWPVQ RTKOQ )C[Q/CTKQ GN ,QXGP [ GP GN UGRGNKQ FG %QTPGNKC NC KOCIGP FGUW RCFTG .WEKQ %QTPGNKQ %KPPC 6QFQU GNNQU JCDCP UKFQRTQUETKVQU [ NCU NG[GU FGN FKEVCFQT RTQJKDCP OQUVTCT UWUKOIGPGU GP RDNKEQ RGTQ %UCT PQ XCEKN GP SWGDTCT NCUTGINCU 'UVG FGUCHQ HWG OW[ CRTGEKCFQ RQT NQU RNGDG[QU[ NQU SWG HQTOCDCP NC HCEEKP FG NQU QPQVMBSFT [ GP NCOKUOC OGFKFC TGRWFKCFQ RQT NQU PQUJNBUFT=?

1.2 Ascenso poltico

%UCT HWG GNGIKFQ EWGUVQT RQT NQU %QOKEKQU GP GN C% EQP CQU FG GFCF EQOQ GUVKRWNCDC GN DVSTVT IPOPSVN TQOCPQ 'P GN UQTVGQ UWDUKIWKGPVG NG EQTTGURQPFKWP ECTIQ GP NC RTQXKPEKC TQOCPC FG *KURCPKC 7NVGTKQT UKVWCFC GP NQ SWG GU JQ[ FC 2QTVWICN [ GN UWT FG 'URCC5GIP EWGPVC WPC NG[GPFC NQECN GP GN 6GORNQ FG *TEWNGU )CFKVCPQ *GTCMNGKP FG NC EKWFCF FG )CFGU UKVWCFQ

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

+VMJP $TBS 0CSB EF /JDPMBT $PVTUPV

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

&M QSJNFS USJVOWJSBUP

ICPK\CEKP FG NQU LWGIQU GP GN %KTEQ /ZKOQ NQ SWG FGDKFQ C NQ NKOKVCFQ FGN RTGUWRWGUVQ RDNKEQ GZKIC CN GFKNNC WVKNK\CEKP FG HQPFQU RGTUQPCNGU 'UVQ HWG GURGEKCNOGPVG XGTFCF GP GN ECUQ FG %UCT SWG RTGVGPFC TGCNK\CT WPQULWGIQU OGOQTCDNGU RCTC KORWNUCT UW ECTTGTC RQNVKEC ;FG JGEJQ GORNG VQFQ UW KPIGPKQ RCTC EQPUGIWKTNQ NNGICPFQ C FGUXKCT GN EWTUQ FGN 6DGT G KPWPFCT GN %KTEQ RCTCQHTGEGT WPC PCWOCSWKC WP EQODCVG GPVTG DCTEQU #ECDGN CQ EQP FGWFCU FGN QTFGP FG XCTKQU EKGPVQU FG VCNGPVQUFG QTQ=?

5KP GODCTIQ UW ZKVQ EQOQ GFKN HWG WPC C[WFC KORQTVCPVG RCTC SWG FGURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG 3WKPVQ %GEKNKQ /GVGNQ 2Q GP GN CQ C % %UCT HWGTC GNGIKFQ1POUJGFY .BYJNVT=? FKIPKFCF SWG FQVCDC CN GNGEVQ FGGPQTOG BVDUPSJUBT [ EJHOJUBT 'N FC FG UW GNGEEKP JCDCUQURGEJCU FG WP CVGPVCFQ EQPVTC N NQ SWG QDNKI C ,WNKQ%UCT C FGEKT C UW OCFTG

/CFTG JQ[ XGTU C VW JKLQ OWGTVQ GP GN(QTQ Q XKUVKGPFQ NC VQIC FGN UWOQ RQPVEG5WGVQPKQ=?

'N ECTIQ KORNKECDC WPC ECUC PWGXC GP GN (QTQ NC %PNVT1VCMJDB NC RTGUKFGPEKC FGN %QNGIKQ FG 2QPVEGU [ WPCEKGTVC RTGGOKPGPEKC GP NC XKFC TGNKIKQUC FG 4QOC CU EQOQ NC CUWPEKP FG NQU FGDGTGU [ FGTGEJQU FGN RCVGTHCOKNKCUUQDTG NCU 8TIGPGU 8GUVCNGU=?

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

.C OWLGT FG %UCT PQ UNQ FGDG UGTJQPTCFC CFGOU FGDG RCTGEGTNQ2NWVCTEQ=?

%NQFKQ HWG RGTFQPCFQ RQT XQNWPVCF FGN RWGDNQ [C SWG PCFC JCDC UKFQ RTQDCFQ [ GN RTQRKQ %UCT PQ SWKUQ FGENCTCTEQPVTC N'P NCU GNGEEKQPGU RCTC GN C % /CTEQ 6WNKQ %KEGTPUCNK GNGIKFQ EPUWN TFOJPS (WG WP CQ RCTVKEWNCTOGPVG

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

1.3 El primer triunvirato

'N IQDKGTPQ FG %UCT GP NC RTQXKPEKC FG *KURCPKC PQ UGGPEWGPVTC DKGP FQEWOGPVCFQ UCDGOQU SWG NKFGT WPC RGSWGC [ TRKFC IWGTTC GP GN PQTVG FG .WUKVCPKC SWG SWK\ NGRTQRQTEKQPCTC CNIQ FG DQVP RCTC UCNFCT RCTVG FG NCU FGWFCU IGPGTCFCU GP UW IGUVKP EQOQ GFKN [ ICPCTUG WP DWGPETFKVQ EQOQ NFGT ECUVTGPUG 5KP FWFC GN ZKVQ OKNKVCT HWGKORQTVCPVG [C SWG GN 5GPCFQ NG EQPEGFK WP VTKWPHQ=?

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

#*0(3"'"

k%GFCPV CTOC VQICG k$FEBO MBT BSNBT B MB UPHB{ .BSDP 5VMJP$JDFSO OP EFK RVF OBEJF PMWJEBSB OVODB TV BSNBDJO EF RVFFO FM B $ DPO MB EFSSPUB EF MB DPOTQJSBDJO EF $BUJMJOB MIBCB TBMWBEP MB 3FQCMJDB

%CVP RQTVCXQ\ FG NC HCEEKP PQUJNBUF OU EQPUGTXCFQTC GTC TGCEKQ C SWG WP RQNVKEQ QPQVMBS QDVWXKGUG GNEQPUWNCFQ [ OU CP UK GUVG RQNVKEQ GTC %UCT C SWKGPFGVGUVCDC=? [ UCDKGPFQ SWG UG FGDC XQVCT CPVGU FG NCRWGUVC FGN 5QN UKIWK JCDNCPFQ JCUVC DKGP GPVTCFC NC PQEJG RQT NQ SWG PQ UG RWFQ CRTQDCT NC OQEKP CPVGTKQT#PVG GNNQ %UCT FGEKFK RTGUEKPFKT FG NQU NCWTGNGU FG UWVTKWPHQ [ RTGUGPVCTUG RGTUQPCNOGPVG EQOQ ECPFKFCVQ=?

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

6QFQ RCTGEC VTCPUEWTTKT EQP PCVWTCNKFCF RCTC NQU EQPUGTXCFQTGU SWG VTCU DNQSWGCT RQNVKECOGPVG C 2QORG[Q [CPVG NC RGTURGEVKXC RCTC GNNQU KPCEGRVCDNG FG RGTOKVKT SWGWP JQODTG EQOQ %UCT VCP UGFKGPVQ FG INQTKC [ EQP FQVGU OKNKVCTGU HWGUG IQDGTPCFQT FG WPC RTQXKPEKC KPKEKCTQP OCPKQDTCU RCTC GXKVCTNQ %CVP RNCPVG CN 5GPCFQ SWG

WPC XG\ CECDCFQ GN OCPFCVQ FG NQU EPUWNGU [ GUVCPFQ+VCNKC RNCICFC FG HQTCLKFQU [ DCPFKFQU VCP UNQ FKG\ CQUFGURWU FG NC TGDGNKP FG 'URCTVCEQ UGTC GP DKGP FG NC4GRDNKEC GPECTICT C NQU EPUWNGU SWG CECDCTCP EQP GNNQUGP WPC OKUKP FG WP CQ FG FWTCEKP 'N 5GPCFQ CEQIKHCXQTCDNGOGPVG NC KFGC SWG UG EQPXKTVK GP NG[ .C XQNWPVCF FG %CVP UG EWORNK RGTHGEVCOGPVG [ RCTGEC SWG%UCT VGTOKPCTC UW EQPUWNCFQ EQOQ RQNKEC GPVTG CNFGCPQU [ RCUVQTGU KVCNKCPQU=?

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

'P NC RTKOGTC TGWPKP FGN 5GPCFQ FWTCPVG GN EQPUWNCFQ FG%UCT UVG VTCVQ FG QHTGEGT WP IGPGTQUQ CEWGTFQ RCTC TGEQORGPUCT C NQU XGVGTCPQU FG 2QORG[Q %CVP PQ GUVCDCFKURWGUVQ C SWG UG CRTQDCTC [ GORG\ C WVKNK\CT UW VEVKECHCXQTKVC JCDN [ JCDN JCUVC SWG %UCT NG KORKFK UGIWKTKPFKEPFQNGU EQP WP IGUVQ FG NC ECDG\C C UWU NKEVQTGU SWGUG NQ NNGXCTCP #N XGTNQ CNIWPQU UGPCFQTGU EQOGP\CTQP CCDCPFQPCT UWU RWGUVQU CN UGT KPVGTTQICFQU RQT %UCT RCTCEQPQEGT RQT SW UG OCTEJCDCP WPQ FG GNNQU NG EQPVGUVSWG lRTGGTQ GUVCT GP NC ETEGN EQP %CVP SWG GP GN 5GPCFQ EQPVKIQ|=?

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

.CU TC\QPGU RQT NCU SWG GUVCU VTGU RGTUQPCNKFCFGU FG NC XKFC RDNKEC TQOCPC FGEKFKGTQP WPKTUG PQ FGDGP DWUECTUGOU SWG GP NQU KPVGTGUGU FG ECFC WPQ 2QORG[Q PGEGUKVCDC C %UCT RCTC SWG UG CRTQDCTCP NCU NG[GU CITCTKCU SWG

-B (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT

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

%QOQ GU UCDKFQ NQU TQOCPQU FGPQOKPCDCP NQU CQU RQTGN PQODTG FG NQU FQU EPUWNGU SWG TGICP FKEJQ RGTQFQ'N CQ C % VTCU NC PWNC RCTVKEKRCEKP FG $DWNQ HWGNNCOCFQ RQT NQU RTQRKQU TQOCPQU EQP UGPVKFQ FGN JWOQTGN BP EF +VMJP Z $TBS=?=?

1.4 La Guerra de las Galias

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

.C QRQTVWPKFCF UG NG RTGUGPV OGFKCPVG WPC VGTKEC COGPC\C FG NQU JGNXGEKQU SWG RGPUCDCP GOKITCT CN QGUVG FGNCU )CNKCU &GEKFKFQ C KORGFKTNQ [ EQP NC GZEWUC RQNVKECFG SWG UG CEGTECTCP FGOCUKCFQ C NC RTQXKPEKC FG NC )CNKC %KUCNRKPC NQU JGNXGEKQU SWGTCP KPUVCNCTUG GP RCIQ5CPVP CN PQTVG FG NC #SWKVCPKC TGENWV VTQRCU G KPKEKNCU QRGTCEKQPGU DNKECU SWG C NC RQUVTG FCTCP NWICT C NQ

&M .VOEP 3PNBOP BOUFT EF MB (VFSSB EF MBT (BMJBT

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&M QVFOUF EF $TBS TPCSF FM 3JO $VBESP EF +PIO 4PBOF

%UCT FGTTQV C RWGDNQU EQOQ NQU JGNXGEKQU GP C %C NC EQPHGFGTCEKP DGNIC [ C NQU PGTXKQU GP C % [ C

#*0(3"'"

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

1.5 Crisis poltica

&M .VOEP 3PNBOP USBT MBT DPORVJTUBT EF $TBS

2GTQ C RGUCT FG UWU ZKVQU [ FG NQU DGPGEKQU SWG NC EQPSWKUVC FG )CNKC NNGX C 4QOC %UCT EQPVKPWCDC UKGPFQKORQRWNCT GPVTG UWU RCTGU GP RCTVKEWNCT GPVTG NQU EQPUGTXCFQTGU SWG VGOCP UW CODKEKP'P GN C % GN VTKWPXKTCVQ UG VCODCNGCDC RWGU 2QORG[Q PQ UG CDC FG %TCUQ [ ETGC SWG GTC GN SWG OCPVGPC GP

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l%QPXGPKQ FG .WEEC|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

(VFSSB DJWJM

&TUBUVB EF $OFP 1PNQFZP .BHOP FO MB 7JMMB "SDPOBUJ *UBMJB

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

/GVGNQ 'UEKRKP FKEV WPC HGEJC RCTC NC EWCN %UCT FGDGTC JCDGT CDCPFQPCFQ GN OCPFQ FG UWU NGIKQPGU Q EQPUKFGTCTUG GPGOKIQ FG NC 4GRDNKEC .C OQEKP UG UQOGVKKPOGFKCVCOGPVG C XQVCEKP 5NQ FQU UGPCFQTGU UG QRW

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

$BWFBOU DPOTVMFT OF RVJE EFUSJNFOUJ SFT QVCMJDB DBQJBU %WKFGP NQU EPUWNGU SWG NC TGRDNKEC PQ UWHTC FCQ CNIWPQ

SWG GSWKXCNC C FKEVCT NC NG[ OCTEKCN G KPUVCTQP C 2QORG[QC VTCUNCFCT KPOGFKCVCOGPVG UWU VTQRCU C 4QOC .C ETKUKUJCDC NNGICFQ C UW RWPVQ OU NIKFQ=?

1.6 Guerra civil

-PDBMJ[BDJO EFM SP 3VCJDO

'P XKUVC FGN ECTK\ SWG VQOCDCP NQU CEQPVGEKOKGPVQU %UCT CTGPI C WPC FG UWU NGIKQPGU NC FGEKOQVGTEGTC [ NGUGZRNKE NC UKVWCEKP RTGIWPVPFQNGU UK GUVCDCP FKURWGUVQUC GPHTGPVCTUG EQP 4QOC GP WPC IWGTTC FQPFG UGTCP ECNKECFQU FG VTCKFQTGU GP ECUQ FG RGTFGTNC .QU NGIKQPCTKQUTGURQPFKGTQP C NC CTGPIC FG UW IGPGTCN EQP NC FGEKUKP FGCEQORCCTNQ=?=?

'PVTG GN [ GN FG GPGTQ FG C % OW[ RTQDCDNGOGPVG GN FG GPGTQ=? %UCT TGEKDK NC PQVKEKC FGNC EQPEGUKP FG NQU RQFGTGU GZEGREKQPCNGU C 2QORG[Q GKPOGFKCVCOGPVG QTFGP SWG WP RGSWGQ EQPVKPIGPVG FGVTQRCU ETW\CTC NC HTQPVGTC JCEKC GN UWT [ VQOCTC NC EKWFCF OU EGTECPC #N CPQEJGEGT LWPVQ EQP NC .GIKQ :+++)GOKPC %UCT CXCP\ JCUVC GN 4WDKEP NC HTQPVGTC GPVTG

#*0(3"'"

NC RTQXKPEKC FG NC )CNKC %KUCNRKPC G +VCNKC [ VTCU WP OQOGPVQ FG FWFC FKQ C UWU NGIKQPCTKQU NC QTFGP FG CXCP\CT#NIWPCU HWGPVGU JCP UWIGTKFQ SWG HWG GPVQPEGU EWCPFQRTQPWPEK GN HCOQUQ l"MFB JBDUB FTU|=?

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

-FHJO FO PSEFO EF NBSDIB

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

&GURWU FG NCU ECORCCU FG 'IKRVQ %UCT UG FKTKIK CN#UKC /GPQT FQPFG FGTTQV C (CTPCEGU TG[ FGN 2QPVQ GPNC $CVCNNC FG

5SBT MB WJDUPSJB

-JDUPSFT $BEB DOTVM JCB QSFDFEJEP QPS EPDF Z FM EJDUBEPS QPSWFJOUJDVBUSP

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'P GN %KTEQ UG GPUCPEJ NC CTGPC RQT CODQU NCFQU CDTKGTQP CNTGFGFQT WP HQUQ SWG NNGPCTQP FG CIWC [ LXGPGUPQDKNUKOQU EQTTKGTQP GP CSWGN TGEKPVQ EWCFTKICU [ DKICUQ UCNVCTQP GP ECDCNNQU CFKGUVTCFQU CN GHGEVQ 0KQU FKXKFKFQU GP FQU DCPFQU UGIP NC FKHGTGPEKC FG GFCF GLGEWVCTQP NQU LWGIQU NNCOCFQU VTQ[CPQU 5G FKGTQP FCU FGEQODCVGU FG GTCU [ PCNOGPVG UG FKQ WPC DCVCNNC GPVTGFQU GLTEKVQU ECFC WPQ EQORTGPFC KPHCPVGU LKPGVGU [ GNGHCPVGU %QP QDLGVQ FG FGLCT C NCU VTQRCU OC[QT

3FDSFBDJO NPEFSOB EF VOB MVDIB EF HMBEJBEPSFT

GURCEKQ JCDCP SWKVCFQ NCU DCTTGTCU FGN EKTEQ HQTOCPFQC ECFC GZVTGOQ WP ECORCOGPVQ=?

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#*0(3"'"

1.8 El poder absoluto

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%FOBSJP DFTBSJBOP EFM BP B $ &O FM BOWFSTP FM CVTUP EF$TBS MBVSFBEP Z MB MFZFOEB $"&4"3 *. 1 . FO FM SFWFSTPMB EJPTB 7FOVT QPSUBOEP VO DFUSP Z B 7JDUPSJB Z MB MFZFOEB -"&.*-*74 #7$"

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'N 5GPCFQ JCDC CRTQXGEJCFQ NC CWUGPEKC FG %UCT RCTCXQVCT GP DNQSWG NQU FGETGVQU TGNCVKXQU C NQU JQPQTGU SWGNG GTCP EQPHGTKFQU #U GZRNKEC &KP %CUKQ GUVC NCDQTPQ FGDC RCTGEGT GN TGUWNVCFQ FG WPC EQCEEKP UKPQ NC GZRTGUKP FG UW NKDTG XQNWPVCF %WCPFQ %UCT GUVCDC [C FG

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-B $VSJB +VMJB MVHBS EF SFVOJO EFM 4FOBEP 3PNBOP NBOEBEB FEJDBS QPS $TBS EVSBOUF TV EJDUBEVSB QFSP UFSNJOBEB QPS0DUBWJP "VHVTUP USBT MB EFTUSVDDJO EF MB $VSJB )PTUJMJB QPS MPTTFHVJEPSFT EF $MPEJP

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$PNQMPU Z BTFTJOBUP

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NCDC FGNCPVG FG NC VTKDWPC GN EQNGIKQ FG UCEGTFQVGU ,WNKCPQU WPQ FG GNNQU .KEKPKQ CRCTGEK C PKXGN FGN GUVTCFQ[ FGRQUKV C NQU RKGU FG %UCT WPC EQTQPC FG NCWTGN GPVTGNC\CFC EQP NC EKPVKNNC FG NC FKCFGOC TGCN OQOGPVQ GPSWG GUVCNNCTQP NQU CRNCWUQU 'PVQPEGU .KEKPKQ UWDK C NCVTKDWPC [ RWUQ NC EQTQPC UQDTG NC ECDG\C FG %UCT SWG JK\Q WP IGUVQ FG RTQVGUVC [ UG FKTKIK C .RKFQ RCTC SWG NQC[WFCTC RGTQ UVG PQ JK\Q PCFC=?

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a4BMVE PI SFZ RGTQ EQP GNNQU UGOG\ENCDCP RTQVGUVCU KPFKIPCFCU %UCT UG SWKV NC EQTQPC[ QTFGP NNGXCTNC CN VGORNQ FG ,RKVGT lFQPFG UGT OGLQTEQNQECFC| [ TGSWKTK CN TGFCEVQT FG NQU CEVQU RDNKEQU SWGJKEKGTC EQPUVCT CNN lSWG JCDKPFQNG QHTGEKFQ GN RWGDNQ NCTGCNG\C FG OCPQU FGN EPUWN N NC JCDC TGEJC\CFQ|=?

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

1.9 Complot y asesinato

/WGTVG FG %UCT EF $BSM 5IFPEPS WPO 1JMPUZ

0Q GU RQUKDNG UCDGT EQP EGTVG\C SW EQPFKEKQPGU HWGTQP

#*0(3"'"

NCU SWG NNGXCTQP C WP ITWRQ FG UGPCFQTGU C RGPUCT GP GNCUGUKPCVQ FG %UCT .QU KPVGPVQU FG GUVCDNGEGT WP TIKOGP CWVQETVKEQ UKP FWFC VWXKGTQP OWEJQ SWG XGT RGTQPQ UG RWGFG FGUECTVCT SWG JWDKGTC QVTCU OQVKXCEKQPGU PQVCP PQDNGU'N UQNQ JGEJQ FG SWG WP POGTQ TGNCVKXCOGPVG CNVQ FG UGPCFQTGU GUVWXKGTC FKURWGUVQ C RCTVKEKRCT GP GN EQORNQV [C OCVCT C %UCT GP GN RTQRKQ UGPCFQ NQ SWG EQPUVKVWCWP UCETKNGIKQ FC OWGUVTC FGN GUVCFQ FG EQUCU CN SWG UGJCDC NNGICFQ

1.9.1 La conspiracin

.QU NVKOQU CEQPVGEKOKGPVQU CECGEKFQU [ GP RCTVKEWNCTGN TWOQT FG NQ SWG UG RTGRCTCDC RCTC GN FG OCT\Q GP GN5GPCFQ OQVKXCTQP SWG NQ SWG SWGFCDC FG NC HCEEKP PQUJNBUF [ GPVTG GNNQU )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ FGEKFKGUGP RCUCTC NC CEEKP )C[Q %CUKQ UG FKTKIK C CNIWPQU JQODTGU GPNQU SWG ETGC RQFGT EQPCT [ SWG C UW LWKEKQ EQORCTVCPUW KFGC FG FCT OWGTVG CN FKEVCFQT NKDTCPFQ CU C 4QOC FGNFGUVKPQ SWG N ETGC SWG NG GURGTCDC WP PWGXQ KORGTKQEQUOQRQNKVC FKTKIKFQ FGUFG #NGLCPFTC=?

5KP GODCTIQ )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ PQ GTC RTQDCDNGOGPVGGN JQODTG CFGEWCFQ RCTC UGT NC ECDG\C XKUKDNG FG GUVG VKRQFG CEEKP [ UG CEQTF VCPVGCT C /CTEQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ EQPUKFGTCFQ EQOQ GN RGTUQPCLG KPFKECFQ RCTC GUVG RCRGN=?

5G GURGEWNC SWG VTCU WPC UGTKG FG TGWPKQPGU CODQU GUVCDCP FG CEWGTFQ GP SWG NC NKDGTVCF FG NC 4GRDNKEC GUVCDCGP LWGIQ RGTQ PQ VGPCP NQU OKUOQU RWPVQU FG XKUVC FGEOQ CEVWCT /CTEQ ,WPKQ $TWVQ PQ RGPUCDC CUKUVKT CN 5GPCFQ GN FC UKPQ SWG CDQICDC RQT NC RTQVGUVC RCUKXC NCCDUVGPEKP RGTQ )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ NG TGRNKE SWG EQOQ CODQU GTCP RTGVQTGU RQFCP QDNKICTNQU C CUKUVKT 'PVQPEGU TGURQPFK $TWVQ l'P GUG ECUQ OK FGDGT UGT PQECNNCTOG UKPQ QRQPGTOG CN RTQ[GEVQ FG NG[ [ OQTKT CPVGUFG XGT GZRKTCT NC NKDGTVCF| )C[Q %CUKQ .QPIKPQ TGEJC\FG NNGPQ GUVC UQNWEKP RWGU GPVGPFC SWG PQ GTC FPFQUGOWGTVG EQOQ UG KDC C UCNXCT NC 4GRDNKEC [ NQ GZJQTV CNC NWEJC C RCUCT C NC CEEKP 5W GNQEWGPEKC VGTOKP RQTEQPXGPEGT C UW KPVGTNQEWVQT=?

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

UW ECFXGT CN 6DGT CFLWFKECT UWU DKGPGU CN 'UVCFQ [ CPWNCT UWU FKURQUKEKQPGU=?

*C[ SWG VGPGT GP EWGPVC SWG NCU OQVKXCEKQPGU FG NQU OCIPKEKFCU GTCP OW[ JGVGTQIPGCU [C SWG NQU JCDC OQXKFQURQT WP CWVPVKEQ UGPVKFQ FG UCNXCEKP FG NC 4GRDNKEC #UVQU UG NGU JCDCP WPKFQ QVTCU RGTUQPCU OQXKFCU RQT GNTGPEQT NC GPXKFKC Q RQT NC KFGC FG SWG UK %UCT CECRCTCDC NCU OCIKUVTCVWTCU C GNNQU PQ NGU VQECTC PWPEC NNGICT CNRQFGT=?

6CODKP GU FG UGCNCT SWG OWEJQU FG NQU EQPURKTCFQTGUGTCP GZ RQORG[CPQU TGEQPQEKFQU C NQU SWG %UCT JCDCRGTFQPCFQ NC XKFC [ NC JCEKGPFC KPENWUQ EQPCPFQ GP GNNQURCTC NC CFOKPKUVTCEKP FGN 'UVCFQ %CUKQ [ $TWVQ HWGTQPIQDGTPCFQTGU RTQXKPEKCNGU PQODTCFQU RQT %UCT=?

1.9.2 El magnicidio

/WGTVG FG %UCT EF +FBO-PO (SNF

'P NQU KFWU FG OCT\Q FGN CQ C % WP ITWRQ FG UGPCFQTGU RGTVGPGEKGPVGU C NC EQPURKTCEKP CTTKDC EKVCFCEQPXQE C %UCT CN (QTQ RCTC NGGTNG WPC RGVKEKP GUETKVCRQT GNNQU EQP GN P FG FGXQNXGT GN RQFGT GHGEVKXQ CN 5GPCFQ /CTEQ #PVQPKQ SWG JCDC VGPKFQ PQVKEKCU FKHWUCUFG NC RQUKDKNKFCF FGN EQORNQV C VTCXU FG 5GTXKNKQ %CUECVGOKGPFQ NQ RGQT EQTTK CN (QTQ G KPVGPV RCTCT C %UCT GP NCU GUECNGTCU CPVGU FG SWG GPVTCTC C NC TGWPKP FGN5GPCFQ=?

2GTQ GN ITWRQ FG EQPURKTCFQTGU KPVGTEGRV C %UCT LWUVQCN RCUCT CN 6GCVTQ FG 2QORG[Q FQPFG UG TGWPC NC EWTKCTQOCPC [ NQ EQPFWLQ C WPC JCDKVCEKP CPGZC CN RTVKEQGUVG FQPFG NG GPVTGICTQP NC RGVKEKP %WCPFQ GN FKEVCFQTNC EQOGP\ C NGGT 6WNKQ %KODGT SWG UG NC JCDC GPVTGICFQ VKT FG UW VPKEC RTQXQECPFQ SWG %UCT NG GURGVCTCHWTKQUCOGPVG k*TUB RVJEFN WJT FTU { 3W ENCUG FG XKQNGPEKC GU GUVC! PQ FGDG QNXKFCTUG SWG %UCT CN EQPVCT EQP NCUCETQUCPVKFCF FG NC USJCVOJDJB QPUFTUBT [ RQT UGT 1POUJGFY.BYJNVT GTC LWTFKECOGPVG KPVQECDNG 'P GUG OQOGPVQGN OGPEKQPCFQ %CUEC UCECPFQ WPC FCIC NG CUGUV WP EQTVG GP GN EWGNNQ GN CITGFKFQ UG XQNXK TRKFCOGPVG [ ENCXCPFQ UW RWP\P FG GUETKVWTC GP GN DTC\Q FG UW CITGUQT=?NG FKLQ l3W JCEGU %CUEC XKNNCPQ!| RWGU GTC UCETKNGIKQRQTVCT CTOCU FGPVTQ FG NCU TGWPKQPGU FGN 5GPCFQ=?=?

%CUEC CUWUVCFQ ITKV GP ITKGIQ l |

$POTFDVFODJBT EFM NBHOJDJEJP

lBEFMQIF CPFUIFJ| b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

.CU NVKOCU RCNCDTCU FG %UCT PQ GUVP GUVCDNGEKFCU TGCNOGPVG [ JC[ WPC RQNOKEC GP VQTPQ C NCU OKUOCU UKGPFQNCU OU EQPQEKFCU

,BJ TZ UFLOPO GP ITKGIQ V VCODKP JKLQ OQ! 5WGVQPKQ=?

5V RVPRVF #SVUF MJJ NFJ VTCFWEEKP CN NCVP FG NCHTCUG CPVGTKQT b6 VCODKP $TWVQ JKLQ OQ

&U UV #SVUF .CVP 6 VCODKP $TWVQ! XGTUKPKPOQTVCNK\CFC GP NC RKG\C FG 5JCMGURGCTG=?

2NWVCTEQ PQU EWGPVC SWG PQ FKLQ PCFC UKPQ SWG UGEWDTK NC ECDG\C EQP NC VQIC VTCU XGT C $TWVQ GPVTGUWU CITGUQTGU=?

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

.C NG[GPFC EWGPVC SWG %CNRWTPKC 2KUQPKC %CNRWTPKC 2KUQPKU NC OWLGT FG %UCT FGURWU FG JCDGT UQCFQ EQPWP RTGUCIKQ VGTTKDNG CFXKTVK C %UCT FG SWG VWXKGTC EWKFCFQ RGTQ %UCT KIPQT UW CFXGTVGPEKC FKEKGPFQ k4MP TFEFCF UFNFS BM NJFEP{ 'P QVTCU UG EWGPVC EOQ WP XKFGPVGEKGIQ NG JCDC RTGXGPKFQ EQPVTC NQU +FWU FG /CT\Q NNGICFQ GN FC %UCT NG TGEQTF FKXGTVKFQ GP NCU GUECNGTCU FGN5GPCFQ SWG CP UGIWC XKXQ C NQ SWG GN EKGIQ TGURQPFKSWG NQU JEVT PQ JCDCP CECDCFQ CP=?

1.10 Consecuencias del magnicidio

.CU EQPUGEWGPEKCU FG NC OWGTVG FG %UCT UQP PWOGTQUCU [ PQ UG NKOKVCP C NC IWGTTC EKXKN RQUVGTKQT 'N PQODTG l%UCT| RQT GLGORNQ UG EQPXKTVK GP EQOP C VQFQUNQU GORGTCFQTGU RQUVGTKQTGU FGDKFQ C SWG #WIWUVQ FGPQODTG %C[Q 1EVCXKQ CN UGT CFQRVCFQ QEKCNOGPVG RQTGN FKEVCFQT ECODK UW PQODTG RQT GN FG %C[Q ,WNKQ %UCT

5VNCB EF +VMJP $TBS FO FM 'PSP 3PNBOP

1EVCXKCPQ FCFQ SWG VQFQU NQU GORGTCFQTGU RQUVGTKQTGU C#WIWUVQ JCUVC 0GTP HWGTQP CFQRVCFQU GN DPHOPNFO %UCT CECD UKGPFQ WPC GURGEKG FG VVWNQOU SWG WP PQODTG[ CU FGUFG 8GURCUKCPQ GP CFGNCPVG NQU GORGTCFQTGU NQQUVGPVCTQP EQOQ VCN UKP JCDGT UKFQ CFQRVCFQU RQT NC HCOKNKC %UCT 6CPVQ RTGUVKIKQ CEWOWN GN DPHOPNFO SWG FG%UCT RTQXKGPGP NQU CRGNCVKXQU MKUGT [ \CT=?

/WEJCU FG UWU KPKEKCVKXCU SWGFCTQP GP UWURGPUQ C UWOWGTVG GPVTG GNNCU

4GRTKOKT C NQU FCEKQU SWG DCLQ GN TGKPCFQ FG$WTGDKUVC UG JCDCP GZVGPFKFQ JCUVC GN 2QPVQ 'WZKPQ[ NC 6TCEKC=? GPUGIWKFC NNGXCT NC IWGTTC CN +ORGTKQ2CTVQ RCUCPFQ RQT #TOGPKC /GPQT [ PQ EQODCVKTNQU GP DCVCNNC ECORCN JCUVC JCDGTNGU OGFKFQ UWUHWGT\CU=?

.C EQPUVTWEEKP FG WP VGORNQ C /CTVG OC[QT SWGEWCNSWKGT QVTQ FGN OWPFQ TGNNGPCPFQ JCUVC GN PKXGNFGN UWGNQ GN NCIQ GP SWG QHTGEK NC PCWOCSWKC=?

.C EQPUVTWEEKP FG WP VGCVTQ IKICPVGUEQ CN RKG FG NC4QEC 6CTRG[C=?

4GFWEKT C LWUVC RTQRQTEKP VQFQ GN FGTGEJQ EKXKN [GPEGTTCT GP RQSWUKOQU NKDTQU NQ OGLQT [ OU KPFKURGPUCDNG FGN KPOGPUQ [ FKHWUQ POGTQ FG NG[GUGZKUVGPVGU=?

(QTOCT DKDNKQVGECU RDNKECU ITKGICU [ NCVKPCU NQ OUPWOGTQUCU RQUKDNG [ GPECTI C /CTEQ 6GTGPEKQ 8CTTP GN EWKFCFQ FG CFSWKTKT [ ENCUKECT NQU NKDTQU=?

5G RTQRQPC UGECT NCU NCIWPCU 2QPVKPCU CDTKT UCNKFC C NCU CIWCU FGN NCIQ (WEKPQ EQPUVTWKT WP ECOKPQFGUFG GN OCT #FTKVKEQ JCUVC GN 6DGT C VTCXU FG NQU#RGPKPQU [ CDTKT GN KUVOQ FG %QTKPVQ=?

'P GN NWICT FG NC ETGOCEKP FG UW ECFXGT UG EQPUVTW[ WPCNVCT SWG UGTXKTC FG GRKEGPVTQ RCTC WP VGORNQ C N FGFKECFQ RWGU GP GN CQ C % GN 5GPCFQ NG FGKE EQP GN

$4"3 $0.0 (0#&3/"/5&

PQODTG FG &KXKPQ ,WNKQ %JWVT *VMJVT=? CEEKP SWG UGEQPXGTVKTC GP EQUVWODTG C RCTVKT FG GUG OQOGPVQ EQP NQSWG VQFQU NQU GORGTCFQTGU FGUFG #WIWUVQ HWGTQP FGKECFQU C UWOWGTVG 'UVC RTEVKEC GU NC SWG CN RCTGEGT KPURKTNCU NVKOCU RCNCDTCU FG 8GURCUKCPQ SWG CN UGPVKTUG OQTKTRCTGEG UGT SWG FKLQ $SFP RVF NF FTUPZ DPOWJSUJFOEP FOEJPT=?

&GURWU FG NC OWGTVG FG %UCT GUVCNN WPC NWEJC RQT GNRQFGT GPVTG UW UQDTKPQPKGVQ %UCT #WIWUVQ C SWKGP GP UWVGUVCOGPVQ JCDC PQODTCFQ JGTGFGTQ WPKXGTUCN [ /CTEQ#PVQPKQ SWG EWNOKPCTC EQP NC ECFC FG NC 4GRDNKEC [ GNPCEKOKGPVQ FG WPC GURGEKG FG /QPCTSWC SWG UG JC FCFQGP FGPQOKPCT 1SJODJQBEP EQP NQ SWG NC EQPURKTCEKP [GN OCIPKEKFKQ UG TGXGNCTQP C NC RQUVTG KPVKNGU [C SWG PQKORKFKGTQP GN GUVCDNGEKOKGPVQ FG WP UKUVGOC CWVQETVKEQ

2 Csar el seductor

2.1 Las mujeres de la alta sociedad roma-na

5GIP GN JKUVQTKCFQT NCVKPQ 5WGVQPKQ %UCT UGFWLQ C PWOGTQUCU OWLGTGU C NQ NCTIQ FG UW XKFC [ UQDTG VQFQ C CSWGNNCU RGTVGPGEKGPVGU C NC CNVC UQEKGFCF TQOCPC=?

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

.C KPENKPCEKP FG %UCT JCEKC NQU RNCEGTGU FGN COQT VCODKP JC UKFQ EQPTOCFC RQT NQU XGTUQU ECPVCFQU RQT UWUUQNFCFQU EQP QECUKP FG UW VTKWPHQ GP 4QOC RQT NCU ECORCCU GP NC )CNKC TGHGTKFQU RQT 5WGVQPKQ

%KWFCFCPQU XKIKNCF C XWGUVTCU OWLGTGUVTCGOQU C WP CFNVGTQ ECNXQ*CU HQTPKECFQ GP )CNKC EQP GN QTQ SWG VQOCUVGRTGUVCFQ GP 4QOC=?

2.2 Las reinas

%UCT OCPVWXQ TGNCEKQPGU COQTQUCU EQP 'WPQ GURQUC FG$QIWF TG[ FG /CWTKVCPKC=?

5KP GODCTIQ UW TGNCEKP OU HCOQUC HWG EQP %NGQRCVTC8++ 5WGVQPKQ EWGPVC SWG %UCT TGOQPV GN 0KNQ EQP NCTGKPC GIKREKC=? GP WPC PCXG RTQXKUVC FG ECDKPCU [ JCDTC CVTCXGUCFQ CU VQFQ 'IKRVQ [ RGPGVTCFQ JCUVC 'VKQRC

$MFPQBUSB FKFSDJ VOB QSPGVOEB GBTDJOBDJO TPCSF $TBS $VBESP%NGQRCVTC GPUC[C XGPGPQU GP EQPFGPCFQU C OWGTVG EF "MFYBOESF$BCBOFM

UK GN GLTEKVQ PQ UG JWDKGUG PGICFQ C UGIWKTNQU .C JK\Q KT C4QOC EQNOPFQNC FG JQPQTGU [ FG RTGUGPVGU=? 2CTC NGTC WP DWGPOQFQ FG UWLGVCT 'IKRVQ FQPFG SWGFCDCP RTGUGPVGU VTGU NGIKQPGU [ EW[Q RCRGN GP GN CRTQXKUKQPCOKGPVQ FG EGTGCNGU RCTC +VCNKC GORG\CDC C UGT RTGRQPFGTCPVG5GC EQOQ HWGTG %NGQRCVTC GUVWXQ RTGUGPVG GP 4QOC GPGN OQOGPVQ FGN CUGUKPCVQ FG %UCT [ XQNXK TRKFCOGPVGC UW RCU FGURWU FGN ETKOGP

3 Csar como gobernante

SGPCVXU PQRXNXU QXG RQOCPXU

.C NCDQT FG IQDKGTPQ FG %UCT EQOQ EPUWN [ EQOQ FKEVCFQT HWG OW[ CORNKC RGUG C SWG GN VKGORQ GP SWG TGCNOGPVG GUVWXQ GP GN RQFGT HWG TGNCVKXCOGPVG EQTVQ 5KP GO

DCTIQ [ EQOQ DKGP UGCNC #FTKCP )QNFUYQTVJ[=? WPCPNKUKU FGVCNNCFQ FG ECFC OGFKFC Q RQUKDNG OGFKFC SWGVQO UGTC GZEGUKXCOGPVG GZVGPUQ RWGU UW QDTC NGICN HWGCTFWC CWP CU RQFGOQU JCEGTPQU WPC KFGC FG UW VTCDCLQGP GUVG ECORQ RQT NC NKUVC FG FKURQUKEKQPGU NGICNGU SWG UGGPEWGPVTC GP 5WGVQPKQ [ QVTQU CWVQTGU

%QTTKIK GN ECNGPFCTKQ GP WUQ GP GN SWG JCDC VCN FGUQTFGP RQT EWNRC FG NQU RQPVEGU [ RQT CDWUQ CPVKIWQ [C FG NCU KPVGTECNCEKQPGU SWG NCU GUVCU FG NCTGEQNGEEKP PQ ECCP [C GP GUVQ PK NCU XGPFKOKCU GPQVQQ #LWUV GN CQ CN EWTUQ FGN UQN [ NQ EQORWUQ FG FCU UWRTKOKGPFQ GN OGU KPVGTECNCFQ [ CWOGPVCPFQ WP FC ECFC EWCVTQ CQU 2CTC SWG GUVG PWGXQQTFGP FG EQUCU RWFKGTC EQOGP\CT GP NCU ECNGPFCU FGGPGTQ FGN CQ UKIWKGPVG CCFK FQU OGUGU GPVTG PQXKGODTG [ FKEKGODTG VGPKGPFQ RQT EQPUKIWKGPVG GUVGCQ SWKPEG OGUGU EQPVCPFQ GN CPVKIWQ KPVGTECNCTKQSWG QEWTTC GP N=? 'UVC VTCUEGPFGPVCN TGHQTOCSWG EQPQEGOQU JQ[ GP FC EQOQ %CNGPFCTKQ LWNKCPQEQPUKUVK GP SWG RCTVKGPFQ FGN CQ C % UG VQOCEQOQ KPKEKQ FGN CQ GN FG GPGTQ GP NWICT FGN VTCFKEKQPCN FG OCT\Q RCTC RQFGT RNCPGCT NCU ECORCCUFGN CQ EQP VKGORQ %QPUVC FG FCU FKXKFKFQU GP OGUGU GZEGRVQ NQU CQU DKUKGUVQU SWG VKGPGP FCU [ CCFGP WP FC CFKEKQPCN CN OGU FG HGDTGTQ'N ECNGPFCTKQ LWNKCPQ EWGPVC EQOQ DKUKGUVQU WPQ FGECFC EWCVTQ CQU KPENWUQ NQU UGEWNCTGU %QP GUVG ECNGPFCTKQ UG EQOGVG WP GTTQT FG FCU ECFC CQU

'N QTFGP FG NQU OGUGU [ NC FKUVTKDWEKP FG NQUFCU GTC CU KBOVBSJVT FCU GFCSVBSJVT NQU CQU DKUKGUVQU NBSUJVT BQSJMJT

NBJVT KVOJVT KVMJVT CPVGTKQTOGPVG RVJOUJMJT [ NNCOCFQ CU GP JQPQT FGNRTQRKQ %UCT TFYUJMJT TGPQODTCFQ BVHVTUVT GP GN TGKPCFQ FG UW JKLQ CFQRVKXQ TFQUFNCFS PDUPCFS OPWFNCFS EFDFNCFS

%QORNGV GN 5GPCFQ FKG\OCFQ RQT NC IWGTTC EKXKNCWOGPVCPFQ GN POGTQ FG UGPCFQTGU C [ NNGPPFQNQ FG RCTVKFCTKQU UW[QU GP GURGEKCN FRVJUFT NKVGURTQXKPEKCNGU [ CNIP SWG QVTQ GUETKDC EGPVWTKP GKPENWUQ JKLQ FG NKDGTVQ 'PVTG NQU OU FGUVCECFQU [RQFGTQUQU UG GPEQPVTCTQP NQU $CNDQU=?

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

GUVC DTGXG KPUETKREKP l%UCT FKEVCFQT C VCN VTKDW1U TGEQOKGPFQ C GVMBOP [ C NFOHBOP RCTC SWG QDVGPICP UW FKIPKFCF RQT XWGUVTQ UWHTCIKQ| #FOKVK CNQU JQPQTGU C NQU JKLQU FG NQU RTQUETKVQU=?

'UVCDNGEK NC EQPVTCVCEKP C GZVTCPLGTQU GP NCU NGIKQPGU [ ETG GN ECTIQ FG +ORGTCVQT SWG UGTC GN EQOCPFCPVG FGN GLTEKVQ=?

4GUVTKPIK GN UKUVGOC LWFKEKCN C FQU ENCUGU FG LWGEGUC NQU UGPCFQTGU [ C NQU ECDCNNGTQU [ UWRTKOK NQU VTKDWPQU FGN 6GUQTQ VTKDWPQ CWTGCTKK SWG HQTOCDCPNC VGTEGTC LWTKUFKEEKP=?

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&KUVTKDW[ C EKWFCFCPQU GP NCU EQNQPKCU FGWNVTCOCT [ RCTC SWG PQ SWGFCUG GZJCWUVC NC RQDNCEKP GP 4QOC FGETGV SWG PKPIP EKWFCFCPQ OC[QT FG CQU [ OGPQT FG CQU SWG PQ GUVWXKGUG QDNKICFQ RQT WP ECTIQ RDNKEQ RGTOCPGEKGUG OUFG CQU HWGTC FG +VCNKC SWG PKPIP JKLQ FG UGPCFQTGORTGPFKGUG XKCLGU NGLCPQU UK PQ GTC GP EQORCC QDCLQ GN RCVTQPCVQ FG CNIP OCIKUVTCFQ [ RQT NVKOQSWG NQU SWG ETKCDCP ICPCFQ VWXKGUGP GPVTG UWU RCUVQTGU RQT NQ OGPQU NC VGTEGTC RCTVG FG JQODTGU NKDTGUGP GFCF FG RWDGTVCF=?

%QPEGFK GN FGTGEJQ FG EKWFCFCPC C EWCPVQU RTCEVKECDCP OGFKEKPC GP 4QOC Q EWNVKXCDCP NCU CTVGU NKVGTCTKCU FGDKGPFQ GUVG HCXQT LCTNQU GP NC EKWFCF [CVTCGT C QVTQU=?

'P EWCPVQ C NCU FGWFCU GP XG\ FG EQPEGFGT NC CDQNKEKP EQP CHP GURGTCFC [ TGENCOCFC UKP EGUCT FGETGV SWG NQU FGWFQTGU RCICTCP UGIP NC GUVKOCEKP FGUWU RTQRKGFCFGU [ EQPHQTOG CN RTGEKQ FG GUVQU DKGPGU CPVGU FG NC IWGTTC EKXKN [ SWG UG FGFWEKTC FGNECRKVCN VQFQ NQ SWG UG JWDKGUG RCICFQ GP FKPGTQ Q GPRTQOGUCU GUETKVCU C VVWNQ FG WUWTC EQP EW[C FKURQUKEKP FGUCRCTGEGTC EGTEC FG NC EWCTVC RCTVG FG NCUFGWFCU=?

&KUQNXK VQFCU NCU CUQEKCEKQPGU GZEGRVWCPFQ CSWGNNCU SWG VGPCP QTKIGP GP NQU RTKOGTQU VKGORQU FG4QOC=?

#WOGPV NC RGPCNKFCF GP EWCPVQ C NQU ETOGPGU [EQOQ NQU TKEQU NQU EQOGVCP UKP RGTFGT PCFC FG UW

$4"3 $0.0 .*-*5"3

3FTUPT EFM 'PSP EF $TBS RVJFO MP NBOE FEJDBS FO 3PNB EVSBOUF TV EJDUBEVSB

ECWFCN FGETGV EQPVTC NQU RCTTKEKFCU NC EQPUECEKPEQORNGVC [ EQPVTC NQU ETKOKPCNGU NC FG NC OKVCF FGUWU DKGPGU=?

2TKX FGN QTFGP UGPCVQTKCN C NQU EQPXKEVQU FGEQPEWUKP=?

&GENCT PWNQ GN OCVTKOQPKQ FG WP CPVKIWQ RTGVQT SWGUG JCDC ECUCFQ EQP WPC OWLGT CN UGIWPFQ FC FG UGRCTCFC FG UW OCTKFQ CWPSWG PQ UG NC UQURGEJCTC FGCFWNVGTKQ=?

'UVCDNGEK KORWGUVQU UQDTG NCU OGTECPECU GZVTCPLGTCU /CPFCDC C NQU OGTECFQU IWCTFKCU SWG UGEWGUVTCTCP NQU CTVEWNQU RTQJKDKFQU [ NQU NNGXCTCP C UW ECUC [GPFQ CNIWPCU XGEGU NKEVQTGU [ UQNFCFQU C TGEQIGTGP NQU EQOGFQTGU NQ SWG JCDC GUECRCFQ C NC XKIKNCPEKC FG NQU IWCTFKCU=?

2TQJKDK GN WUQ FG NKVGTCU FG NC RTRWTC [ NCU RGTNCUGZEGRVWCPFQ C EKGTVCU RGTUQPCU EKGTVCU GFCFGU [ GPFGVGTOKPCFQU FCU=?

'P EWCPVQ C NC OQPGFC KPETGOGPV C EWCVTQ GN POGTQ FG USFTWJSJ BVSP BSHFOUP BFSF BOEP GFSJVOEP

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2CTC GXKVCT RTQDNGOCU HWG GN RTKOGT NGIKUNCFQT TQOCPQ SWG KPUVCN C UWU XGVGTCPQU GP EQNQPKCU HWGTCFG +VCNKC=?

4 Csar como militar

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

-B #BUBMMB EF "MFTJB

VKXCEKP FGN IGP KPJKDKFQT SWG KORKFG GN ETGEKOKGPVQ FGOU FGFQU GP NQU ECDCNNQU CRCTVG FGN VGTEGTQ FWTCPVG GNFGUCTTQNNQ GODTKQPCTKQ2CTC QHTGEGT WPC XKUKP NQ OU CORNKC RQUKDNG FG NC ECRCEKFCF VEVKEC FG %UCT UG JC GNGIKFQ QHTGEGT DTGXGU TGUGCU FG CNIWPCU FG UWU DCVCNNCU SWK\ PQ NCU OU TGRTGUGPVCVKXCU Q HWPFCOGPVCNGU RGTQ U FG NCU SWG UWRWUKGTQPCNIWPC KPPQXCEKP VEVKEC Q WPC OWGUVTC FG EOQ %UCTFKTKIC UWU VTQRCU NC $CVCNNC FG $KDTCEVG EQOQ GLGORNQFG DCVCNNC EQPVTC HWGT\CU PQ TQOCPCU NC $CVCNNC FG #NGUKC EQOQ GLGORNQ FG CUGFKQ NC $CVCNNC FG (CTUCNKC EQOQGLGORNQ FG NWEJC GPVTG TQOCPQU NC $CVCNNC FG 4WURKPCRQT NC OCPGTC GP NC SWG UG EQPXKTVK FG WPC FGTTQVC ECUKUGIWTC GP WPC TGVKTCFC QTFGPCFC [ NC $CVCNNC FG 6CRUQ GPHTKEC SWG UWRWUQ NC FGTTQVC FG NCU HWGT\CU RQORG[CPCUGUVCDNGEKFCU GP GUC RTQXKPEKC [ C NC NCTIC NC OWGTVG FG%CVP [ QVTCU IWTCU UGGTCU FG NC QRQUKEKP C %UCT

4.1 La Batalla de Bibracte

'P GN CQ C % %UCT CECDCDC FG VQOCT RQUGUKP FGUW ECTIQ FG RTQEPUWN FG NC )CNKC EWPFQ HWG CFXGTVKFQFG SWG WPC EQPHGFGTCEKP FG RWGDNQU IGTOPKEQU EQORWGUVC RQT NQU JGNXGEKQU NQU DQKQU [ NQU VWNKPIKQU JCDCPFGEKFKFQ FGLCT UWU VKGTTCU CPEGUVTCNGU [ GOKITCT C NC )CNKC%QOCVC#ODCU HWGT\CU EQKPEKFKGTQP GP NCU EGTECPCU FG NC NQECNKFCF FG $KDTCEVG FQPFG %UCT JCDC VQOCFQ RQUKEKQPGUGP NQ CNVQ FG WPC EQNKPC %QPVCDC EQP EWCVTQ NGIKQPGU XGVGTCPCU NCU 8++ 8+++ +: [ : SWG QTFGP GP USJQMFY BDJFTCN RKG FG NC UWDKFC NCU NGIKQPGU :+ [ :++ FG PQXCVQU [NQU CWZKNKCTGU HWGTQP FGURNGICFQU DCLQ WPC GNGXCEKP FGNVGTTGPQ GP NC EKOC.CU HWGT\CU JGNXGEKCU SWK\ WPQU IWGTTGTQU UK JGOQU FG ETGGT CN RTQRKQ %UCT GP UWU$PNFOUBSJJ CXCP\CTQPJCEKC NQU TQOCPQU GP WPC HQTOCEKP SWG %UCT FGUETKDGEQOQ lWPC HCNCPIG| NQ SWG SWKGTG FGEKT SWG RTQDCDNGOGPVG HQTOCDCP WPC OCUC EQORCEVC SWG UG CITWRCDC VTCUNQU GUEWFQU PQ WPC HQTOCEKP FG VKRQ OCEGFQPKQ=?

%WCPFQ NC HQTOCEKP JGNXGEKC UG GPEQPVT CN CNECPEG CFGEWCFQ Q UGC WPQU OGVTQU FG NCU NCU TQOCPCU UCNK NCRTKOGTC UCNXC FG RKNC 'UVC LCDCNKPC RGUCFC GUVCDC FKUGCFC RCTC TGVQTEGTUG CN ENCXCTUG GP GN GUEWFQ FGLCPFQ CUCN IWGTTGQ CVCECPVG NC QREKP FG RQTVCT WP RGUCFQ GUEWFQ EQP WPC LCDCNKPC ENCXCFC SWG FKEWNVCDC UW OCPGLQ QFGUJCEGTUG FGN GUEWFQ [ NWEJCT UKP RTQVGEEKP.C NNWXKC FG QJMB VWXQ GN GHGEVQ FG FGUJCEGT NC HQTOCEKPJGNXGEKC [ NQU TQOCPQU CRTQXGEJCTQP RCTC ECTICT CORCTCFQU VTCU UWU GUEWFQU EQP UWU INCFKWU CRTQXGEJCPFQ GNFGUPKXGN [ EQTTKGPFQ EQNKPC CDCLQ UKP GUEWFQU [ OCN CTOCFQU NQU JGNXGEKQU HWGTQP QDNKICFQU C TGVTQEGFGT JCUVCWPC EQNKPC SWG UG JCNNCDC EQOQ C WP MKNOGVTQ [ OGFKQ.CU NGIKQPGU NQU UKIWKGTQP EQPCPFQ GP WPC TRKFC XKEVQTKC EWCPFQ FG RTQPVQ CRCTGEKGTQP GP GN ECORQ FG DCVCNNC NQU DQKQU [ NQU VWNKPIKQU GP ECPVKFCF FG WPQU

(VFSSFSPT DFMUBT

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

$4"3 $0.0 .*-*5"3

.CU HQTVKECEKQPGU EQPUVTWKFCU RQT %UCT GP #NGUKC FG CEWGTFQC NC JKRVGUKU FG NQECNK\CEKP GP #NKUG5CKPVG4GKPG&O FM NBQB EF MB FTRVJOB MB DSV[NVFTUSB MB MPDBMJ[BDJO EF "MFTJBFO MB (BMJB IPZ 'SBODJB &O FM FTRVFNB FM DSDVMP NVFTUSB FMQVOUP ECJM FO MB DJSDVOWBMBDJO

4.2 La Batalla de Alesia

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

.C ECDCNNGTC FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ C OGPWFQ EQPVTCCVCECDCNQU VTCDCLQU TQOCPQU RCTC GXKVCT XGTUG EQORNGVCOGPVG GPEGTTCFQU CVCSWGU SWG GTCP EQPVGUVCFQU RQT NC ECDCNNGTCIGTOCPC SWG XQNXK C RTQDCT UW XCNC RCTC OCPVGPGT C NQUCVCECPVGU C TC[C 6TCU FQU UGOCPCU FG VTCDCLQ RCTVG FGNC ECDCNNGTC ICNC RWFQ GUECRCT FG NC EKWFCF RQT WPC FGNCU UGEEKQPGU PQ PCNK\CFCU %UCT RTGXKGPFQ NC NNGICFCFG VTQRCU FG TGHWGT\Q OCPF EQPUVTWKT WPC UGIWPFC NPGC

FGHGPUKXC GZVGTKQT RTQVGIKGPFQ UWU VTQRCU 'N PWGXQ RGTOGVTQ GTC FG MO KPENW[GPFQ EWCVTQ ECORCOGPVQUFG ECDCNNGTC 'UVC UGTKG FG HQTVKECEKQPGU NGU RTQVGIGTCEWCPFQ NCU VTQRCU FG NKDGTCEKP ICNCU NNGICUGP CJQTC GTCPUKVKCFQTGU RTGRCTPFQUG RCTC UGT UKVKCFQU=?

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'N FC UKIWKGPVG GN FG QEVWDTG 8GTECUKXGNNCWPQ WP RTKOQ FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ NCP\ WP CVCSWG OCUKXQ EQP JQODTGU GPHQECFQ CN RWPVQ FDKN FG NCU HQTVKECEKQPGUTQOCPCU SWG %UCT JCDC VTCVCFQ FG QEWNVCT JCUVC GPVQPEGU RGTQ SWG JCDC UKFQ FGUEWDKGTVQ RQT NQU ICNQU 'N TGCGP EWGUVKP GTC WPC \QPC EQP QDUVTWEEKQPGU PCVWTCNGU GP NCSWG PQ UG RQFC EQPUVTWKT WPC OWTCNNC EQPVKPWC 'N CVCSWGUG RTQFWLQ EQODKPCPFQ NCU HWGT\CU FGN GZVGTKQT EQP NCUFG NC EKWFCF 8GTEKPIGVTKZ CVCE FGUFG VQFQU NQU PIWNQUNCU HQTVKECEKQPGU KPVGTKQTGU %UCT EQP GP NC FKUEKRNKPC [ XCNQT FG UWU JQODTGU [ QTFGP OCPVGPGT NCU NPGCUN RGTUQPCNOGPVG TGEQTTK GN RGTOGVTQ CPKOCPFQ C UWUNGIKQPCTKQU=?

.C ECDCNNGTC FG .CDKGPQ HWG GPXKCFC C CIWCPVCT NC FGHGPUC FGN TGC GP FQPFG UG JCDC NQECNK\CFQ NC DTGEJC FGNCU HQTVKECEKQPGU %UCT EQP NC RTGUKP KPETGOGPVPFQUGECFC XG\ OU UG XKQ QDNKICFQ C EQPVTCCVCECT NC QHGPUKXCKPVGTPC [ NQIT JCEGT TGVTQEGFGT C NQU JQODTGU FG 8GTEKPIGVTKZ 5KP GODCTIQ RCTC GPVQPEGU NC UGEEKP FGHGPFKFC RQT .CDKGPQ UG GPEQPVTCDC C RWPVQ FG EGFGT %UCTVQO WPC OGFKFC FGUGURGTCFC VQOCPFQ EQJQTVGU FG

-B #BUBMMB EF 'BSTBMJB

3FDPOTUSVDDJO BDUVBM EF MBT GPSUJDBDJPOFT EF "MFTJB

ECDCNNGTC WPQU JQODTGU RCTC CVCECT GN GLTEKVQ FGTGUGTXC GPGOKIQ WPQU RQT NC TGVCIWCTFKC .C CEEKP UQTRTGPFK VCPVQ C CVCECPVGU EQOQ C FGHGPUQTGU=?

8KGPFQ C UW IGPGTCN CHTQPVCT VCP VTGOGPFQ TKGUIQ NQUJQODTGU FG .CDKGPQ TGFQDNCTQP UWU GUHWGT\QU 'P NCU NCUICNCU RTQPVQ GORG\ C EWPFKT GN RPKEQ [ VTCVCTQP FG TGVKTCTUG 5KP GODCTIQ EQOQ UQNC QEWTTKT GP NC CPVKIGFCFWP GLTEKVQ GP TGVKTCFC FGUQTICPK\CFC GU WPC RTGUC HEKNRCTC NC RGTUGEWEKP FG NQU XGPEGFQTGU [ NQU ICNQU HWGTQPOCUCETCFQU %UCT CPQV GP UWU %QOGPVCTKQU SWG UNQGN JGEJQ FG SWG UWU JQODTGU GUVCDCP EQORNGVCOGPVG GZJCWUVQU UCNX C NQU ICNQU FG NC EQORNGVC CPKSWKNCEKP=?

'P #NGUKC 8GTEKPIGVTKZ HWG VGUVKIQ FG NC FGTTQVC FGN GLTEKVQ GZVGTKQT 'PHTGPVPFQUG VCPVQ CN JCODTG EQOQ C NCOQTCN UG XKQ QDNKICFQ C TGPFKTUG UKP WPC NVKOC DCVCNNC#N FC UKIWKGPVG GN NFGT ICNQ RTGUGPV UWU CTOCU C ,WNKQ%UCT RQPKGPFQ P CN CUGFKQ FG #NGUKC [ C NC EQPSWKUVCTQOCPC FG NC )CNKC=?

4.3 La Batalla de Farsalia

&GURWU FG JCDGT UKFQ FGTTQVCFQU GP NC $CVCNNC FG &[TTCEJKWO NQU EGUCTKCPQU UG GPHTGPVCTQP FGPKVKXCOGPVG GPDCVCNNC ECORCN C 2QORG[Q [ UWU CNKCFQU GP NCU EGTECPCUFG (CTUCNKC%UCT VGPC EQP N C NCU NGIKQPGU 8++ 8+++ +: : :+ :++[ :+++ OW[ TGFWEKFCU GP EWCPVQ C HWGT\C RWGU RTQDCDNGOGPVG PQ GUVCDCP EQORWGUVCU RQT OU FG NGIKQPCTKQU ECFC WPC FG GNNCU [ CFGOU NCU NGIKQPGU 8+++ [ +:SWG JCDCP UQUVGPKFQ GN HTGPVG FG DCVCNNC GP &[TTCEJKWO [JCDCP SWGFCFQ UGTKCOGPVG OGTOCFCU C NCU SWG UG NGU FKQNC QTFGP FG SWG CEVWCTCP EQOQ WPC UQNC [ UG RTQVGIKGTCPWPC C NC QVTC CFGOU EQPVCDC EQP WP RGSWGQ EQPVKPIGPVG FG ECDCNNGTC 'P GN QVTQ NCFQ 2QORG[Q FKTKIC WPCHWGT\C FG QPEG NGIKQPGU RQUKDNGOGPVG FG JQODTGUECFC WPC [ WPC ECDCNNGTC FG LKPGVGU LWPVQ EQP WPHWGTVG FGUVCECOGPVQ FG CTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU=?

#ODQU IGPGTCNGU HQTOCTQP UWU GLTEKVQU GP USJQMFY BDJFTWPQ HTGPVG C QVTQ [ NC ECDCNNGTC CRQUVCFC GP NCU TGURGE

)POEFSP CBMFBS

VKXCU CNCU K\SWKGTFCU RWGU NQU CPEQU FGTGEJQU FG NCU HQTOCEKQPGU UG CRQ[CDCP GP GN TQ 'PKRGWU SWG RTQVGIC FGGUC OCPGTC GN CNC FGTGEJC %UCT EQNQE C NCU NGIKQPGU +:[ 8+++ GP GN CPEQ FGTGEJQ CRQ[CFCU GP GN TQ [ FGURWUHWG EQNQECPFQ UWEGUKXCOGPVG C NC :+ :++ :+++ 8+ 8++[ : 2GTQ VTCU NC NPGC FG ECDCNNGTC QEWNVQU VTCU WPC RGSWGC GNGXCEKP FGN VGTTGPQ FGVTCLQ [ EQNQE WPC EWCTVCNC EQORWGUVC FG UGKU EQJQTVGU GP UGPVKFQ QDNKEWQ C NCECDCNNGTC [ SWG TGEKDK TFGPGU GUVTKEVCU FG PQ OQXGTUGDCLQ EKTEWPUVCPEKC CNIWPC JCUVC SWG NG HWGTC UGCNCFQ RQTWP XGZKNNWO=?

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

#N QEWTTKT GUVQ NCU NPGCU RTKOGTC [ UGIWPFC FG NC HQTOCEKP EGUCTKCPC ECTICTQP RGTQ C OKVCF FG ECOKPQ RCTCTQPRCTC EQIGT CKTG CN XGT SWG NCU NGIKQPGU FG 2QORG[Q PQ EQP

$4"3 $0.0 .*-*5"3

$BCBMMFSB MFHJPOBSJB

VTCECTICDCP SWK\ RQTSWG 2QORG[Q VGPC NC GURGTCP\C FGSWG UG ECPUCTCP RTGXKCOGPVG .QU EGUCTKCPQU TGEQORWUKGTQP UWU NPGCU [ GP UG OQOGPVQ 2QORG[Q FKQ QTFGPC UW ECDCNNGTC FG ECTICT.C ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC UCNK CN ICNQRG FKXKFKFC GP UWUVWTOC KPFKXKFWCNGU UGIWKFC RQT NQU CTSWGTQU EQP GN PFG CPSWGCT GN CNC K\SWKGTFC FG NC HQTOCEKP FG %UCTRCTC CVCECT CU FGUFG NC TGVCIWCTFKC [ HQTOCT WP OCTVKNNQ

ECDCNNGTC [ WP [WPSWG KPHCPVGTC RCTC OCEJCECT C NQUEGUCTKCPQU .C ECTIC VWXQ ZKVQ EQP NC ECDCNNGTC EGUCTKCPC SWG UCNK GP FGUDCPFCFC2GTQ GP GUG OQOGPVQ %UCT QTFGP C UW NPGC GUEQPFKFCFG UGKU EQJQTVGU SWG CVCECTC .C ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC UGGPEQPVT EQP SWG GP XG\ FG VQOCT RQT UQTRTGUC RQT NCTGVCIWCTFKC C NCU NGIKQPGU EGUCTKCPCU [ FGUDCTCVCTNCU WPCPWGXC NPGC FG DCVCNNC UG FKTKIC JCEKC GNNQU EQP HGTQEKFCF.CU VWTOCU SWG NKFGTCDCP NC ECTIC GPVTCTQP GP RPKEQ [JW[GTQP RGTQ RTQDCDNGOGPVG UG VQRCTQP GP UW JWKFC EQPNQU GUEWCFTQPGU SWG NGU UGIWCP [ SWG PQ UQURGEJCDCP PCFC UGODTCPFQ CU NC EQPUKIWKGPVG EQPHWUKP .QU NGIKQPCTKQU FG %UCT PQ CTTQLCTQP UWU RKNC UKPQ SWG NQU WUCTQPRQT QTFGP FG UW IGPGTCN OU EQOQ RKECU GPHTGPVPFQNQUC NC ECTC FG NQU LKPGVGU [ UWU ECDCNNQU CWOGPVCPFQ FG UVCOCPGTC GN RPKEQ [ NC EQPHWUKP CU WPC HWGT\C FG CRGPCU NGIKQPCTKQU RWUQ GP HWIC C NC ECDCNNGTC RQORG[CPC[ RWFQ FGFKECTUG C FGUVTQ\CT C NQU NKIGTCOGPVG CTOCFQUCTSWGTQU [ JQPFGTQU=?

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

.C IGPKCNKFCF FG %UCT HWG RTGXGT SWG 2QORG[Q KDC CWUCT UW ECDCNNGTC RCTC CVCECT SWG NC UW[C RTQRKC PQ VGPCNC HWGT\C RCTC TGUKUVKTNC [ CTDKVTCT WP OVQFQ EQORNGVC

OGPVG PQXGFQUQ EQP NC NPGC FG EQJQTVGU VGPFKGPFQ WPCEGNCFC C UW GPGOKIQ GP NC SWG EC[ [ SWG NG UKTXK RCTCICPCT NC DCVCNNC [ FGUVTQ\CT C NCU RTKPEKRCNGU HWGT\CU FG NQURQORG[CPQU

4.4 La Batalla de Ruspina

6TCU (CTUCNKC WPC DWGPC ECPVKFCF FG VTQRCU RQORG[CPCU[ FG UGCNCFCU IWTCU FG NC HCEEKP EQOQ %CVP GN ,QXGP3WKPV